NATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL UNIVERSITY OF GUAYANA.

GENERAL COORDINATION OF RESEARCH AND GRADUATE STUDIES.

SPECIALIZATION IN RAILWAY TECHNOLOGIES.

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF TRAINS IN SECTION OF

MAXIMUM GRADIENT, IN SAN ISIDRO MINE OF
CVG FERROMINERA ORINOCO, C.A.

ADHERENCE
Y
TOWING CAPACITY

APRIL 2007
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF TRAINS ON SEGMENT
OF MAXIMUM DEGREE, IN MINA SAN
ISIDRO OF CVG FERROMINERA ORINOCO
C.A.

ADHERENCE
Y
HAULING CAPACITY
 INDEX
INTRODUCTION.

OBJECTIVE.

ADHERENCE.

• Concept of adherence.
• Experimental determination of adhesion.
• Influencing factors.
• Evolution of skating control
• Incidence of adherence in traction and braking
• Values of adherence

PULLING CAPACITY.

• Tensile effort.
• Resistance to movement.
• Traction capacity of the motor material.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SELECTED SECTION FOR THE STUDY.

SIMULATION OF EMPTY TRAINS ON MINE SLOPE.

• Fundamentals of calculus.
• Formulas used.
• Definition of type trains.
• Application of Davis's formula.
• Event Logger Records.
• Railway Operations Bulletin.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS.

CONCLUSIONS.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 INTRODUCTION

In any production process that requires investment, the goal is to achieve a

ideal balance between minimum investment and maximum benefits; in the case of the
railway traction, considering that it is necessary to overcome some resistances and carry out
the tractive effort necessary to secure the towing of the load is sought
minimize the required powers (for a given speed) and reduce by
consequent energy consumption of the system.

On the other hand, the wear due to slippage has a great influence on the
performance of wheel-rail systems, in particular, due to the sliding of the
tab of the wheel on the inner part of the rail in a curved section. Given that
the sliding between the wheel and the rail involves adhesion effects, high
sliding and/or rolling percentages will significantly affect the
wear due to contact fatigue, which acts on the contact surfaces of the rail.

For the present research work, referred to module III of the program
Specialization in Railway Technologies has been selected as the topic of
study, the DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF TRAINS IN THE SECTION OF MAXIMUM
GRADIENT IN THE SAN ISIDRO MINE, which specifically refers to the
Study of adhesion through wheel-rail contact and traction capacity
What should the empty trains of CVG Ferrominera Orinoco have to rise up?
section of maximum slope, located between the progressives 9+000 and 15+000
from the railway in the San Isidro mine in Ciudad Piar.

The presentation of this topic has been conceived as a report containing two
parts, first of all a theoretical part, in which the main points are summarized
notions about the two basic concepts to handle, namely, adherence
by wheel traction on the rails and the necessary pulling capacity
(referring to the maximum number of cars to climb the slope without there being
skating on the rails due to the traction of the wheels)., its description and
regulation. The second part of the report is applied research, for the
as a working methodology, a section of maximum railway track was selected
difficulty (where the topographic conditions required a layout with a
pending at 3.1%, higher than the maximum of 1.5% recommended by the regulations
AREMA for freight trains), and a simulation analysis was conducted on it.
dynamic behavior of empty trains.

Finally, based on the analysis of the results obtained, it is determined

some conditions or aspects for improvement and actions are recommended for the
respective elements of the current railway system.
 objectives

The objectives of this research are:

Determine for a specific site (section of the mine slope), the

adhesion parameters and drag capacity applying the formula of
Davis.

Evaluate the incidence of adherence and the control of slipping

trains on the curves, analyzing the causes of such skidding,

Present recommendations to improve train dynamics

voids in the slope of the mine, which will allow extending the useful life of
the equipment, reduce fuel consumption and minimize costs
of train operations and maintenance of the railway tracks.

Throughout the work, ideas that are the result of developments are also contributed.
specific to the members,

This subject is key in various fields of rail exploitation,

mainly regarding the calculation of train cycles and times
on the go, as well as energy consumption. In the specific case of dynamics
railway, it is worth noting that the phenomena are taken into consideration that
significantly affects the movement of trains, as well as the
incidence of other factors related to adherence and capacity
drag.
 THE ADHERENCE.

NOTIONS OF ADHERENCE

Adhesion imposes a limit on the pulling effort exerted on the rims of the
locomotives at a given speed. If this limit is exceeded, the axles skid and the
The locomotive has its performance compromised.

Considering a tensile effort Cmexerted on the axis. In the ring of the

wheel, this effort translates into a tangential force FmIf the locomotive
move forward, it is because such tangential force finds support in the bar,
that is, an equal and opposite reaction that constitutes a horizontal support
Rmthe existence of this support causes the wheel to slip, which
it is called dead adherence.

The adherence of the wheel on the rail will be greater the heavier the weight that is.
support the wheel on the rail, as indicated by the expression:
F= μ ⋅ P
The coefficientμ It is defined as the Coefficient of Adhesion, and it is given by the
relationship between the maximum effort that can be applied to the wheel without slipping and the
vertical load that the wheel supports.

Adhesion will exist as long as the effort on the wheel is less than the value of
maximum given for the previous equation. As this limit is exceeded,
the adhesion break occurs and the wheel starts to slip on the rail. The
reaction of the rail on the wheel (Rmfalls below the given values for the
equation, increasing the rotational acceleration of the axis, occurring by
consequently, skating.

When the motor torque on a wheel is very high, and specifically, when it is
superior resistant, the wheel slides smoothly on the rail. The grip
The force of the wheel on the rail is greater the larger the mass that supports it.
about the driving wheel, which is called the adherent mass. There is a certain limit of the
by motor (and correspondingly the traction effort) from which the wheel
slips (skids), this limit is the maximum tensile stress.

The maximum tractive effort of a locomotive will therefore depend on,

of its overall adhesion coefficient.

There are other factors that affect the overall adhesion coefficient of a
The locomotive varies from one machine to another. The influence of some of these
factors increase with the increase in speed, resulting in a reduction
in the overall adhesion coefficient of a locomotive, in function of the
speed. These factors, for example, are:
 Fluctuation of loads per axle (suspended load).
Non-suspended masses (vertical accelerations and lateral impacts).
Quality of the road.
Effect of the locomotive fairing.
Coupling of the drive shafts.
General stability of the machine.
Power electrical diagram.

Several tests were conducted in such a way that it can be determined, in

real conditions of use, both the adhesion coefficient of an axle
isolated like the global adhesion coefficient of the locomotives.

In summary, three of the basic concepts to consider in the phenomenon of

adherence is:

Adhesion coefficient: It is the relationship between the maximum effort that can
be applied to the tire without skidding and the weight P of the wheel:

when this inequality is not fulfilled, the wheel slides on the rail. The coefficient
Adhesion is found using the following formula:

v = speed of the train in km/h.

Adherent weight (P): It is the weight that the wheel supports on the rail. The greater
the greater this weight, the greater the adhesion.

Skating: Difference between the driving torque and the resistance torque (P · f), which leads to
to accelerate the rotation of the axis and of the rotating masses that are bound to it.

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF ADHERENCE CURVES.

Numerous tests have been conducted to determine the adherence of the wheels.
from the vehicles to the surface of the rails. Graphing the results
of the traction efforts immediately before skating, for different
speeds. From these tests, a cloud of points is obtained that covers a
immense region of dispersion of the plane Stress vs Speed. This region is
limited by two envelopes corresponding to the adhesion conditions
with the dry and wet rail respectively, allowing for the deduction of an average curve
μ(V) as indicated in Figure 1.

μ /μ ο [ % ]

100 Parodi-Tetrelformula

FNouvi
. onDecoupledAxes

[Link]
90 Nussbaumformula

80

70

60

50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Speed[Km/h]

Fig. 1. Coefficient of adhesion as a function of speed

For practical needs, it is reasonable to consider average curves of

adherence. Clearly, such consideration defines risks.
Thus, as long as the safety of the locomotive is not at stake or that it is not
I reached a committed development, average curves can be assumed.
adhesion for the calculation of the maximum tensile stress available in the rim of
the locomotives.

Area of
dry riel

Rail area
wet

Fig. 2. Initial adhesion coefficient as a function of speed

The calculation of the adhesion coefficient was proposed by several authors. Such
like F. Nouvion, Paradi-Tretel, and F. Nussbaun, the relationships related to the
variation of the adhesion coefficient as a function of speed and to the
initial coefficientsμ0, which depend on the type of locomotive as it
will be shown in the tables below.

National Railways of Japan - JNR

Type of Locomotive μc
Diesel Locomotive 0.285
Electric Locomotives of Direct Current
Classics 0.265
Modern 0.292
Single-phase Electric Locomotives
Classics 0.326
Modern 0.359

Swiss Federal Railways - CFF

Type of Locomotive μc
Locomotive with sanders 0.34
Locomotive without grinders 0.20

British Railways - BR

Type of Locomotive μc
Classic Locomotives 0.20 to 0.24
Modern Locomotives 0.26 to 0.29

National Society of Railways of France - JNR

Type of Locomotive μc
Classic Direct Current Locomotives
Medium Voltage Motors 0.25
Motors at Full Voltage 0.27
Modern Direct Current Locomotives
Monomotor Truck 0.33
Single-phase locomotives
Decoupled Axes 0.33
Coupled Axes 0.35

German Federal Railway - DB

Type of Locomotive μc
Single-phase locomotives 0.33
Diesel Locomotives 0.30

The coefficient of adhesion (in the traction process) thus expresses the quotient
between the maximum horizontal force that a drive shaft can transmit without the
roller skate and the mass that supports said axle. The grip is expressed either in terms of
percent, or in the form of a coefficient as a fraction of one. For example, if the mass
the weight on a motor axle of a locomotive is 20 t (usual value), and if the
the coefficient of adherence is 0.2, this axis can only transmit a force
horizontal of 20,000 x 0.2 = 4,000 daN, whatever the power of the engine.

Based on the above, it can be noted that adherence introduces another limit (besides
from which the available power) to the maximum traction force that is
you can apply for a locomotora or for a tractor vehicle.

In braking, similarly, adherence is the quotient between the force that

it revolves around an axis that brakes and the horizontal braking force that can
transmit that axis. Therefore, it can be said that the adhesion coefficient is
the measure of the effectiveness of how a vehicle can use its weight
traction or to the brake, without the wheels skidding.

INFLUENCING FACTORS

Many factors influence adherence, among them, the conditions.

climatological, the profile of the wheel and the rail's mushroom, the pollution in the
track and the traction and electric control system. It is in this last factor that
that the greatest advancements have been achieved in recent years.

Regarding the conditions of the road that allow for obtaining a high level
adherence is in good condition in terms of leveling, rail
soldier and, above all, the surface condition of the rail. The rail is clean and well washed.
(heavy rain) considerably increases adhesion. The dirty lane,
slightly damp with leaves, salt, some chemicals, fats, and oils
the adherence decreases significantly. In this last case, it can be increased the
adhesion, in part, through the use of sand.
Regarding the brake, since all or almost all vehicles are equipped with it
train, the adhesive mass in braking is much higher than in traction, and for this reason the
Adherence problems are less than in the case of traction.

In relation to the conditions of the locomotive that promote the increase of the
adherence includes: low traction bars, good suspension, the equipment
traction control electronics (choppers or even three-phase traction), etc. No
however, regarding the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the motor vehicle,
It is worth considering the following aspects:

1-Head nod: due to the fact that the motor effort of the locomotive occurs at the level
from the track (effort in the tire) while the resistance that must be overcome is
higher, at the level of the traction hook -> the locomotive tends to 'rear up'.

To solve this problem, two solutions are resorted to:

a) Resort to high attraction, resting the box on each bogie on two
pivots

b) The low attraction, which is usually applied in two ways:

b.1) Placing a beam under the crossmember of the bogie chassis, in the way that
show the figure :

in this way, the pulling effort of the bogie is applied to the beam that has been
placed.

b.2) Placing longitudinal bars that pass underneath the bogie:

in this way the traction effort regarding point I is null, just like the
moment of the charges.

2- Other characteristics such as wheel diameters, conicity, etc.

3- Reaction to the start of skating: this is how to get the wheel back
"grabbing" the rail in case of skating involves the use of devices such as
anti-skid relays, anti-skid brake and other constructive characteristics that it
get.

4) Circulation speed: since adhesion in a motor vehicle decreases

with speed.

EVOLUTION OF SKATING CONTROL

Primitive steam engines did not have control systems and

improvement of adhesion. When the train skidded, the driver would cut the
traction to prevent slipping. In old diesel locomotives, the adhesion
it was between 12% and 14% in normal operation.

It was switched to controlling the skating first by installing a light in the cabin that would alert.
from skating. This did not directly improve adhesion, but it did allow for
the engineer let sand fall onto the track to increase it. Then it moved to the
automatic traction control, so that when a wheel slips,
the power is automatically cut off to stop the skidding and then it is restored
apply gradually. This system allowed adherence to increase to 16% or
18% and some improvements in it have allowed to go from 18% to 20%.

The new control systems are designed in such a way that they allow for a slight
skating (system called creep control). In a heavy train, the wheels
they typically rotate at a slightly higher speed than what would be appropriate
at the speed of the train and therefore gain the maximum towing power of the
locomotive. The theory is that the locomotives sliding clean the rail of the
possible contamination and, therefore, provide greater adherence. With this
system installed in machines with direct current motors the
Adherence rose to values of 25% or 28%. Finally, with the technology of
Alternating current motors technology allows for finer control of the wheel
creep. In this type of locomotives, the adhesion can reach values between
31% and 34%.

Adhesion decreases with speed. Renfe's technical standard for

determination of the maximum loads, for example, gives the variation function
next

Another formula used to explain the variation of the adhesion coefficient with
the speed is as follows:

The adhesion coefficient µo is usually provided by the manufacturer as

material parameter, and it oscillates between 0.2 for locomotives with a current motor
continues and without anti-skid devices and 0.4 for locomotives with three-phase motors and
anti-slip equipment.

INCIDENCE OF ADHERENCE IN TRACTION AND BRAKING

Adhesion limits, as has been stated, the available tensile effort.

since, whatever the power, the pulling effort cannot exceed
next value:

where the mass that gravitates on a motor axis and •v is the coefficient of
adhesion of that axis to the speed V.

The maximum pulling force that can be exerted is limited by the power.
unihourly, according to the expression,

at low speeds, the force that could be generated by the power would tend to
infinite, so in practice, the tensile force is limited by the control
from the machine and due to adherence since, below certain speeds, the force
maximum traction limited by adhesion is less than the derivative of the
application of power.
As speeds increase, the force that the engine power can provide
it decreases, therefore it is more difficult for it to be greater than what they can transmit the
wheels without skidding.

So only in poor adhesion conditions (with a dirty or wet lane, by

example) and with high force demands (heavy trains on steep slopes)
Adherence problems may arise, as shown in the graph.
continuation.

VALUES OF ADHERENCE.

The interoperability standard (ETI) for high-speed rolling stock,

establishes the so-called 'traction adherence requirements' and 'limit of the
demand for adherence in the brake,” which set some indicative values of the
coefficient of adhesion. It should be noted that the meaning of these regulations is in
to prevent the traction or braking performance required for trains
interoperable systems are based on very high values of that coefficient
adherence, the possibility of achieving which is difficult.

Therefore, for traction, maximum values for adhesion are set with
that the traction performance of the train must be achieved (naturally this does not
It implies that actual adherence cannot be greater, in fact, it usually is.
The case of the brake is important: the braking performance (in terms of
required deceleration) must be reached assuming that the grip does not exceed
a certain value, which is also not incompatible with the fact that the
adherence will be greater (in fact, it usually will be); what this limit means
that is, achieving the required braking performance should not be based on a
extraordinary adhesion that cannot be guaranteed.

Specifically, in order to ensure a high traction availability, the ETI requires

the adhesion values indicated below will not be exceeded:

At start-up and at very low speed: 25%

A 100 km/h: 25 %,
A 200 km/h: 17.5%
A 300 km/h: 10%.

For braking, the maximum demand of the coefficient of adhesion should not exceed
surpass the following values:
Between 50 and 200 km/h: 0.15;
Above this speed, it decreases linearly to the value of 0.10 at 350
km/h.

These ETI coefficients can be considered reduced compared to the

values that are obtained in practice (what, as we have stated, is
coherent with the objective sought by setting the values). Thus, for trains of
modern goods are frequent values of the adhesion coefficient in the
start of the order of 30% and can reach 35%. The coefficient of
real adherence at each moment can be considered a random variable that
depends on the condition of the wheels and the track, and on the control equipment
train traction.

.
 TOWING CAPACITY.

TENSILE EFFORT.

The traction effort, Ft, is transmitted through the drive wheels to

support these on the rail and transmit the torque generated in the motors of
train. This force is manageable, as the train operator (or the system of
automatic driving) can apply the maximum available force or a value
less, to adjust the speed of the train to the needs of the journey.

The traction effort is different for each motor vehicle, among which
characteristics usually facilitate the curves that determine the tensile stress
maximum possible in relation to speed. The effort is closely linked to the
available vehicle power, but the shape of the curves that relate to the
maximum traction effort with speed is greatly conditioned by the type
motor vehicle (electric or diesel traction) and its control system of the
march

In the absence of knowledge of the specific traction curve of the train (whose
description and analysis is not the subject of this work), it can be estimated that the
available power for electric traction is a percentage (around 80 to
90%) of the traction motors' power, and assume that the power is equal
to the tractive force by the speed of the train, which is usually valid from
certain speeds and up to 10% above the maximum speed of the
train.

One-hour power is talked about, like what the engine can offer during a
short period of time, while the power continues to be the one that can perform
indefinitely, concepts that, by analogy, lead to maximum effort
uninterrupted maximum effort

Fma x u is the maximum unidirectional tensile stress and Fma x ces is the stress.
continuous traction, in daN
Pces is the continuous power and Pu is the hourly power of the motors, in kW.
You see the speed of the train in km/h.

Under these conditions, the graphical representation of tensile stress

based on speed, it takes the form of a rectangular hyperbola of power;
whose equation is:
It should be noted that there are some cases in which the total power
the train engines are not meant for its movement. This is how it happens with
frequency in diesel traction trains when the auxiliary services of the train
they are powered by the diesel engine. In this case, it must be subtracted from the power of the
even the part dedicated to auxiliary services, which does not usually happen in
electric traction since the auxiliaries are normally powered from the
catenary without going through the engine, nor in diesel trains, whose auxiliary services
they are powered by independent motor-generator groups from the diesel engine
principal.

On the other hand, it should be noted that the power with which it is calculated
Force at each moment is the power actually delivered by the engine, which does not
it has to be the maximum, as many vehicles are not capable of delivering
the maximum power in any operating regime, and moreover the engineer
It may require less power than the maximum for various reasons.

RESISTANCE TO MOVEMENT.

The study of the traction capacity of locomotives involves the knowledge of

the basic notions regarding their conditions of use and the
conditions of train tracking. Such conditions can be studied at
through the analysis of the following aspects:

The resistant efforts due to the movement at a speed

dad.
The limitations of the pulling force exerted on the wheel at a
given speed, due to the global adhesion of the locomotives.
The pulling effort needed at speed (notion of power of the
locomotives).

THE RESISTANT EFFORTS

Resistant efforts are a composition of efforts for a train

(locomotive + towed material) produced at a constant speed. This
composition is given as follows:
The sum of resistances of any nature that are in a straight line and
horizontal, oppose the movement of the train (normal resistance to
movement).
The occasional resistance due to curves and the gradient.
 The inertia efforts of large masses (in the startups and
accelerations.

RESISTANCE IN STRAIGHT AND HORIZONTAL

This resistance, contrary to the movement of the train in a straight and horizontal direction,
constitutes a retarding force that depends on the type, weight, speed of the train, and
from the conditions of the road or way, being basically derived from the
internal attributes of the vehicles, of the attribute of the wheels with bars and of the
air resistance. It also depends on the construction characteristics whether of the track
like from the same vehicle.

Thus it will be called ar1like the specific resistance in straight and normal horizontal
to the movement of the train. It must be taken into account for the calculation that the train
It consists of locomotives and wagons, so their weights will have an effect.
different in the calculation of the total resistance in straight and horizontal of the train.

Fig. 4. Resistance in straight and horizontal

Then in a straight and horizontal line, the resistances that the train must overcome to
entering motion are the resistances due to the rolling of the wheel on
the rail, the resistance in the grease boxes of the wheels, resistances due to
shocks at the joints, energy losses in couplings and suspensions as well
from the friction of the wheel flanges on the rails and the resistances of the
air, which are the most representative. In general, the global specific resistance
it can be calculated by practical formulas that consider the factors of
influence previously described, summarized in the following equation, that
It depends on some coefficients related to the type of vehicle desired.
calculate.
r N (V ) = a+ bV+ cV 2

a = Coefficient that represents the effects of rolling and resistance in the boxes
of fat
It encompasses the influence of shocks on the track joints and the losses of
energy.
c = Represents the influence of air.

In the following sections, we present some formulas for the calculation of the
normal specific resistance to train movement.
FORMULAS BY J. DAVIS

These formulas are the result of the trials achieved by Engineer W. J.

Davis Jr. from General Electric. Later, these equations will be the ones of
general use for calculating resistances in straight and horizontal.

For locomotives:
13.15 A
rN= 0.65+ + 0.00932⋅V + 0.00456⋅V2
p P
For passenger cars:
1:15 PM A
rN= 0.65+ + 0.00932⋅V+ 0.000645⋅V2
p P
For freight cars:

With grease box - bearings:

13.15 A
rN= 0.65+ + 0.01398⋅V+ 0.0009428⋅V2
p P
With bar rolling:
9.07 A
rN= 0.30+ + 0.00311⋅V+ 0.012262⋅V2
p P
rNSpecific normal resistance [Kg/Ton].
p = Weight per axle of the vehicle [Ton].
P = Total weight of the vehicle [Ton].
A = Area of the vehicle's frontal section [m2].
Speed [km/h].
R=
1
Rl+ Rv

Rl= r⋅ l P l

Rv = ⋅ Q
v

To find the weight value of the wagons we will have:

Q= N v⋅ P v ;

RlTotal resistance of the locomotive on straight and level [Kg].

RvTotal resistance of the wagons on straight and horizontal [Kg].
RESISTANCE BY GRADIENT

The specific resistance in gradient will be called2and its value will depend
of the difference in levels between any two points of the layout. The
total resistance by gradient will be provided by the weight of the train, of which the
the component must be taken parallel to the path, that is to say:
R g= G⋅ sineθ

In Fig. 5, the components of the forces to be taken are represented.

in consideration for calculating resistance by gradient, those who will be in
function of gravity.

Fig. 5. Gradient force diagram

RgTotal resistance in gradient due to weight.

θAngle that the path makes with the horizontal plane.
G = Weight of the train.
For all the slopes found in traction by simple adhesion, it can be
replace the elseθ as they beatθ like the inclinationα of the way, the one that is normally
is expressed in per milleo/oo), mm/m or Kgf/Ton.

This is how it has to be:

R g= G⋅ sinθ = G⋅ tanθ

R g= G⋅α
The specific resistance due to the gradient will therefore be:
rg= α = r2 r2= i
ó
i = Gradient of the terrain expressed in per thousand (o/oo).
Therefore, the total resistance by gradient will be:
R2= R g= G⋅ r2= (P+ ⋅lI
G = Weight of the train. Weight of locomotive plus cars.
RESISTANCE BY CURVATURE

The resistance in curve comes from the attributes resulting from solidarity
between the wheels and the axles and also the parallelism of the axles in the wagons.
These attributes cause losses that are translated by a resistance that
mainly depends on the curve radius and the track gauge. The resistance
specifies by curvature is called3and is given by Desdovits formula:
500⋅ b
rc =
R
cSpecific resistance in curve (Kg/Ton).
b = Gauge of the track (m). It is also referred to as the gauge according to other literatures.
R = Curve radius (m).

The total resistance due to curvature will be given by the equation:

Rc= rc⋅ P l

Inertia Resistance

For practical cases, the values of specific inertia resistance will be used.
that will depend on the type and functionality of the locomotive. In the following table is
Present a table for the specific resistance values of inertia accordingly
to the type of vehicle.

Type of Vehicle r4[Kg/Ton]

Freight trains 2 to 3
Long distance passenger trains 5 to 6

Suburban passenger trains 15 to 20

Electric trains 70 to 80

The total inertial resistance will be calculated as:

R4= r4⋅ G
R4= r4⋅ (P+l Q)
The total resistances R2(gradient) and R4(inertia), will be calculated for the
total weight of the train (Pl+Q), on the other hand, the total resistance Rc(curve) it will be
calculated for the weight of the locomotive only.
TRACTIVE CAPACITY OF THE MOTOR MATERIAL

The knowledge of the actual traction capacity of the locomotives is a factor

fundamental for any type of railway operational planning.

The study of the traction capacity of locomotives involves the knowledge of

basic notions regarding their conditions of use, whether they are,
track conditions of the trains. Such conditions can be studied in
through the analysis of the following aspects:
The resistant efforts due to the movement of a train at a speed
dada
The limitations of the pulling effort exerted on the wheel to a
given speed, due to the global adhesion of the locomotives.
The traction effort required at speed (notion of power of
locomotives.

STRESS-VELOCITY DIAGRAMS.

As mentioned earlier, the Effort vs. Speed chart will reach

it is the most practical way to visualize the components related to movement
from the locomotives, in order to achieve that the performance of the locomotive is the
as efficiently as possible without compromising its performance. In the figure a
below is represented the characteristic curve of a locomotive
anyone, this is the maximum available traction effort on the rim of the
locomotive. The curve of resisting forces is also represented for
certain type of conditions, that is, a specific weight of locomotive and load,
slope, curvature of the layout, etc.

F[Kg]

Curve of
Adherence
Global
F u

Curvature of
R
atsn
eisces
Totales

Curvature of
effort
Maximum

In speed Velocity Speed[km/h]

Criticism ofRégime
CURVE OF RESISTANT EFFORTS

This curve is calculated using various equations and its representation is

done for a single gradient, it is thus that for different paths that may
having different slopes in its profile, the resistance stress curves of a
same locomotive will be different.

The total resistance, therefore, will be the sum of the total resistances in a straight line and
horizontal, in gradient, by curvature and by inertia of large masses, according to:
RT= R+1l R+ R
1v 2
+ R3+ R4
The total resistance due to gradient and inertia will be calculated for the total weight.
of the train(Pl+Q), on the other hand, the total resistance due to curvature will be calculated
for the weight of the locomotive only.

CRITICAL SPEED

The critical speed is the speed at which the effort is achieved.

maximum traction by simple adhesion. It is a theoretical calculation value, it will serve
for approximations of the maximum towing load weight of the train. The
The net tractive effort of the locomotive is maximum at the critical speed.

SPEED OF THE REGIME

It is the speed used for geometric design and will be the maximum speed.
that develops the vehicle moving through a specific topography and where the
nettractive effort is zero. Graphically, the regime speed is
represented by the intersection point of the total resistance curve RTand the
maximum stress curve FuThe calculation of this speed will be carried out
by means of successive trial and error since this is a function of the
resistances in straight and horizontal of the locomotive and the cars, reason for the
What tentative speed should be assumed for the calculation?
adequate.

NET TRACTIVE EFFORT ETN

From the figure showing the tractive effort curve of a locomotive and the
total stress curve, it can be deduced that while the stress curve
this is about resistance, the locomotive will be accelerating and the point
where the curves intersect, it will be known as the equilibrium speed or
regime speed, which is the maximum allowable speed for the locomotive
in those conditions.

Then the net tractive effort, ETN or ETW, is the difference of the effort.
maximum that can be developed in the locomotive ring and the resistance of
that locomotive on a straight and level track that offers the locomotive and the cars,
as described in the equation.
ETN= Fg− Rv

Fg= Fu− Rl
Nettractive effort [Kg].
FgTractive force [Kg].
Rl Total resistance of the locomotive on straight and horizontal [Kg].
RvTotal resistance of the cars on straight and horizontal [Kg].

HAULING CAPACITY

Also called pulling capacity, it is the maximum amount that can be

to transport with the maximum number of wagons or vehicles without this leading to
the excessive overheating of the engines. The traction capacity will be defined
a locomotive as the maximum load to be towed, so that it
guarantee the following conditions:
The train's departure at the most critical points of the stretch profile
considered.
Operation of the train on the steepest and longest ramps, at a
equilibrium speed that corresponds to the reference point of the
locomotive.
The safety guarantee on long ramps.
Use of traction motors within a temperature range
compatible with the limits set by the heating class of
your bearings.

For the calculation, the Net Traction Effort ETN is taken into account, which is divided
between the specific resistance in line and horizontally of the wagons and of the
gradient resistance will provide the weight or tonnage we are referring to.
ETN
CA=
r+
v
r 2
CA = Drag capacity [Ton]
rvSpecific resistance in straight and horizontal of the wagons [Kg/Ton]
r2Specific resistance in gradient [Kg/Ton]
DESCRIPTION OF THE RAILWAY SECTION TO BE STUDIED.

Tbranch on a slope with quite challenging topography, with slope

comprised between 0.97% and 3.1%, approximate length of 11 km, where
considered as one of the most critical segments that CVG FERROMINERA has
ORINOCO, C.A. on its railway, is a unique way to reach the mine, the
The section contains 16 curves with a maximum deflection of 2º for a chord of 20.
mts.

In this section, we study the behavior of empty trains in strong...

ramps for the case of CVG FERROMINERA ORINOCO, C.A., we will analyze the
adhesion and drag capacity in horizontal and vertical geometry, being
this last one is the most important, as it requires the calculation of the conformation
of optimal trains where maximum traction efforts are achieved by simple
adhesion without failures in the railway (the conditions of the track
that allow for a high adherence) and inadequate operations, which
generate costs excessive operation due to fuel consumption and
premature wear on railway equipment can be determined that while
The steeper the slope, the higher the operating costs.
.

Table No. 1, railway section where the steepest gradients are found.
demanding due to the terrain's topography.
Table No. 2, elements of the curves inscribed in the section under study
SIMULATION OF EMPTY TRAINS ON MINE SLOPE.
The previous step to select the quantity and type of towing vehicles
(locomotives) that will be used in a railway system, is to determine or
calculate the needs of 'haulage power' by standardized methods
in the different trains.

There are many writings on this aspect in countless railway texts and
just as the different methods have a common root, there is also a
glossary of terms or technical vocabulary of particular use, which will be necessary
introduce in this same section as the calculation progresses, in order to
facilitate their understanding.

Generally, it starts from a known data, such as the pulling power.

of a certain type of locomotive. The power available for traction
It will then be affected by all the resistances to movement that it will encounter.
a prototype train on the Catirito route (mine foot) – San Isidro yard, which gives us
It will finally give the effective power that can be developed on the route. With a
a similar scheme will determine the power required to move a wagon
empty type and finally contrasting both calculations, one can estimate the
total power requirements for an empty train, which in turn will be the
starting point to decide the best combination of teams to obtain
said power.

Some premises of the simulation process will now be established:

• To estimate the resistances to movement, the formula of

W. J. Davis, an engineer at General Electric who developed it in 1926,
which is approved by the A.A.R. and is universally used. This
formula calculates the resistances inherent to movement in trains
of load, yielding quite accurate results for locomotives
Diesel-electric with normal aerodynamic profile.
• For the resistance due to the slopes and curves of the railway track,
the maximum value that is recorded for such parameters will be taken
trace or geometry of the line that currently exists in the San mine
Isidro de Ferrominera, although these maximum points are
geographically distant (i.e., do not occur simultaneously in the
train route). The totality of the metric data on the curves
Horizontals and verticals of this layout can be seen in the section that
describe the section under study.
• As a safety factor, it is assumed that the circulation speed
it will be the one corresponding to the train under the limit stress conditions
during the most critical journey.
• For a better appreciation of the results, a sheet has been prepared.
of calculation in Excel, which summarizes the technical data of the equipment, the
resistances to movement, the initial and final powers, as well as the
projections of the requirements for the train.
 • All units of the original formulas have been standardized from
English system to the International Metric System.

Fundamentals of calculus:

During the motion of a train, part of the traction force of the

locomotives and their kinetic energy are used to overcome the various forces
of resistance that oppose this movement. These forces are two
types: fundamental or inherent (act permanently and do not depend
of the plan or the profile of the route) and complementary or incidental (are
caused by the geometry of the track.

According to Hurtado (1980), 'the decrease in these resistances has a

great significance for rail transport, as it influences a better
use of the power delivered by the locomotive, the increase in the standard of
weight and speed of trains and in fuel economy.

Another interesting aspect is that these resistances are directly

proportional to the speed of the movement and inversely proportional to the
weight of the equipment. Other authors such as Santillán (1981) also point out that
"being the factors that influence rolling resistance of the
locomotives and equipment so numerous and varied (weight, speed, size,
type of stub, track configuration, temperature, wind) can only
to be determined accurately by experimental means.

The Marks manual (1984) establishes that once the total resistance has been calculated
train movement, this should be subtracted from the traction force on the track,
measure on the traction bar of the locomotive, to obtain the capacity of
drag on that bar, on a plane tangent to the track level, at speed
constant and with calm air.

The incidental resistance to the movement includes the summation of the

following types of resistance for each vehicle (carriage or locomotive):

¾ Resistance in the curves: it varies with the degree of curvature of the track and the
train speed. It is assumed 0.4 Kgf/ton, per degree of curvature.
¾ Resistance by slope: depends only on the angle of ascent or
descent. It is estimated at 9 Kgf/ton for each one percent (1%) of
pending.
¾ Air resistance: it depends on speed and area or surface.
exposed, although some authors consider it separately, the third
and the last term of Davis's formula already includes it.
¾ Acceleration resistance: a value of 45.6 Kgf/ton is assumed for each
mile/hour of acceleration per second. It is not considered in this case,
It is assumed that the train travels at a constant speed throughout the journey.
 ¾ Starting resistance: it is necessary to form a film of
oil on a surface subjected to friction. It is estimated between 6 and 9
Kgf/ton for a freight train. This resistance will not be calculated anymore.
the resistances will be evaluated with the train in motion.
¾ Friction resistance: due to the bearings or balls of the
equipment. It is estimated at 0.7 Kgf/ton. As the speed increases
It becomes negligible, it mainly influences during the start-up.
¾ Contact resistance: due to the contact of the wheels on the
rail surface. It is estimated at 0.3 kgf/ton.
¾ Resistance due to sliding: due to the oscillations during the
movement and the conicity of the wheels. It is worth 0.1 kgf/ton.
¾ Resistance due to joints: it occurs when the wheel hits a
open joint between two rails. Estimated at 0.05 Kgf/ton.

Formulas used.

a) Inherent Resistances:
For diesel-electric locomotives, considering an area of 12 m2.

Rl = 0.65 + 13.16/ W + 0.0024 V + 0.0046 AV2/ W*n

For the freight cars, considering an area of 9 m2.

Rl = 0.65 + 13.16 / W + 0.0014 V + 0.0009 AV2/ W*n

Rl = inherent resistance of the locomotive, in kgf/ton.

Rv = inherent resistance of the wagon, in kgf/ton.
W = weight per axle of the equipment, in tons.
N = number of axes of the equipment.
V = equipment speed, in KPH.
A = frontal area of the equipment, in m2.

b) Pulling effort of the locomotive:

E = K * P * 0.455924 / V

E = traction effort, in Kgf.

K = adjustment constant for EMD locomotives, equals 308.
P = nominal power of the diesel engine, in HP.
V = speed in miles/hour.

c) Power of the locomotive:

BHP (Brake Horse Power): is the power available at the engine's crankshaft,
in HP.
THP (Traction Horse Power): it is the power available for traction.
 THP = BHP - Accessory Power

Net Traction Horse Power

NTHP = THP * Generator Efficiency.

RHP (Rail Horse Power): power delivered on the rails. It depends on the
efficiency in transmission through: power cables, motors of
traction, engine gears and wheels. It can be estimated at 85% of the
NTHP or to be calculated from the expression:

RHP = V (miles/h) * E (lbs) / 375

DBHP (Drawbar Horse Power): power at the drawbar, it is the force

to pull or push the cars.

DBHP = RHP - (( Wl * (Rl + Ri) * V) / 375)

weight of the locomotive, in tons.

Rl = inherent resistance of the locomotive, in lbf/ton.
Rl = incidental resistance of the locomotive, in lbf/ton.
V = speed, in miles/h.

d) DBHPR (Drawbar Horse Power Required):

required power for pulling or pushing is a function of the number of
cars that are intended to be transported.

DBHPR = Wv * (Rv + Ri) * V * N / 375

Wv = weight of the wagon, in tons.

Rv = inherent resistance of the wagon, in lbf/ton.
Rl = incidental resistance of the wagon, in lbf/ton.
V = speed, in miles/h.
N = number of cars in the train.

e) Drag capacity:

CA = (E - (Wl * (Rl + Ri))) / (Wv * (Rv + Ri))

CA = pulling capacity, in number of cars

E = pulling effort, in Kgf.
Wl = weight of the locomotive, in tons.
Rl = inherent resistance of the wagon, in Kgf / ton.
weight of the wagon, in tons.
Rv = inherent resistance of the wagon, in Kgf / ton.
 incidental resistance (of car or locomotive), in Kgf / ton.

f) Total drag requirement:

P * C * m / D * Wv * CA

Nl = requirement, in number of locomotives.

P = annual transport program, in tons.
m = availability of the locomotive fleet, in %.
D = operating days per year.
Wv = weight of the wagon in tons.
CA = pulling capacity

Definition of train types:

To carry out the theoretical simulation exercise using Davis's formula, one
three types of empty train configurations were selected, frequently used
in the operations of CVG Ferrominera Orinoco. These formations or trains
the type is:

Empty train # 1: One (1) locomotive of 4000 HP with 30 gondola cars.

Empty train # 2: Two (2) locomotives of 4000 HP with 102 gondola cars + 2
2000 HP locomotives assisting at the end of the train.

Empty train # 3: Two (2) locomotives of 4000 HP with 20 hopper wagons + 117
gondola cars + 2 locomotives of 2000 HP helping at the end of the train.
 Application of Davis's formula.

Empty train #1: One (1) locomotive of 4000 HP with 30 gondola cars.

English Equivalent of Above Metric units

FORMULA CONSTANTS
Railroad Locomotive Model --Crazy-- --Cars--
CVG-FMO SD70M 1,3 1.7 A (Journal)
0,0 29.1 18.0 B (Axle)
0.02996 0.00000 C (Flange)
Car Data 0.00240
Weight / car 25.4 Tons
No cars 30.0 TE Reqd-Total 66.998 lbs
No. Axles 4.0 TE Reqd/Loco 66.998 Lbs
Area (sq ft) 1,1 ft² Power Required/Locomotive

Crazy Data At rail * 3.891 HP

Weight / Loco 210.0 Tons Traction 4,000HP
No. Crazy 1.0 Add Required (Power) 16.0%
No. Axles 6.0
Cross sec. Area (ftsq) 140.1 square feetBE Reqd-Total 53.350 Lbs
BE Required/Locomotive 53.350 Lbs
Speed 14.0Mph Adh Reqd (DB) 12.7%
Grade 3.10%
Curve (Degrees) 3.0 1887 Ft

Loco Roll Res 2.9 Lbs/Ton Total Loco Weight 210 Tons
Car Roll Res 5.1 Lbs/Ton Total Car Weight 761 Ton

Local Grade Res 13,017.6 lbs Total Train Weight. 971 Tons
Train Grade Res 47.156,4 Lbs Total Train Resources. 66.998 lbs
Drawbar pull 52.869 lbs.
Loco Curve Res 510.1 lbs Starting Res. 68.355 Lbs
Train Curve Res 1,847.9 lbs Adh Required. 16.3%

transmission efficiency based on 62:15 GR & AR10 Generator

 Empty train #2: Two (2) locomotives of 4000 HP with 102 gondola cars + 2
2000 HP locomotives assisting at the end of the train.

English Equivalent of Above Metric units

FORMULA CONSTANTS
Railroad Locomotive Model --Loco-- --Cars--
CVG-FMO SD70M 1.3 1.7 A (Journal)
0,0 29.1 18.0 B (Axle)
0.02996 0.00000 C (Flange)
Car Data 0,00240 0,06502 D (Air)
Weight / car 25.4 tons
No cars 102.0 TE Reqd-Total 222.142 lbs
No. Axles 4.0 TE Reqd/Loco 74.047 lbs
Area (ft sq.) 1,1 square feet Power Required/Locomotive
Crazy Data At rail * 3.891 HP
Weight / Loco 210.0 Tons Traction 4,000HP
No. Crazy 3.0 Additional Required (Power) 17.6%
No. Axles 6.0
Cross sectional area (ft²) 140.1 square feetBE Reqd-Total 176.627 Lbs
BE Reqd/Loco 58.876 Lbs
Speed 14.0Mph Adh Reqd (DB) 14.0%
Grade 3.10%
Curve (Degrees) 3.0 1887 Ft

Loco Roll Res 2.9 Lbs/Ton Total Locomotive Weight 630 Ton
Car Roll Res 5.1 lbs/ton Total Car Weight 2.586 tons

Locomotive Grade Res 39,052.9 Lbs Total Train Weight. 3.216 tons
Train Grade Res 160,331.7 lbs Total Train Research. 222.142 lbs
Drawbar pull 180.957 lbs.
Loco Curve Res 1,530.4 lbs Starting Res. 226.493 lbs
Train Curve Res 6,282.9 Lbs Adh Reqd. 18.0%

transmission efficiency based on 62:15 GR & AR10 Generator

To "represent" in Davis's formula the use of two 2000 HP locomotives.

helpers in the train queue, it introduces a traction force data into a
additional locomotive of 4000 HP (three 4000 HP locomotives are used in the formula)
HP, which is equivalent to the same 12000 HP of power that the train has.
 Empty train # 3: Two (2) locomotives of 4000 HP with 20 hopper cars + 117
gondola cars + 2 locomotives of 2000 HP helping at the end of the train.

English Equivalent of Above Metric units

FORMULA CONSTANTS
Railroad Locomotive Model --Locomotive-- --Cars--
CVG-FMO SD70M 1.3 1.7 A (Journal)
0,0 29.1 18.0 B (Axle)
0.02996 0.00000 C (Flange)
Car Data 0.00240 0.06502 D (Air)
Weight / car 25.4 tons
No cars 143.0 TE Required-Total 293.513 Lbs
No. Axles 4.0 TE Reqd/Locomotive 97.838 Lbs
Area (sq ft) 1,1 square feet Power Required/Locomotive
Crazy Data At rail * 3.891 HP
Weight / Loco 210.0 Tons Traction 4,000HP
No. Crazy 3.0 Required Approval (Power) 23.3%
No. Axles 6.0
Cross sec. Area (ftsq) 140.1 square feetBE Reqd-Total 234.150 Lbs
BE Reqd/Loco 78.050 Lbs
Speed 11.0 mph Adh Reqd (DB) 18.6%
Grade 3.10%
Curve (Degrees) 3.0 1887 Ft

Loco Roll Res 2.7 Lbs/Ton Total Locomotive Weight 630 tons
Car Roll Res 4.9 Lbs/Ton Total Car Weight 3.625 Ton

Loco Grade Res 39,052.9 Lbs Total Train Weight 4.255 Tons
Train Grade Res 224,778.8 Lbs Total Train Resources 293.513 lbs
Drawbar pull 252.372 lbs.
Loco Curve Res 1,530.4 Lbs Starting Res. 299.703 Lbs
Train Curve Res 8,808.4 Lbs Adh Required. 23.8%

transmission efficiency based on 62:15 GR & AR10 Generator

To 'represent' in Davis's formula the combination of gondola cars and

train cars, is introduced as data on the number of cars a
"equivalent weight combination", but using only one type of wagon (it
they compensate for the 117 gondola cars and 30 hopper cars with 143 gondola cars.
 Event recorder logs of the locomotives: (actual values).

Empty train #1
Empty train # 2
Empty train # 3
Railway Operations Bulletin

In order to establish the hauling capacity of train cars with the

incorporation of the locomotives SD70 MAX, SD70 AC, and AC GE and to regulate the
formation and traffic of empty and loaded trains in the San Isidro Mines
and Altamira, as well as on the main line, improving railway safety, to
Starting from November 2006, the following procedure came into effect:
1) The combination of gondola cars and hopper cars is determined that
will have the train in formation.
2) Its length is calculated at a rate of 11 meters for each gondola car and 12
meters per each hopper car, which must not exceed 1800 meters in the
Main Line.
3) Its gross weight is calculated in tons at a rate of 23 tons for each
gondola car and 30 tons for each hopper car, adding 90
tons per loaded wagon.
4) The condition is identified in the corresponding column of Annex A,
the one on which the train will travel, that is to say:

San Isidro Hill:

a) Empty train with or without caboose.

b) Train loaded without caboose.
c) Train loaded with Telemetry.
d) Train loaded with caboose

Main Line:

a) Train loaded without a caboose or with telemetry.

b) Train loaded with caboose
c) Empty train with caboose or with telemetry.
d) Empty train with caboose.

5) Once the corresponding column in Annex A is identified, it is verified

the minimum combination of locomotives, both in command and auxiliary,
what the train must carry without exceeding the gross weight calculated in point 3
from this bulletin.
 Now, we will proceed to apply the regulations of this
operations bulletin, for the three (3) defined types of trains for this purpose
exercise.

Empty Train #1

Maximum Weight Select

Select Command Locomotives Help
Track and condition of the train
4000 marking
Combination SD38 4300 4400 AD SD38
2TC
SD70
SD70 AC GE 2TC
t with an 'X'
ó MAX

1 ó 0 0 0 0 ISIDRO PENDING
1 ó 0 0 0 1 Empty train with or without caboose
X
Train loaded without CABOOSE and without
X 0 ó 1 0 0 0 1153.0 Telemetry

0 ó 1 0 0 1 Train loaded with TELEMETRY

2 ó 0 0 0 0 Train loaded with CABOOSE

2 ó 0 0 0 1 MAIN LINE
Train loaded without CABOOSE or with
2 ó 0 0 0 2 Telemetry

3 0 0 0 0 Train loaded with CABOOSE

Empty train without CABOOSE or with TELEMETRY
0 2 0 0 0
3 ó 2 0 0 0 Empty train with CABOOSE

3 ó 2 0 0 1
3 ó 2 0 0 2
METHODOLOGY: Select with an 'X'
3 ó 2 0 0 3 in the left column the combination of
4 ó 0 0 0 0 locomotives in command and assistance to
4 ó 0 0 0 1 employ in the train. Then select with a
4 ó 0 0 0 2 "X" in the right column if the train is
EMPTY or LOADED and if it corresponds to the
4 ó 0 0 0 3
Main Line or to the San Isidro slope e
0 ó 0 2 0 0 also indicate whether it has a caboose or not
0 ó 0 2 0 1 telemetry, depending on the case. The system will give
0 ó 0 2 0 2 an appropriate message if one is selected
0 ó 0 2 0 3 INVALID combination. On the sheet
"CAPACITY" is indicated in green background and
0 ó 0 0 2 0
bold letters the maximum amount of
0 0 0 2 1
ó
vans in combination of gondolas and
0 ó 0 0 2 2 reads.
0 ó 0 0 2 3
Total 1153.0
The application of the calculation tables from the Railway Operations bulletin,
shows that a 4000 HP locomotive has enough capacity to climb
on the slope a train of up to 38 gondola cars, which is consistent with
the results obtained in the simulation with Davis and in practice with the
event recorder of the locomotive. That is, type 1 train with 30 wagons
empty gondolas are inside the safety area for towing (green zone).
 Empty trains # 2 and 3

Maximum Weight Select

Select Command Locomotives Help
Train track and condition marking
Combination SD38
4000
4300 4400 AD SD38
SD70 t with an "X"
2TC SD70 AC GE 2TC
ó MAX

1 ó 0 0 0 0 PENDIENTE SAN ISIDRO

1 ó 0 0 0 1 Empty train with or without CABOOSE
X
Train loaded without CABOOSE and without
0 ó 1 0 0 0 TELEMETRY

0 1 0 0 1 Train loaded with TELEMETRY

ó

2 0 0 0 0 Train loaded with CABOOSE

ó

2 ó 0 0 0 1 MAIN LINE
Train loaded without CABOOSE or with
2 ó 0 0 0 2 TELEMETRY

3 0 0 0 0 Train loaded with CABOOSE

Empty train without CABOOSE or with TELEMETRY

0 2 0 0 0
3 2 0 0 0 Empty train with CABOOSE
ó

3 ó 2 0 0 1
X 3 ó 2 0 0 2 3901.8
METHODOLOGY: Select with an 'X'
3 2 0 0 3
ó
in the left column the combination of
4 ó 0 0 0 0 locomotives in command and assistance to
4 ó 0 0 0 1 employ in the train. Then select with a
4 ó 0 0 0 2 "X" in the right column if the train is
EMPTY or LOADED and if it corresponds to the
4 ó 0 0 0 3
Main Line or to the San Isidro Slope
0 ó 0 2 0 0 similarly indicate whether it has or does not have a caboose or
0 ó 0 2 0 1 telemetry, depending on the case. The system will give
0 ó 0 2 0 2 an appropriate message if one is selected
0 ó 0 2 0 3 INVALID combination. On the sheet
"CAPACITY" is indicated in green background and
0 ó 0 0 2 0
bold letters the maximum amount of
0 ó 0 0 2 1 wagons in a combination of gondolas and
0 ó 0 0 2 2 reads.
0 ó 0 0 2 3
Total 3901.8
The application of the calculation tables of the Railway Operations bulletin,
show that two locomotives of 4000 HP, with two helper locomotives of
2000 HP each, they have enough capacity to ascend the slope a
train of up to 160 gondolas, or 140 gondola cars and 22 empty hopper cars, which
it is consistent with the results obtained in the simulation with Davis and in the
practice with the event recorder of the locomotive (a train type similar to # 2 or #
3 studied, it is within the safety zone for dragging or green zone.
 COMPARISON OF RESULTS

Below is a comparison of the values obtained with the

Davis formula simulation (theoretical exercise), the recorded real values
by the event recorder of the locomotive and the reference values contained
in the railway operations bulletin:

TRAIN G. EVENTS FORMULA OP BULLETIN. CHARACTERISTICS

TYPE REAL CASE OF DAVIS RAILWAYS LOCAL TECHNIQUES.

1 [Link]: [Link]: MAXIMUM [Link]:

55,000 LBF 66.998 LBF CHORD 109,000 LBF

ADHESION: MAX. ADHESION:

12.7 % 30%

2 [Link]: [Link]: MAXIMUM FORMATION [Link]:

80,000 LBF 74.047 LBF CHORD 109,000 LBF

ADHESION: MAX. ADHESION:

14% 30%

3 [Link]: [Link]: MAXIMUM SHAPING [Link]:

80,000 LBF 97.838 LBF chord 109,000 LBF

ADHESION: MAX. ADHESION:

23 % 30%

As can be seen, none of the three train scenarios exceed

the maximum values or capacities of adhesion and tractive effort for the
SD70M locomotives, effectively operating at an average of 66% of maximum.
tractive effort and at 56% of the maximum adherence of the equipment. No
however, it can be inferred that without the use of 2000 HP locomotives as
helpers, and with empty trains of maximum length (160 cars), are reached
the values of limit tractive effort and be precise in maintaining a speed
minimum regime on the slope (close to 10 KPH) to avoid the
skidding of the locomotives and/or the train stop.
 ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

From the obtained results, some deductions can be inferred about the
impact of the infrastructure and the exploitation of the current railway system
in operations: The operating costs, in addition to the purchase expenses,
miscellaneous services, fixed expenses and taxes, include labor,
materials, equipment, fuels, and depreciation. Therefore, it is clear that the
critical conditions of a railway line will result in a higher expenditure on the
operations insofar as it is affected to a greater or lesser extent.

Analysis of the curves

For the study of trains in the geometry of the curve regarding the
adhesion and the drag capability the GeometricDisplacement plays a
important role since when the trains enter a curve, a
transverse displacement of the train in relation to the axis of the railway track, which
It depends on the radius of the curve and the length of the locomotive, as well as the tractions.
strong at the entrances and exits of the curves, which cause wear on the
rail fungus, this wear reduces the contact area, the adhesion of
the wheels on the rail.

The resistance in curves comes from the attributes resulting from solidarity among
the wheels and the axles and also the parallelism of the axles in the wagons. These
attributes cause losses that are translated by a resistance that depends
mainly of the curve radius and the track gauge, called Resistance
Specific by Curvature.

The maximum curvature proposed in the horizontal alignment increases the

rolling resistance and requires compensating for the slope to eliminate the
effect. When having to operate on roads that were not compensated in their
construction should increase the effect of rolling resistance, this
resistance is equivalent to 0.04% slope per degree of curvature.

The changes in stroke, slope revisions, and the construction of variants

new ones must take into account the above factors for the preparation of
project and its subsequent execution, not necessarily the shortest route is the most
economic in terms of operation.

A smaller curvature allows us greater speed and therefore less time of

route with the consequent saving of fuel, the rail will wear out less,
the conservation will be less expensive and the equipment will deteriorate to a lesser extent when
to be less aggressive the rail/wheel attack angle. On the other hand, it reduces the
cycle time of the wagons, thus increasing the supply of wagons
vacancies without major capital expenditure.
For the present work, the team conducted a field inspection in the section of
via of the slope of the San Isidro mine, which revealed interesting aspects:

Slope curve of 3.1%

In this photo we can observe a curve on the maximum slope where its
geometry presents undulations on the outer rail (lack of alignment and
leveling), precisely in the bolted joints, these generate loss of
energy in trains due to the influence of shocks at the joints, decreasing the
tractive power (Davis)

Wear of the rails due to traction from the wheel-rail contact in the
curve entry.

We can observe wear on the rail due to insufficient cant that occurs when traveling the
train on the curve leans towards the outer rail by an amount that is
proportional to the unbalanced centrifugal acceleration.

In this section, we observe very strong tractions that cause excessive wear.
on the inner face of the rail's wheel due to rolling effects, it can be determined
the lack of grease fittings on steep slopes.
 Derailment due to excessive cant, on the inner rail of a curve with steep gradient.

In this photo, we can observe the wear due to the circulation of trains at speeds
very low, which causes most of the weight of the train to tilt towards the rail
interior.

Slope analysis

Since the initial rolling resistance between the wheels and the steel rails,
it increases with each percentage point of slope, for a given train
moving at a specific speed the fuel cost will be higher in the
as the slope increases.
Rail skidding on tangent due to poor operation on maximum gradient

We can observe a stepped sliding on the steep slope, it happens because of

Difference between the torque and the resistant torque (P · f), which leads to acceleration.
rotation of the axis and of the rotating masses that are attached to it, this is due to the
geometry of the wheel profile and the rail fungus which decreases the
adhesion, as well as the condition of the road that does not help the good
behavior of trains on the slope.

Taper of the Rolling Surface of Tires or Wheels

When, in a straight alignment of the track, a wheel shifts laterally

on one of the rails, the movement is compensated by the conicity of
the wheels, which aim to draw the wheel towards the axis of the track. The
the movement of the full wheel stop can be likened to that of a biconical
consisting of two equal cones opposite at their bases that roll on two
parallel rails. The center of the biconical adopts a sinusoidal type movement the
commonly referred to as serpentine or lacet.

The value of the conicity of the tires depends on the different railways.
some adopt the inclination suggested by their own judgment. There are some.
that have adopted tire inclinations of 1:40, 1:20, and others, being the most
common to 1:20.

At CVG FERROMINERA ORINOCO, C.A., the conicity is standardized by the

American railways, it is equivalent to 1:80, for narrow gauge in the
first 45 mm measured from the outer edge of the wheel and 1:20 for the rest
from the surface of the rolled material, as shown in the plan.
As a result of the conicity of the wheels, the rails must be installed
with its rolling surface inclined at a similar magnitude inward
the track. The slope currently used in the railways of CVG Ferrominera
It is 1:40, except for the detours and workshop roads, which do not have an incline.

Analysis of the train dynamics.

The following is a comparison between the values obtained with the

simulation of the Davis formula (theoretical exercise), the actual recorded values
by the locomotive's event recorder and the reference values contained
in the railway operations bulletin:

TREN G. EVENTS FORMULA OP BULLETIN. CHARACTERISTICS

TYPE REAL CASE OF DAVIS RAILWAYS LOCAL TECHNIQUES

1 [Link]: [Link]: MAXIMUM FORMATION [Link]:

55,000 LBF 66.998 LBF CHORD 109,000 LBF

ADHESION: MAX. ADHESION:

12.7% 30%
 2 [Link]: [Link]: MAXIMUM SHAPE [Link]:
80,000 LBF 74.047 LBF CHORD 109,000 LBF

ADHESION: MAX. ADHESION:

14% 30%

3 [Link]: [Link]: MAXIMUM CONFIGURATION [Link]:

80,000 LBF 97.838 LBF CHORD 109,000 LBF

ADHESION: MAX. ADHESION:

23 % 30%

As can be seen, none of the three train scenarios are exceeded.

the maximum values or capacities of adhesion and tractive effort for the
SD70M locomotives, effectively operating at an average of 66% of maximum
tractive effort and at 56% of the maximum adhesion of the equipment. No
however, it can be inferred that without the use of the 2000 HP locomotives as
helpers, and with empty trains of maximum length (160 cars), are reached
the values of limit tractive effort and be precise in maintaining a speed
minimum regime on the slope (close to 10 KPH) to avoid the
skidding of the locomotives and/or the train stop.

CONCLUSIONS
About the railway:

The rails show excessive wear on the inner face at the entries and
outputs of the curves resulting from their geometry, the lack of rail lubricators.

The misalignment and unevenness in the curves, the low bolted joints that
causing undulations in them and the lack of rail lubricators are possible
causes of the low adherence percentage on the slope.

The condition of the sleepers, the superstructure of the track, which presents a
rigid behavior due to the contamination and degradation of the ballast, the
bombs are causes of rail wear on the segment with the maximum gradient.

There is low adherence due to the geometry of the rails that

they require grinding.
About the dynamics of the train:

There should be close monitoring of compliance with the bulletin of

operations, regarding the formation of empty trains, since they
check that it is in accordance with the concepts of adherence and strength
drag handled by Davis's formula and ensures good performance
from the current fleet of towing equipment that the company has (locomotives
SD38-2, SD70M and SD70ace with 2000, 4000, and 4300 HP of power
respectively.

RECOMMENDATIONS

It is recommended from the way:

Eliminate the ties in the curves by installing long welded rails to eliminate
the undulations, reducing the energy losses of the trains.

Install rail lubricators on the sharper curves to reduce the

wear of the rail at the entrances and exits of the curves (transitions).

Grind the rails on the tangents to eliminate the corrugations and give it the
ideal geometry for greater contact area between the wheel and the rail, and
thus obtaining a higher percentage of adherence.

Replacement of the deteriorated sleepers and degraded ballast in order to give it

greater stability to the track and safety of the trains.

Evaluate/Design an alternative route descending the slope, in order to reduce the

operating costs and fuel consumption in trains.

It is recommended for the teams:

Maintain an optimal level of supply in the sand tanks of the

locomotives, in order to ensure sufficient sanding during the train's traction and
when it is required, either manually or automatically.

Download and periodically analyze the event logger and the failure data of
the locomotives with microprocessor control, in order to assess the occurrence of
skating events and minimum continuous speed above time
recommended.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Baumeister, T and Avallone, E. Marks Manual of Mechanical Engineering. Volume II.

Eighth edition. McGraw-Hill Publishing. Mexico, 1984.

Hay, W. Transportation Engineering. 3rd Edition. Limusa Publishing. Mexico 2002.

Hurtado, J. Train Traction. Pueblo y Educación Publishing. Havana, 1980.

Railway Training Institute. Track-train Dynamics. Railways

Nationals of Mexico. Mexico, 1991.

Railway Training Institute. Guide for the Use of Locomotives.

Second Edition. National Railways of Mexico. Mexico, 1977.

Oliveros, F and Rodríguez, M. Treatise on Railway Exploitation (I). Publisher

Rueda. Madrid, 1983.

Togno, F. Railways. Engineering Representations and Services S.A. 2nd.

Edition. Mexico 1982.