MailxMail.

com - Free courses on the web

Practical sound course

José A. Poó

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 1

[Link] - Free courses on the web

1. Introduction.

The reasons that make this publication in your hands are of

practical character, it is intended for you to know how to connect sound equipment when you do not.
There is a specialist who can do it.
Perhaps it can be deduced that it is appropriate to see the connections of the teams.
what you use and there it all ended. A nice set of instructions and a little bit of
memory; well, let's see some nice instructions:
Check that the plate is connected to the deck input of the mixer.
Connect the microphone to the mic1 input.
Connect the speakers with the banana-XLR cables to the output.
Set all the mixer faders to 0.
Turn all the power on.
Increase the volumes of the items we are going to use to an appropriate level.
Set the master to 0 dB and adjust the tone controls according to the requirements.
of the local.
It is exactly what should be done with the portable equipment from San Pablo, which
many of you will know him because he has traveled a lot, and those who do not know him will see it in the
course.
But what happens if the mic1 input is bad, or its fader is dirty and there's noise? What if the
deck input fails can we use a tuner?, And if we have a wireless microphone
And is the output line? What does line output mean? What is a connector?
banana?, For those who don't know, we use instead of XLR, that connector which is
of approximately 2 cm and has three pins forming 180 degrees, and the females
tienen un clip?, ¿Qué es poner el power a On?, ¿Qué es un dB, y cuales son los
requirements of a premises?
As you will see, there are two possibilities to make such an extensive instruction book.
like the one that comes with the videos, and that none of us read because they are a drag and
you don't understand anything, or you acquire a minimum of knowledge that we
allows not only to read some shorter and technical instructions, but also
act in the face of unforeseen events.
Warning, this course will not prepare you for all unforeseen circumstances, when you
If a cable is missing, you will know how the connections should be, but you won't always have them.
by hand, it will neither teach you to weld nor to repair the devices internally, if you are lacking
any element of the chain, and if you don't have a spare you are dead, but that's for sure
after the course you will be able to say, I hope, which cable, connector or element you
missing.
In other words, by the end of the course, you will neither be sound technicians, nor
electronics technicians, nor magicians who obtain resources from nothing. But we will be

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 2

[Link] - Free courses on the web

better prepared workers.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 3

[Link] - Free courses on the web

2. Basic concepts of sound.

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND.
Definition of sound.
Sound is the sensation experienced by the ear when it is subjected to the
action of vibrations with frequencies between 20 and 20,000 hertz.
Physically, sound is the result of a vibratory movement.
transmitted through an elastic medium, usually air, until it reaches the ear, where
the physiological sensation is produced.
In almost all definitions of sound, special emphasis is placed on the medium,
air, and the organ of hearing; this is not a coincidence, just like all radiations
Electromagnetic waves are light, but only those that are perceived by the organ of
Sight is not sound; all air vibrations are not audible, only those that can be heard.
This has practical importance as we will take special care to ensure that
Our equipment does not produce either infrasound or ultrasound.
We will also disregard in this course the vibrations in solids and
liquids, for we are not scholars of industrial noises, nor of acoustics
marina.
In the graph we have on the next page, we find a
representation of the acoustic spectrum.
Speed of sound propagation.
Just as it happens with the waves in the sea, in the case of sound there is no
net displacement, although if instantaneous, of the air molecules. What is
they communicate with each other is the vibration, this phenomenon occurring at a speed
approximately 340 m/s in air under normal temperature and pressure conditions
pressure.
But this propagation speed is not, as has already been suggested, independent
of the temperature being the approximate equation the following:
C = (331.5 + 0.61T) m/s
Here C is the propagation speed and T is the temperature in ºC.
The specific value of speed, and its variability as a function of T and pressure
(which we have not included in the formula), have their importance in our ability
of hearing and in phenomena such as the diffraction and refraction of sound.
Figure 1: The acoustic spectrum.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 4

[Link] - Free courses on the web

3. Sound intensity. Audible range.

The intensity of sound corresponds to the flow of sound energy per unit of
time, a definition that can remind us of the definition of current intensity
electric.
In other words, the intensity of sound is a measure of the amplitude of the
vibration.
But our hearing is a measuring instrument with serious limitations.
physiological, is not able to hear below a certain level,
variables between different people and with age, and from a level too
high, similarly variable, receives a sensation of pain making hearing impossible.
Figure 2: Audible range.
The minimum sound level that a young person can hear is 10 -12 w/m 2.
although we will see that this will not be our usual unit of measurement.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 5

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Our ear has other "anomalies":

The response to sound intensity is logarithmic; to multiply by two
The sensation is not enough to just double the power.
The response to different frequencies will be the same with different intensities.
All of this is summarized by the following graph:

Figure 3: Equal loudness contours.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 6

[Link] - Free courses on the web

4. Sound height. Tone.

The pitch of sound is due to the number of vibrations per second. A sound of
high frequency is perceived as a high-pitched sound. A low-frequency sound
is captured as a low sound.
This is reflected in the previously seen acoustic spectrum graph.
Pure sounds (of a single frequency) are usually scarce. Most
of real sounds, are formed by a more or less combination
complicated frequency, with variable relative levels.
As we have already mentioned, the audible range extends between 20 Hz and 20 kHz.
Therefore, a high-fidelity system must be able to reproduce this entire range;
For the human voice, it will suffice to reproduce between 200 and 8000 Hz (in telephony
a band of 300 to 3400 Hz is used, which limits quality but allows for
intelligibility of the message). In a professional sound system, it is common to use
the range from 50Hz to 16KHz.
The tone is related to frequency and this leads us to know that different
tones will require different levels for the same hearing sensation, and
it will also cause different tones to behave differently in front of
obstacles or closed enclosures.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 7

[Link] - Free courses on the web

5. Reflection, refraction, and diffraction of sound.

Just as happens with light, or the waves in a pond, sound waves

They can be reflected, diffracted, and refracted.
Reflection is the bouncing of the wave on a medium that is not transparent to sound, a
concrete wall for example, this is the most important phenomenon to consider
It counts when designing a room where sound quality is important.

Figure 4: Sound reflection.

The behavior of the wave is similar to that of light and the angles of incidence and
reflections are the same.
This can lead to us receiving both the original sound and
the reflected sound, if the time elapsed between one sound and another is 1/10 of a second
the phenomenon of reverberation occurs.
Diffraction is a purely wave phenomenon; just as it happens in the
waves in a pond that are opposed by an obstacle, if it has a
drilling of a size greater than the wavelength, these are transmitted
as if the source of the waves were drilling.
When the sound wave encounters a wall, it is deflected towards the
back part of the obstacle.
Figure 5: sound diffraction.
When the wavelength is larger than the size of the obstacle, the sound is
transmitted by diffraction, otherwise shadows are produced behind the
obstacle.
As we know, the wavelength is related to speed and the
frequency by the equation:

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this one 8
[Link] - Free courses on the web

k = C/f m
Where k is the wavelength, C is the speed of sound, and f is the frequency.
Refraction is the phenomenon due to variations in the transmitting medium, or to
change of medium, modifying the speed and direction of the sound wave;
we will only see what happens in an environment that presents variations of
pressure or temperature.
The most interesting change in pressure in practice is due to the wind.
Generally, the wind speed is low near the ground but increases
with the height causing the sound wave to move in the same direction
that the wind is diverted towards land, while the one that is directed in the direction
on the contrary, it goes upwards.

Figure 6: Refraction by the wind.

When the air temperature changes, so does the speed of sound, this
it causes deviations in the direction of propagation.
If the hot air is closer to the ground and the cold air is above, the sound is
propagated upward; this is what happens during daylight hours.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 9

[Link] - Free online courses

Figure 7: Daytime refraction.

On the contrary, at night the situation reverses and the sound shifts downward.

Figure 8: Night refraction.

When soundproofing outdoors, these facts should indicate the position and
appropriate height of the sound equipment.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this one 10
[Link] - Free courses on the web

6. Electroacoustics.

What is it?
It is the technique that deals with the elements responsible for reproduction, and
recording of sound. It serves to transmit with the greatest clarity possible a
sound message, this can come from microphones, cassettes or others, after
it is processed and reproduced by the speakers.
The task is to minimize changes, avoiding sound degradation; or if
the circumstances require making the necessary changes to facilitate the
audition.
Decibels and VU meters. Sound level meters.
We have already seen that the ear does not react linearly to the sound source. For
Hello, although the usual measure of power in amplifiers and speakers is the
When it comes to controlling a sound system, the instruments that are provided to us
reference of the sound level (whether LED bars or needle gauges)
they use a relative and logarithmic unit of measurement which is the decibel, which is the
tenth part of the belio, and it is defined as:
dB = 10 log(P2/P1)
Where P2 is the power in watts of the output of the controlled equipment and P1 is the
reference power. This level for sound power is 10-12 w.

Figure 9: VU meter.
The VU meter is the measuring device used in sound equipment.
professionals, in them the reference value is one milliwatt, measured over a
resistance of 600 ohms at a frequency of 1 KHz.
Sometimes we need to measure the sound level outside of our equipment, in order to have
take into account the background noise, or to balance our sound according to the
conditions of the premises, for this we will use the sound level meter or the sound analyzer.
Figure 10: Sound level meter.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 11

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Figure 11: Spectrum Analyzer.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 12

[Link] - Free courses on the web

7. Microphones. Types and uses.

Microphones are transducers that convert acoustic vibration into a

electrical signal of the same frequency and with an amplitude proportional to the level of the
vibration. Therefore, it is the medium of choice for capturing the voice and all
elements that are not able to connect directly to a device, because
example the instruments of a classical music orchestra.
Microphones can be classified according to their manufacturing technology or by their
operability.
By its technology we distinguish:
CRYSTAL MICROPHONE.
1. -Light and rigid diaphragm.
2. -Bimorph crystal: two sheets of crystalline material cut in such a way that their
axes intersect.
When the set is deformed, a voltage is generated between the plates placed at
the sides of the sheets.

TAPE MICROPHONE.
1. -Metal diaphragm.
2. -Permanent magnet with the polar pieces on top.
3. -Transformer.
The output voltage is generated when the diaphragm vibrates in the magnetic field.

MOVING COIL MICROPHONE.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this. 13

[Link] - Free courses on the web

1. -Diaphragm.
2. -Coil fixed to the diaphragm.
3. -Permanent magnet.
The movement of the coil over the central pole produces the output voltage. It is
a robust microphone and the one we will commonly find.

CARBON MICROPHONE.
1. -Diaphragm.
2. -Set of granular carbon.
3. -Battery.
4. -Transformer.
The pressure on the diaphragm changes the resistance of the carbon that has been
a polarization voltage was applied. It was the old microphone of the telephones.

CONDENser MICROPHONE.
1. -Diaphragm (made of lightweight and flexible membrane).
2. -Rigid back plate.
3. -Cable to the preamplifier and power supply.
The air pressure alters the capacity between the diaphragm and the back plate.
This variation becomes an output voltage in the amplifier. The good
they are very good.
Both the crystal microphone and the carbon one are outdated, the crystal one...
replace, for cost, the modern electrets, which are a version of the
condenser, electrets are the typical lapel microphones, the embedded ones.
in cheap tape players and those used in computers.
We can see that microphones are divided into those that require a power source
tension auxiliary and those that generate a response on their own, the latter

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 14

[Link] - Free courses on the web

they are often referred to as dynamic microphones, although in practice the term
has been restricted to moving coil microphones.
Microphones, regardless of their technology, can be classified by their
specific use and form, such as:
· By hand.
· From the table.

· Standing.
· Of the giraffe.
· From the tie (out of use) also called lavalier.
· From the flap.
· Head first.
· Wireless (it can be wireless and at the same time lapel, handheld, of
head,...
· From the desk.
In the choice of a microphone, its directionality plays a fundamental role, it is
say how it responds to sounds coming from different directions. The
The directional response is illustrated in a polar diagram, in which it illustrates the
sensitivity with respect to the angle from the axis. Basically, the microphones are
they classify by their response into:
1. -Omnidirectional.
2. -Bidirectional.
3. -Cardioids.
4. -Supercardioids.
5. -Hypercardioid.
We will see it clearly in the graph.
Figure 12: Directionality of the microphones.
The bidirectional response corresponds to a figure of 8.
Commercial microphones typically respond to the cardioid pattern, but
specific uses require specific responses, such as cannon microphones or
the parabolic reflectors where directionality has been emphasized obtaining
hypercardioids, or ribbon microphones that due to their construction are
bidirectional, which restricts its use to the recording studio

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 15

[Link] - Free courses on the web

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this one 16
[Link] - Free courses on the web

8. Speakers. Types and uses.

The speaker represents the reverse of the microphone in the sound chain, if
we avoid the power levels handled, it is the transducer that receives the signal
processed and amplified electrical energy and transforms it into sound, that is to say in
air vibrations. As we already know, there are special speakers for water,
like those used in synchronized swimming, and in research with
dolphins.
Due to the manufacturing technology, the speakers can be:
-Dynamic, with a moving coil and fixed permanent magnet.
2. -Electrodynamic, with a moving coil and magnetic field generated by a
electromagnet.
3. -Electrostatic, operating similarly to a condenser microphone.
4. - Ionic speaker. A rarity.
We will only be interested in the dynamic speaker, as it is the one used almost in
exclusive at present except in very specific cases (e.g. the notifier of the
phones are usually a plate speaker, electrostatic.
The operation of the speaker is outlined in the following figure:
Figure 13: The speaker as a transducer.
In the case of the dynamic speaker, the permanent magnet creates a field in a
between the iron in which the mobile coil has been placed. As soon as the coil is
crossed by a current, a second magnetic field is created, as being the
variable current, the movement of the coil inside is variable
betweeniron, the coil is directly attached to the base of the membrane
dragging the latter in its movement, creating this last compressions and
rarefactions of the surrounding air.
It can happen that a compression area surrounds the speaker and reaches the part
posterior of the membrane. In this case, the natural movement of the membrane
it can be disturbed; the speaker's performance decreases and it is said that there is a
acoustic short circuit.
The solution to this problem ultimately leads us to the acoustic spaces that
we usually call them speakers.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 17

[Link] - Free courses on the web

With all the simple adoption of the closed box, it does not solve all the problems.
so many techniques are used aimed at improving the
frequency response, eliminate the inherent resonances of the boxes and improve the
speaker performance.
So we have, for example:

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 18

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Bass-reflex
Passive radiator.
Open labyrinth.
These are not the only technical solutions, and it is common to encounter
complex solutions that use more than one resource.
Sometimes special solutions are sought to reproduce specific frequencies or
to increase directivity; the trumpets and horns play these roles.
A common example of a horn is provided by megaphones.

Figure 14: Megaphone.

This variety of designs provokes a variety of responses, of qualities and
defects; there are specific speakers for indoor use and others specific for outdoor use and
others suitable in all environments.
From the usual solutions, we will see the uses of built-in speakers.
wall speakers (that have enclosures), speaker columns (which are enclosures with
various speakers in series or parallel, all with the same response), high speakers
fidelity and the trumpets.

Distinguishing between words and notices is not superfluous; notices are words but not.
they require an optimal degree of reproduction. This classification, of course, is
schematic and we can find built-in speakers with superior quality
many speakers.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 19

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Finally, remember that in a speaker it is essential to take into account its

impedance, although this is true throughout the entire musical chain, at the speaker it arrives at
extreme of being decisive as we can even destroy the speaker or the
amplifier.
The usual thing is that we find speakers of 8 W but there will also be some.
from 6 or 4W, in low impedance, or high impedance for 100, 70 lines
at 50 volts.

Figure 15: Low impedance connections.

In low impedance, we must use speakers with an absorption capacity of
power greater than that supplied in peak by the amplifier to the impedance
corresponding, it is understood that at lower impedance the amplifier delivers
major power, this relationship is not linear. Manufacturers in almost no case
they recommend connecting configurations of less than 2 ohms.
The 100-volt line is used for warning systems and background music installations.
where the lines are long and due to their impedance would result in a loss
significant power delivered to the speakers. In these systems, it is usually
use a transformer at the output of the amplifier that modifies the impedance of
output. The speakers are not designated here by their impedance but by the
absorbed power at the corresponding voltage, but it is not easy for us to deduce the value of
the equation:
Delivered power = V2/Z

Let V be the line voltage and Z the impedance. So if we connect a speaker of

The 100 volt line of 25 W shows that its impedance is (10,000/25) W, which is
say 400 W. In the case of high impedance we must avoid at all costs

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 20

[Link] - Free courses on the web

that the sum of the powers of the speakers exceeds that of the amplifier for
we would destroy this last one however there is no inconvenience in connecting a
400 w RMS amplifier with a 25 w speaker if both are adapted in
impedance.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 21

[Link] - Free courses on the web

9. Amplifiers, equalizers, mixers and

other gadgets

A preamplifier receives a low-level signal and returns it

at the right level to attack the amplifier, sometimes constitutes
an independent element, but in most cases it
includes in the mixer or equalizer, and in home equipment
and semi-professional is integrated into the amplifier itself.

This makes it clear that the amplifier picks up the electrical signal.
what the sound to be played represents, in relation to a reference value and
it raises it to a value capable of moving the speakers to the power
established in each case. In our sound chain the
amplifiers will be responsible for the majority of the consumption
electrical, and they will be the elements that dissipate the most heat, it is
It is important to monitor the temperature and allow for cooling.
suitable, since these temperature variations modify the
characteristics of work of semiconductors and by effect of
A waterfall can destroy the components.

The equalizer does not generally seek to amplify the signal, and
its usual gain level is the unity, or 0 dB. We are looking for with the
equalizer, adjust the levels in each frequency band, like
indicate your name to equalize, and make the signal as faithful as possible
the original, or if necessary, depart from the original in
function of the needs of the room and equipment so that the
The message should be intelligible. Schematic is to apply several filters.
that divide the signal, we treat each frequency separately and then
we add them.

Figure 16: Equalizer.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 22

[Link] - Free courses on the web

We have seen the microphone as a source of sound, but

there are many other sources:

The tape player, or cassette deck, that plays audio tapes

compact.

The tape recorder, which plays open audio tapes.

The tuner that picks up radio broadcasts, or

tv.

The turntable that plays vinyl records.

franco setback.

The compact disc player, digital technology.

The electric guitar, which is a transducer by

vibrations.

Everyone must connect at the appropriate entrance, both at

impedance like at level, although in the mixing tables it is
adjustable input level.

Precisely the mixer, or mixing console, depending on the cases,

it is a fundamental part in most operating teams in
the Sports Institute. The mixing console allows us
select the sources, level them, mix them, and ultimately
establish the signal path.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 23

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Figure 17: Mixing desk

Figure 18: Large table

format.

Finally, mention the noise barriers,

compressors, limiters, and effects that we won't see, but we mention
for its usual use in sound productions of entities, such as in the
Palace of Sports.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 24

[Link] - Free courses on the web

10. Architectural acoustics.

Not all places are

equals.
The obvious truism is not out of place; it's not the same.
soundproof an area like the San Pablo athletics track, outdoors
free and with an area close to one hectare, which is the annex of
same complex, in a basement with absolutely reflective walls
and an area of 1296 m2.

Little by little we have mentioned reasons to consider

importance of analyzing the venue to be soundproofed:

Outdoors or indoors.

Temperature.

Reflections of sound.

Ambient noise.

Etc.

If, for example, we give treatment to the enclosure in figure 4

suitable for the walls we will obtain the following:

Figure 19:
Acoustic treatment to eliminate reverberation.

Only the sound arrives now.

directly, and improve the acoustics. Just a comment if the treatment

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 25

[Link] - Free courses on the web

it is so effective that it leaves the sound dry, it can be annoying and

antinatural.

I must say that in all the

enclosed spaces that make up the sports facilities of
The Sports Institute has very similar characteristics,
constructive, square boxes made of very reflective material, very bad
conditioned, which pose a serious handicap when it comes to obtaining
a good intelligibility.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 26

[Link] - Free courses on the web

11. Reverberation.

We have already mentioned what reverberation is. But how do we

my stomach?

Let's see an example of measurement in the Palace of Sports where

the sound level is represented in dB over time.

Figure 20:
Measurement of reverberation time.

A noise is produced at a certain frequency at a moment.

from which it is measured, this measurement decreases over time as
It is to be expected, but it is very long and we also have a phenomenon.
additionally, at a moment that determines the physical characteristics
the enclosure increases again, at the frequency that I present to you
produce a resonance phenomenon, this is a natural frequency
of the acoustic enclosure.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 27

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Let's generically look at the definition of Time of

Reverberation:

It is the time that elapses between the maximum level of

sound and a loss of 60 decibels.

It is recommended that the reverberation time be between 2 and 4 seconds.

suitable to achieve a high intelligibility and a
adequate auditory comfort.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 28

[Link] - Free online courses

12. Larsen effect.

The effect
Larsen is what we usually call coupling.
feedback

It is produced
precisely because of feedback, that is to say to the microphone
a certain amount of sound comes from the speakers, which is
amplified, which in turn comes out again through the speakers and is of
new amplified, and from there it becomes resonance, in
a beep, usually high-pitched, whose frequency will depend on the
distance between speakers and microphone, and from the responses of
team. Remember at this point the relationship between wavelength and
frequency.

Figure 21: Coupling.

To avoid the Larsen effect, it is advisable to:

·
Use directional microphones, and place them if possible behind.
from the speakers.

· Limit

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 29

[Link] - Free courses on the web

the frequency response, if we have an equalizer, cutting at

maximum resonance frequency.

· In a
reverberant place, pavilions, one should not speak more than 20 cm away
the microphone, the best thing is to 'eat it'.

· Regular
the volume level below the level at which it occurs.
resonance.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 30

[Link] - Free courses on the web

13. Intelligibility.

Intelligibility is achieving that the message being transmitted

it is understood, what we call articulation of the word, is measured
by the consonance index, that is to say the percentage of
syllables understood about the emitted ones, of course in practice
in acoustic measurements that method of measuring is not used but rather
they commission the programs that control the measurements, the truth is
that the intelligibility index in the pavilions of the Institute of
sports is poor, as indicated by all the measurements taken, although
I am unaware of the current state of the Palacio de los Deportes, before the
The previous acoustic treatment was 35%, meaning very poor.

Intelligibility depends on many factors:

· Of
reverberation level, which is the most notable influence.

· Of
ambient noise, which needs to be overcome by increasing the power, and if the
the enclosure is reverberant, it worsens the problem.

· Of
electroacoustic equipment, if it is not capable of reproducing with
fidelity between 250 and 5000 Hz, we will have serious problems, and the
intelligibility will vary greatly from one voice to another.

· It is
It is important that more direct sound reaches all points than ...
reflected. The distribution of speakers will be essential.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 31

[Link] - Free courses on the web

14. Problems and solutions.

We have already been unfolding, along with the concepts, the issues.
and possible solutions, but the practical situations will be very
varied, it's not the same a church, for example the house of the
currency, where many presentations of activities take place, that the
Amate pavilion, or an indoor pool (the worst at the time of
soundproofing). It will not be the same for the audience to be located in one single
place that is distributed throughout the room, looking towards the center, to the
That one who wants to deepen should refer to the notes on distribution.
Regarding the speakers, let's make some brief indications here anyway.
let's place the speaker away from the speakers, if the distribution allows it
allows, behind them, and let's ask them to speak close, very close,
from the microphone, they should do it clearly, enunciating, and loud, no
screaming but yes how do we do it when we try to convince
someone, this way we avoid the background noise overlapping with the
talk, we work with a low entry profit that allows
eliminate the higher level of noise, and the voice becomes warmer.

The speakers must "look" at the audience, be in

the ceiling, on the floor, or on speaker stands, should not point at
neither above nor below the audience, and the speakers must be all the
executives that we can afford.

Another important element is the equalizer that cuts us off

most annoying frequencies in each venue, but this requires the
existence of this element and most importantly an acoustic study
of each enclosure.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 32

[Link] - Free courses on the web

15. Specific vocabulary.

Reading is important.
We are not presenting a literacy campaign, just
remembering what we all already know; that almost everything is written.

Most of the information we need is right there.

our eyes, and although we trust our eyes a lot, many
Sometimes we only look but do not see, and even less do we read, so many
they have connected a male XLR connector to a female XLR,
resulting that the male XLR was the speaker connection, and the
female was the input of the amplifier. Result, it doesn't work.
But if we read, we see that each connector has its own little sign.
Knowing a little about the technical language, everything is solved. Everything?
No.

There is still another problem, almost everything is in English.

So you have to learn two things, a little bit of technical language and
a little bit of English.

Figure 22: Characteristics of a Spanish table!

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 33

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Figure 23: Typical connections of an amplifier.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 34

[Link] - Free courses online

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 35

[Link] - Free courses on the web

A little technical English and Spanish.

Just like in Spanish, many English words have

different meanings in different contexts, and when they refer to
to technical uses, sometimes completely different although with some
connection with colloquial use.

Thus the word 'in' shares a large part of the uses of our
word in, among them within, force the meaning in use
in electronics and means input, signal contribution,
sharing this meaning with input.

Out and output will mean signal output, of course always one
output aims to connect to another larger input
level.

He also shares with our in some meanings (e.g.

on the bus
we will almost always be on.

Off, just like out, is translated as outside in some contexts.

but off in sound is turned off.

On and off are usually accompanied by power, which among other things
it is power, but for us it will be energy, or clearer,
feeding; power may be on, lit, and sometimes it will carry a
And some LED will light up; or it may be off, turned off, it may
carry a 0 and the little lights will start turning off.

For more details, it is appropriate to study the appendix a little.

dedicated to the lexicon.

A little bit of Spanish

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 36

[Link] - Free courses on the web

technical.
Of course it is not enough to know that a phono is a turntable, one must know
that the phono input has a specific equalization for
magnetic capsules (RIAA), which is a high impedance input and
of 3mV, so if we input a line signal of the same
impedance but at a level 60 times higher, we will saturate and the
the answer will be distorted, sometimes guitarists seek
voluntarily this effect, if we finally connect in phono a
there will be an impedance decoupling, which can generate noise,
e.g., although the signal will be at a very similar level, approx. 2
mV.

So it's time to study again, in this case the appendix.

called glossary, and try not to connect any device outside of
place.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 37

[Link] - Free courses on the web

17. Path of the signal.

What is the path of the

signal?
So that you can feel what the path of the signal is, I am going to show you.
some graphs.

This first one, whose main purpose is to list the elements

that intervene in the existence of intelligibility, shows us
for some little arrows the path that the signal takes, from one element to
another. Even more simplified:

No arrows but with stripes, if the microphone is not connected to

amplifier, either the cable is broken or short-circuited, the

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 38

[Link] - Free courses on the web

the amplifier is not connected to the speakers, or the cable is

broken or short-circuited or the power is interrupted, yes
any of these things happen, just one, the path of the signal
It will be interrupted and our system will not work.

If we also introduce a mixing console, an equalizer, or

a noise door, the number of breakpoints increases,
although of course the team's possibilities increase. In the
dropdown you can see the path of the signal on a table
mixes.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 39

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Figure 24: Typical setup for group in

direct

There is nothing to be scared of, there are more cables, there are more elements, but the
philosophy is the same:

· Cables
in good condition, neither cut nor contacted.

·
Connected and functioning power supply.

·
Elements connected in the right place; speaker at output of
amplifier, microphone in microphone input.

·
Potentiometers and faders raised to the appropriate level, and selected
the channels where we have tickets.

· It is
to say minor sins.

· Let's continue
with examples, let's look at part of the signal journey of the palace of
sports:

Figure 25: Sports Palace, from blend to

speakers.

We need to add that of a mixing table to this scheme.

let's see a simplified example:

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 40

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Figure 26: Mixing console. Block diagram.

This scheme corresponds to a Folio mixing console but it is

almost identical to that of the actually existing Ecler table. It is not
inadequate to trace the paths of the signal with different colors,
perhaps it will help us visualize effectively.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this one 41
[Link] - Free courses on the web

On the cover of some amplifiers, there is a diagram of

blocks, this gives us an idea of the signal's path inside
of the device.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 42

[Link] - Free courses online

18. This is not electricity, it is electronics.

That said, without the intention of belittling electricity, it is only

try to clarify, in electricity it is equivalent for us to
almost all applications the direction of circulation of the
electric current. In electronics, the use of
semiconductors establish asymmetries in conduction, levels
minimum excitation and other phenomena that are sought after
consciously.

The feeding is done in direct current, although the

The plug connects to an alternating current network.

So within amplifiers and filters, if we look closely

these two are the basic elements in every team, they coexist
direct currents, which have the mission of putting the equipment in
work situation, and the electrical signal to be addressed that later will
will turn into sound, which is the purpose of the entire framework that
we set up

Simplifying, we can say that the amplifier takes in energy.

supplied electricity and models it according to the signal. The
filters decompose the signal into several, reduce it, amplify it, or
they respect and return a modified signal but of a medium level
similar.

We have insisted on other points in the adaptation of impedances.

It's not to annoy, the semiconductors, amplifiers
operational in most cases, depend heavily on the
values of the input and output impedance, to respond to
according to their request, in all internal connections
This impedance adaptation is regulated, or it is modified in a way.
programmed, potentiometers; it is in the connections that we

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 43

[Link] - Free courses on the web

we perform where we can introduce unexpected parameters,

causing saturation, cutting, oscillation or other phenomena not
desired, if the topic fascinates you, look at the bibliography but
Meanwhile, respect the impedances.

Another thing we cannot forget is that the different signals

what we introduce in our teams may have very signals
different, in impedance level, frequency,...

The dissimilarities that come from the different sources the

we solve using the appropriate inputs for each of them,
those coming from more or less powerful voices, from recordings more
or less saturated we solve them with the gain levels of
entry and with the faders; sometimes we will even pursue that a
signal is less than another, such as background music
while a speaker talks.

Lastly, to say that in the part where the sound is most similar.
the electricity is in the connection of the speakers, the voltages
the intensities we handle are greater, the possibilities of
minor interferences, but beware not null, and the demands of
smaller cabling, as we see below.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 44

[Link] - Free courses on the web

19. The importance of a good cable.

It's not the title of a play, it's a reality. The

requirements of dielectrics and conductors, stability of
the capacity per meter in the firsts and purity of copper, nor to hear
talk about aluminum, in seconds they are big.

These demands extend immediately to the endings of

the cables, the connectors must be of good quality and cannot support the
oxide; there will be no heating problems here but rather barrier issues.
potential given the level of the signals in their early stages.

Except for the speakers, the shielding of the cables will be

fundamental, and the most critical installation conditions; not
we will be able to exceed certain lengths, we will not be able to pass cables
signal through metal tubes with electrical supply cables,
It would probably give us buzzes. If we pass through a metal tube.
the microphone and speaker cables we will surely have one
ultrasonic oscillation, which is not heard but is very
bothers.

Still without tubes, it is not convenient for the cables to

electric supply runs in parallel with the input of
audio. Neither with the speakers, they are less perturbable but already
Do you know Murphy's law.

Another topic of wiring is grounding; whenever possible

one must have independent ground, so that disturbances
the lighting or motors do not affect us, it should not be connected to
land speakers or the microphone meshes, and the connection of
The metallic elements of the devices must be of quality.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this one 45
[Link] - Free online courses

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 46

[Link] - Free courses on the web

20. Signal processing.

We call signal processing to any of the

modifications that are introduced throughout its journey,
even if it is a simple attenuation or linear amplification, that is to say
proportional. Also of course it is processing any
nonlinear operation, such as equalization or treatment in a
noise door.

That is to say, everything we do to obtain the output signal,

that if we are good, it will look a lot like the one at the entrance but more
strong.

What is so many for?

buttons?
As we agreed, every operation is to process the signal.
we will start identifying what each button does, on a table of
mixtures.

You can see a visual summary in the dropdown. This is a

example of a specific mixer (Folio mixer from Soundcraft), but very
general and comprehensive. Let’s see a more detailed description anyway.
general

·
It is usually an XLR or jack connector, balanced, if it has the
the XLR is used as a microphone input and the jack for line input,
if only one of them is used, the input is of fixed level, as in the
mixers (portable equipment, training equipment), or take a
micro-line switch, like the Ecler table of the Palace of the
Sports.

· Control

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 47

[Link] - Free courses on the web

of gain: The input mixers with fixed level do not carry it.
Determine the amount of signal we send to the rest of the mixer;
too much gain and the signal will distort and be clipped,
too little and the background noise level will be more noticeable and
we will not have enough level at the mixer output.

· Filter
high pass (at 100 or 150 Hz): The level of frequencies is reduced.
lower than the indicated amount, which are the most annoying
physiologically, it does not always exist.

·
Equalizer: It allows us to regulate each signal
individual, the mixers do not carry it, it is usually divided into:

· EQ of
HF (high-frequency equalizer): It is used to raise or lower the
high frequencies (over 6 KHz), typically around 15 dB.

· EQ of
MF (mid equalizer): It is used to raise and lower the
medium frequencies (250 Hz to 6 KHz) between ! 15 dB, but normally we can
vary the
central frequency.

· EQ of
LF (bass equalizer): Moves the bass between the margins of
specified level.

All of them positioned centrally give us an answer

plane.

· Shipments
The auxiliaries: they are used to make submixes, I will not comment further on this.
they.

· Pan
(panoramic): It is used to move the signal across the image
stereo, since all our facilities are mono, we will leave it
in central position.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this one 48
[Link] - Free courses on the web

· Fader:
It is our sliding potentiometer, it determines how much of
the signal is sent to the mix, that is, it determines the levels
relatives.

We will be able to find more controls on a mixing table such as

group assignment switches, solo, phantom power,
channel activation, insertions (e.g. on the Ecler table of
Palace) or others that I will not describe.

In the master output, we must highlight the Faders, in the

mixers that do not have equalization per channel we usually
finding a tone control that is usually composed of a control
of treble and another of bass.

There are mixers with switchable inputs between microphone and

Phono, with crossfaders (fader that works as a balance between
two tickets), as in those of the department's teams
training, there are those with talkover (listening preference of the
specified microphone input) and many other wonders.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 49

[Link] - Free courses on the web

21. Equalizer and effects. The importance of the site.

We have already talked about equalizers indicating their function and

described the channel equalizers of a mixing console, but
there are other equalizers, independent and usually larger
quality, we can find two main types of equalizers,
the graphs and the parametric ones, although there are also graphical ones
that include some parametric or semiparametric filter. Let's see that
what all this means:

· A
A graphic equalizer is one that has fixed cutoff frequencies.
and each cut is controlled with a fader, this makes the position of
the faders give us visual information about the treatment of the
signal, hence its name of graphs. Let's see an example of this
equalizer.

· In the
parametric equalizer, we operate with another concept, we have in
each cut three potentiometers, or software regulations like in the
Example below, one controls the gain level, ! 15 dB, another controls the
central frequency of
cut, with this we can accurately choose the frequencies that
they give us problems, and the third control regulates the Q factor, the
quality factor, which in a filter indicates how fast it is the
drop. This type of equalizer is expensive but tends to be more effective,
for example, a button.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 50

[Link] - Free courses online

Figure 27: Parametric Equalizer. (Palace of

the Sports

If we look closely, we will see that the figure includes a

section called Delay (in Spanish, retardo), that is one of
the many effects that can be integrated to improve the signal, in
a distributed speaker output, the delay serves to
the sound of the speakers reached everything at once without increasing the effect
of echo or reverberation, for example in a church, where there is
speakers throughout the room, with different arrival times
(see the chapter on the speed of sound). Other effects are
reverbs, echoes, flangers, distorters, and also gates for
noise and limiters, also referred to as these last processors
of dynamics, as they work precisely on the range of it. In
In the Palace of Sports, we find a limiter compressor.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 51

[Link] - Free courses on the web

22. Connection of the different elements.

It seems that at this point

everything is written but let’s recap, because that way we will understand the
fringes that we have been left with.

Almost everything is
written.
We've already said it, right? But it's worth insisting.
Nobody knows it all and sometimes trusting intuition ends in the
repair workshop. Stop and read, only then connect.

Complete the signal path, do not leave any loose ends, that
everything in its place, each one connecting with the next, by
assuming that everything has its feeding and then we proceed as
continue:

We will use our equipment with a diversity of types of sources.

sound, which will deliver different levels of signal. It is very
important that we adjust the input gain correctly for
obtain the best benefits.

Connect the chosen source (usually the MIC input for the
micros and that of LINE for any other.

· Put
the Master faders all the way down.

· Adjustment
the input gain until the meter slightly reaches the
Amber LED at 0 dB at the typical maximum level of that source with a
stable signal. If the signal is rich in rapid high transients
level (percussion) a reading higher than, in the order of

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 52

[Link] - Free courses on the web

+6/+9 dB to achieve an equivalent average level. It is left like this

sufficient margin to endure peaks in the signal without
distortion.

· Adjustment
all the channels in the same way.

· If not
you can achieve a reasonable level within the control range of
GAIN using a microphone input, try entering through line.

The tickets
that do not have gain control will not cause problems if
we use your typical source for these entries, which will be tape recorders
or units that have a more predictable signal level.

They will now have the initial settings for all channels.
and you can start the mixing now.

· Connect
their amplifiers and speakers, setting the gain of the
amplifiers around 70%. Move the master faders
gradually towards the top, listening carefully in case it
produce any hint of feedback or overload.
You will notice that the gain settings for the input channels
They should be slightly reduced as the mixture is created.

· Listen
carefully the characteristic sound of feedback. If not
can achieve a satisfactory entry level without
feedback, adjust the positions of the microphone and/or speakers and
try again.

The placement of the microphone and its correct selection is

essential for sound reinforcement. The idea would be to place the mic where
as close as possible to the sound source to cut out the sounds
unwanted peripherals. This allows for lower gain usage in
the mixer helps to prevent feedback. You will also notice that
A well-placed microphone hardly needs equalization.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 53

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Figure 28: Inkel amplifier connection.

To turn off, we will act in the opposite way, we lower the volumes of
we turn off the amplifiers, and then we turn off backwards,
it is an important hygiene measure, to clean the table, and not me
I mean to dust it off, which is also true, but to leave faders
equalizers and switches in resting position, thus
we will avoid surprises when re-sounding.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 54

[Link] - Free online courses

23. Connectors. Types and uses.

One of the daily problems of a sound technician is the connectors.

Although there are theoretical international standardization rules, they are so
unfulfilled like the international standards for connections
electric
However, experience tells us that only some connections are lost.
remaining in the market, normalizing out of necessity, let's go see them.

Here we have, for example, a 3.5 mm jack to RCA adapter, a connector

Female XLR, a stereo RCA connector, red for the right channel and white or black
for left channel, finally a stereo RCA to 6 mm jack adapter
stereo.
There are still more connectors and adapters, such as RJ, BNC, TNC, KOS, or even
connection by screws.
Those we will normally encounter in professional teams will be jacks of
6 mm and XLR connectors, the latter are colloquially known as canon.
In domestic appliances, connectors have predominantly been established.
RCA, leaving the DIN connection like an old relic.
When it comes to speaker connection, the professional output connection of the
The amplifier will usually be for screw or banana, and on the speaker side.
we will have, screws, banana, canon and in multi-amplified system, a is imposed
connector called Speak-On, which we do not have in our equipment.
In home equipment, the usual connection of the amplifier and the speaker is
of pressure, with the point-line connection having practically disappeared.

Figure 29: Symmetrical and asymmetrical jack.

We see in the image the wiring corresponding to a jack, it is the well-known
telephone connector that was used in the old switchboards, both in the case
balanced, as asymmetric.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 55

[Link] - Free courses on the web

To say that balanced and symmetrical mean the same thing in our case.
we also use asymmetric and unbalanced.
For the case of the Canon connector, let's take a look at its wiring:

Figure 30: Symmetrical canon.

Figure 31: Asymmetric canon.

Just as in the canon we use the same connector for both.
connection formats to obtain an asymmetrical jack with one of three contacts
it will be enough for us to bridge the live 2 and the ground.
But you might be wondering, what the hell is that symmetric and asymmetric?
There's one more thread, but why?
When we send low-level audio signals over considerable distances
(distances greater than 15-20 meters), the use of an entry becomes necessary.
balanced formed by two shielded cables where the active signal (hot) travels
On one wire and on the other, a signal travels in opposite phase (cold).
The screen will be the mass of the signal. Any external interference capable of
disturb the audio signal, it will be induced simultaneously in both active lines. To the
amplifier input, it will be sufficient to perform the sum between both signals.
to cancel the generated noises or interferences and obtain double the signal

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 56

[Link] - Free courses on the web

active.
The balancing-unbalancing can be done electronically (amplifiers
differential operations) or with transformers, additionally existing in this
last case a galvanic isolation.
Let's see it:

Here we have the use case of a transformer, if we use amplifiers.

operationally we are required to use both the investor input and the non-investor input
inverter using it as a summator.

We must not confuse symmetrical with stereo, for a stereo input.

we must use two separate connectors, whether they are symmetrical or asymmetrical, or
convert it to mono input by soldering the two cables together
of the living.
A jack is used in stereo mode as a headphone output, in that case the signal
the left is welded to the tip and the right to the ring.
Another special case of jack is the insertions, which have the sending of
signal at the tip, return in the ring and common ground.
We will find that the tickets for professional teams are, in general
symmetric, as it occurs at the Ecler table in the sports palace, or in the
Inkel mixers, except for the two front inputs for microphones, in the
mixers of the training department equipment the inputs are
all asymmetrical, this is due to the conception of DJ tables as
elements where everything is very close, and the length of the cables does not
it poses no concern.
The speakers that use a jack will always do so with a mono jack, and in the case of use
Only 2 pins will be used from the canon, or 2 of them will be bridged, in the case of the ...
Bose 804 speakers.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 57

[Link] - Free courses on the web

When we get used to connecting, it will be difficult to confuse microphone cables.

and speakers, but it could happen to us, so watch out.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 58

[Link] - Free courses on the web

24. What to do when... ? (...they arise)

problems).

Don't touch everything, read and check.

When an activity starts in 10 minutes, or the Caja match has already begun.
it's hard to maintain the right calm, but it's the only way that
may everything arrive at a happy port.
Many times we have tried everything in order to find the solution, but that only
serves the one who doesn't understand anything and only waits for the flute to play,
for example, if we level up all the levels, we will get the correct entrance level
correct, but we will be introducing the electromagnetic noise of the environment in
all the channels and we will have a buzz, if you don't believe it take a table
connected to its corresponding amplifier and speakers, and without any source,
raise all the volumes. It's better to look back where we are connected, and
following the path of the signal (e.g. if the strip is connected in deck, no
We should turn up the tuner, right?) see if it gets better, maybe the mic doesn't sound but maybe,
It is not unusual, the microphone is not on, if the music is not playing, and also I do not...
when the reading LEDs of the tape deck turn on, either the tape is not recorded or the
the head reading went to hell, if the compact disk does not indicate the number
The tracks (meaning songs) are not recognized by the device because it is empty.
or because it's too much of a pirate, if the microphone cable is damaged, unsoldered in
the tips or connected threads, it is normal that it does not sound, if the mixer of
the box is connected to the distribution box but the continuation of this cable is not
main team, turn it off and let's go.
As happens in the detection of a short circuit in an electrical circuit there is
procedures that save time in locating the fault, use your head and
Just tell me if the breakdown requires replacing any element, because it's highly likely.
that there will be no replacement.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 59

[Link] - Free courses on the web

25. Table of common failures and solutions.

One last practical tip, if you have doubts about whether a source
it sounds and you don't have another on hand, with the tip of the screwdriver and in
contact with our hand will generally induce a buzz. If
Something is wrong with the source.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 60

[Link] - Free courses on the web

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 61

[Link] - Free courses on the web

26. Practices with real equipment and appendix I.

Here there should be a description of specific equipment and its assembly, given that the
What is in my company, you don't have it at hand, I've removed it, but if you are interested.
in viewing this section, send me an email at japoo@[Link] and I will do it
to get to the address you indicate.
WE HAVE CABLES AND DEVICES. HOW DO WE MAKE IT SOUND?
finish this course in the most practical way we can we should try to
set up a sound system, we should gather all the elements in the room
necessary for the complete assembly, as well as all the necessary wiring, can
it shouldn't sound on the first try but you know, read, follow the path of the signal and go for it
of course, the ending is happy.
APPENDIX I. LEXICON.

AUX Auxiliary
BRIDGED Braided.
BUS Route of the transmission
electric.
CD Compact disc. It also
used for the reader.
CLIP Excess signal warning LED
as an appetizer.

CLUSTER Speaker group.

COLD Signal -.
CROSSOVER Frequency divider filter.
DECK Magnetic tape reader of
audio.
DELAY Delay.
DISABLE Disconnected.
DJ Turntables.
EARTH Earth.
EJECT Ejector. Tape ejection.
ENABLE Connected.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 62

[Link] - Free courses on the web

EQ. Equalizer.
FADER Sliding potentiometer.
FEEDBACK Feedback.
FUSE Fusible.
GAIN Amplification factor.
GND Earth.
GROUND Earth.
HF High frequency. Trebles.
HIGH High.
HOT Signal +
IN Entry.
INPUT Entrance.
INSERT Insertion.
JACK Microphone connector.
LEFT Left
LEVEL Level. Volume.
LF Low frequency. Bass.
LIFT Cleaning, disconnection.
LINK Link, connection.
LOUDSPEAKER Speaker.
LOW Low.
MASTER General volume.
MF Medium frequencies.
MID Media.
MIXER Mixer.
MONITOR Reference signal for the
the technician or the musician.

MUTE Silence.
NOISE Noise.
NOISE/SIGNAL RATIO Signal-to-noise ratio.
OFF Off

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this. 63

[Link] - Free courses on the web

ON On.
OUT Exit.
OUTPUT Exit.
P.A. Shipments to the speakers of the
public. By extension, the
system that allows notifications and
sounds.
PAGE Notice, call.
PAN Panoramic.
PATCH Connection.
PATCHBOX Connector box.
PATCH PANEL Connector panel.
PEAK Peak indicator.
PHANTOM Microphone power supply
capacitor.
PHONES Phones.
PHONO Entry for magnetic capsule.
PLAY Reproduction.
POWER Power. It applies to the button of
on.
RACK Box in which it is mounted
team.
RECEIVER Receptor.
RECORD Recording.
RETURN Signal return.
RF Radiofrequency.
RIGHT Right
SCREEN Screen. It is used as a screen.
graph, and as a screen of
interferences.
SEND Shipping and return in one

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 64

[Link] - Free courses on the web

plug

SIGNAL Signal.
SINGLE Simple, individual.
SPEAKER Speaker. It also applies to
announcer.
STEREO Stereophonic.
STOP Paro.
SUBWOOFER Subwoofer speaker. (20 to 100)
Hz)
SUPPLY Power Supply.
SWITCH Switch, interruptor.
TALK Speak.
TALKBACK Return of orders.
TALKOVER Priority of what was said about the
music.
TAPE Love. In our case, tape
audio magnetic.
TRACK Track, in our case of the
love.
TRANSCIEVER Sender.
TUNER Tuner. Do not confuse with
radio.
Turntable Turntable.
TWEETER Tweeter.
WOOFER Subwoofer.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 65

[Link] - Free courses on the web

27. Appendix II. Glossary.

SPEAKER Transducer that converts the

electrical signal in vibrations
of the air.

AMPLIFIER Unit that increases the value of

a signal. The amplification
It can be in voltage, intensity
or in
both. This latter is the
habitual. The profit is measured
usually in decibels.

HARMONICS Multiple frequencies of the

fundamental frequency.

ASYMMETRIC Not symmetric. Method of

connection

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 66

[Link] - Free courses on the web

that uses a single conductor and the

screen as a signal return.
Does not allow large lengths
of connection and has little
immunity to
the interferences.

ATTENUATION Losses in signal level. They

measures in the same way as the
profit.

BALANCE Relative levels of the channels

right and left in a
stereo signal. It is also called
thus to
control that sets those levels
relatives.

BNC Bayonet closure connector

for miniature coaxial.
Abbreviation of
bayonet-Neill-Concelman.

C.I. Integrated circuit.

Chip.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 67

[Link] - Free courses on the web

coaxial Cable consisting of two

concentric conductors
separated by a material
dielectric.

dB Decibel. Standard unit for

express the profit or loss
of transmission and the
corresponding levels of
power. For voltages, you
express
by: dB=20 log(V1/V2). The suffix
you indicate that the tension of
The reference is 775 mV.

DYNAMIC Moving coil microphone.

Generate
the signal by self-induction.

DIRECTIVITY Relationship from front to back of the

sound recorded by a
microphone.

EQUALIZATION Changes in the electrical signal,

to correct the distortion in
frequency produced by the
system

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this. 68

[Link] - Free courses on the web

from audio or by its own acoustics

from the room.

EFFECTS Nonlinear treatment of the

signal. They can be echoes, reverbs,
noise doors, wow you
others.

ELECTRET condenser microphone

electrostatics, needs batteries of
nutrition.

SWEEPING EQ Pseudo-parametric equalizer.

It consists of a level regulator
and from a frequency regulator
central.

EQUATION GRAPH Equalizer with a number of

preset bands, among
five thirty, which has control
of
level by band. The fact that
the fader gives us an indication
visual of the way in which
we treat the signal it gives you
name

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 69

[Link] - Free courses on the web

PARAMETRIC EQ Equalizer with various

bands, which has three
band controls: level,
frequency
central and factor Q. They are the most
suitable for problems with
specific frequencies, but
very expensive.

STEREO Stereophonic. Sound

combined
to reproduce in two or more
speakers, each one with a
signal
different, with the aim of giving
a print
spatial.

PHASE Relative position within the

cycle. Two signals are said in
phase if they are simultaneous
in the
same relative position.

FILTER Set of elements, by

example LRC, which discriminate the
pass of the different

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 70

[Link] - Free online courses

frequencies.

CROSS FILTER It is a filter that separates the signal

that arrives in two according to the
frequencies are below or
for
on top of a given one, it is used in
multichannel systems,
those
in which each speaker or group
The speakers are responsible for
reproduce a certain
frequency band.

PROFIT Factor of
amplification.

Hz Hertzio. His number indicates us

the
cycles (repetitions) for
second.

IMPEDANCE The combination of resistance,

inductance and capacitance that
causes the reduction of a
signal
alternating. An inductance acts

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 71

[Link] - Free courses on the web

selectively reducing the

high frequencies, the capacitance
act in the same way with the
low frequencies and resistance
dulls evenly across all the
frequencies.

INTELLIGIBILITY Measurement of the joint of

consonants. It gives the idea of the

possibility of transmitting
messages
spoken.

KHz 1000 Hz.

LARSEN, EFFECT Resonance due to the

feedback of the sound of
output in the microphone. The time
of
delay sets the frequency.

LED Light Emitting Diode

light.

LINE In signal refers to the

mixer inputs, which do not

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 72

[Link] - Free courses on the web

they come from a microphone or a

magnetic capsule; more than 300
mV. In sound engineering of
environments are
refers to the outputs of the
amplifiers for lines of
constant voltage distribution.

LINE 100 In the previous second case,

VOLTIOS when the constant voltage is
of 100 V.

Microphone Transducer that converts the

sound pressure in signal
electric.

MONO
Monophonic. Sound for
reproduce in one or more
speakers all with the same
signal. It is the

habitual in facilities
sports shoes.

EIGHT Interval between two frequencies

in a 2:1 ratio.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this one 73
[Link] - Free courses online

OHMIO Unit of resistance and

impedance.

OSCILLATOR Device that produces a

signal
alternating button.

PANORAMIC Pseudo balance of the entries

mono from the mixer
that allows the signal to be distributed

among the
two output channels.

POST FADER Dependent monitoring of

fader level.

PRE FADER Monitoring that does not depend

delete
fader level.

PREAMPLIFIER Low gain amplifier

what
allows to attack at a level
suitable the stage of
power.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this. 74

[Link] - Free courses on the web

RANGE OF Values that can be taken by the

FREQUENCY frequency. For example in EQ
parametric, the range
audible...

RCA Coaxial connector, common in the

stereo inputs of the equipment
domestic and semi-professional,
himself
they are used for -10 dBu inputs.

FEEDBACK Signal transmission from the

exit to the entrance, in which
interacts with the signal of
entry

modifying the operation

of the device.

RESONANCE Natural maintenance of the

oscillation, varies according to the

systems.

REVERBERATION Sum of the reflections of the

sound in an enclosed space.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 75

[Link] - Free courses on the web

RMS Measurement of the power made with

100 hours of pink noise.
It is currently also being done
with 2
hours of pink noise at 6 dB
crest factor

SYMMETRICAL The signal between two wires that

van
screened, not taking the
screen no signal. This
system
allows the cancellation of the
interferences and large
longitudes
of connection.

TRANSITIONAL Initial irregularity in the

sound and its execution.

VUMETRO Unit volume meter.

If
you can find in dB, % or
power; for dB and power not
it
linear.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 76

[Link] - Free courses on the web

XLR Also called connector

Canon.
Three-prong connector that is
it is used in microphones as well
in
speakers.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 77

[Link] - Free courses online

28. Appendix III. Form

I give you a small list of formulas that may be useful to us.

useful.

Regarding the last formula, I give you a small

table of maximum line lengths.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 78

[Link] - Free courses on the web

29. Biography

In this bibliography, I only include the titles I have used to prepare the course.
many of them are difficult to find, if you are particularly interested, you
I will let them go.

Below each title, I make a small comment about the level and interest of the
book.

Title Author Editorial

Acoustics for Manuel Recuero IORTV
studies of
[Link] for
engineering, but its
the first two
chapters are
affordable.
Dictionary of Not listed Marcombo
electronics/computer science
[Link], more
oriented to the
computer science.
Dictionary of Not listed AFHA
electronics/radio/tv.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 79

[Link] - Free courses on the web

Basic, ancient and by

Hello informs of
elements that no longer
are usual.

Acoustic design (book No figure) TOA Corp.

of text). Very
recommended its
first part, the
second refers to
specific mode to
installers of
warning systems.
The Sound. Study of J.J. Matras Orbis
sound like waves.
The use of the Alec Nisbett IORTV
microphones. If you
the sound is interesting
the best of this list
even if it is
specific of
microphone, you
you will find out about many

things.
Form of Fco. Ruiz Vasallo CEAC
electronics. For
review.
Music, physics and Harry F. Olson Dover
[Link]
good, at a level
very tall and
unfortunately in

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 80

[Link] - Free courses on the web

English.

Waves and Nuffield Team Reverted

oscillations. Clarify
doubts about the
waves. Intermediate level.

Reproduction of D. Bensoussan IORTV

[Link] very
well, and with the
advantage over it
Nisbett, to touch
all the sticks.
Stereo sound Fracis Rumsey IORTV
for TV. Technical book
of intermediate level, that

clarify concepts
of stereophony.

You can also find more information on the Internet, almost all brands
sales representatives provide support information for their products, just like the
Catalogs usually provide very good technical information.
From the websites I have visited, I recommend three in Spanish:
[Link] It is the address of Fonestar, distributor of products of
medium quality and good price, specialist in connections.
[Link] Corresponds to Das, the Valencian company specialized
in high-quality professional speaker boxes.
Ecler manufactures mixers, amplifiers, speakers, and others.
but stands out in the first product, where they have a wide range.
At [Link] you will find a personal page of a
sound enthusiast with a lot of content, delving into some aspects of
those we have dealt with in the course.

[Link] - You will find many more courses like this 81