KARABUK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL-ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Assist. Prof. Dr. Hüseyin DEMİREL

PART 1
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS,
SYMBOLS AND UNITS

Note: A book written in Turkish, DEMİREL, Hüseyin (2010), Temel Elektrik ve Elektronik,
Birsen Yayınevi, İSTANBUL is available in the book store.
CHAPTER 1
1. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS SYMBOLS AND UNITS
______________________________________________________________
1.1. RESISTANCE
1.2. CAPACITOR
1.3. INDUCTOR
1.4. TRANSFORMER
1.5. SEMICONDUCTORS
1.6. SOME INSTRUMENTS
1.7. ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS AND UNITS
1.8. TESTS
1.9. QUESTIONS
1. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS SYMBOLS AND UNITS
______________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

The topics in this chapter present a basic introduction to the field of

electronics. An overview of electrical and electronic components and
instruments gives you a preview of the types of things you will study
throughout this book.

You must be familiar with the units used in electronics and know how to
express electrical quantities in various ways using metric prefixes. Scientific
notation and engineering notation are indispensable tools whether you use a
computer, a calculator, or do computation the old-fashioned way.
1. ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS SYMBOLS AND UNITS
______________________________________________________________

A throughout background in dc and ac circuit fundamentals provides the

foundation for understanding electronic devices and circuits. In this course you
will study many types of electrical components and measuring instruments. A
preview of the basic types of electrical and electronic components and
instruments that you will be studying in detail in this and in other courses is
provided in this section.
1.1. RESISTOR
______________________________________________________________

Resistors resist, or limit, electrical current in a circuit. Several common types

of resistors are shown in following figures.
1.2. CAPACITORS

These components store electric charge. When fully charged they oppose
direct current flow but not the alternating current. Electrolytic capacitors have
polarity. Following figures show several typical capacitors.
1.3. INDUCTOR (COILS)

Inductors, also known as coils, are used to store energy in an electromagnetic

field and oppose change in alternating current while conduct direct current.
Following figure shows several typical inductors.
1.4. TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are used to increase or decrease alternating voltages. They

are also used couple ac voltages from one point in a circuit to another.
There are several types of transformers below.
1.5. SEMICONDUCTOR COMPONENTS

Diodes, transistors, integrated circuits and microprocessors are all semiconductor

devices extensively used in electronic circuits. They are shown in figure.
A

K
1.6. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

There are four basic electronic instruments found on typical laboratory work-bench.
These instruments DC power supply for providing current and voltage to power
electronic circuits, signal generator for providing electronic signals,

DC Power supply Signal generator

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENTS

digital multi-meter (DMM) with its voltmeter, ampermeter, and ohmmeter functions
for measuring voltage, current, resistance, and other quantities. Finally
oscilloscopes for observing and measuring ac voltages. All these basic electronic
instruments that are used in every laboratory.

Digital multimeter Oscilloscope

1.7. ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS AND UNITS

In electronics, you must deal with measurable quantities. For example, you
must be able to express how many volts are measured at a certain test point
in a circuit, how much current there is through a conductor, or how much
power a certain amplifier delivers. In this section, you are introduced to the
units and symbols for most of the electrical quantities that are used throughout
the course.

Letter symbols are used in electronic to represent both quantities and their
units. One symbol is used to represent the name of the quantity, and another
is used to represent the unit of measurement of that quantity. For example, I
stands for current and A stands for amper which is the unit of current. Table in
the next slide, lists the most important electricial quantities, along with their
units and symbols.
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS AND UNITS

COMPONENT SYMBOL UNIT UNIT SYMBOL

Resistance R Ohm 
Voltage V Volt V
Current I Ampere A
Capacitance C Farad F
Inductance L Henry H
Power P Watt W
Reactance X Ohm 
Charge Q Coulomb C
Conductance G Siemens S
Energy  Joule J
Frequency F Hertz Hz
Time T Second Sn
Impediance Z Ohm 
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

In the electrical and electronic fields, you will find both very small and very large
quantities. For example, electrical current can range from hundreds of amperes in
power applications to a few thousandths or millionths of an ampere in many
electronic circuits. For resistive quantities, a wire may have less than one ohm of
resistance whereas resistance values of several million ohms are common in
circuit applications. This range of values is typical of many other electrical
quantities also.

Scientific notation provides a convenient method for expressing large and small
numbers and for performing calculations involving such numbers. In scientific
notation, a quantity is expressed as a product of a number between 1 and 10 (one
digit to the left of the decimal point) and a power of ten. For example the quantity
12 000 is expressed in scientific notation as 12 x 103, and 0.00047 is expressed 47
x 10-5. In expression 10-5, 10 is base and -5 is exponent.

In the next slide table lists some powers of ten, both positive and negative, and the
corresponding decimal numbers.
POWERS AND FRACTIONS OF UNITS

UNIT SYMBOL MULTIPLICATION POWER OF 10

Tera Volt 1 TV 1 000 000 000 000 V 1012 V

Giga Volt 1 GV 1 000 000 000 V 109 V
Mega Volt 1 MV 1 000 000 V 106 V
Kilo Volt 1 KV 1 000 V 103 V
- Volt 1V 1V 100 V
milli Volt 1 mV 0,001 V 10-3 V
micro Volt 1 V 0,000 001 V 10-6 V
nano Volt 1 nV 0,000 000 001V 10-9 V
pico Volt 1 pV 0,000 000 000 001V 10-12 V
EXAMPLE 1:

Express the numbers below as powers of 10.

a) 100000 b) 0,0000001 c) 0,0001

d) ,001 e) 100000000 f) 1

SOLUTION:

a) 100000 = 105 b) 0,0000001 = 10-7 c) 0,0001 = 10-4

d) ,001 = 10-3 e) 100000000 = 108 f) 1 = 100

EXAMPLE 2:
Convert the values below to units shown.

a) 0,035A = …..nA b) 0,0005A = .....mA c) 100nA = ….A d) 1000000A = …A

e) 0,00023V = ….V f) 50000KV = ....MV g) 48V = …... Mv h) 150000nV = ..…V
ı) 22000 = …. K i) 0,027 = …. m j) 4,7K = ….  k) 3,9K = ….…..
l) 3600mSn = ….Sn m) 5000Hz = ...KHz n) 5000W = …KW o) 47F = …….….nF

SOLUTION:

a) 0,035A = 35nA b) 0,0005A = 0,5mA c) 100nA = 0,1A d) 1000000A = 1A

e) 0,00023V = 230V f) 50000KV = 50MV g) 48V = 48000mV h) 150000nV = 150V
ı) 22000 = 22K i) 0,027 = 27m j) 4,7K = 4700  k) 3,9K = 3900
l) 3600mSn = 3,6Sn m) 5000Hz = 5KHz n) 5000W = 5KW o) 47F = 47000nF
 SUMMARY
 Resistor limits electrical current.
 Capacitors store electrical charge.
 Inductors store energy in their electromagnetic field.
 Inductors are also known as coils.
 Transformers magnetically couple ac voltages.
 Semiconductors devices include diodes, transistors, intagrated circuits, and CPUs.
 Power supplies provide current and voltage.
 The voltmeter function an a DMM is used to measure voltage.
 The ampermeter function an a DMM is used to measure current.
 The ohmmeter function an a DMM is used to measure resistance.
 A multimeter includes a voltmeter, ampermeter, and ohmmeter combined into one instrument.
 Scientific notation is a method for expressing very large and very small numbers as a number between one and ten
(one digit to left of decimal point ) times a power of ten.
 Engineering notation is a form of scientific notation in which quantities are expressed with one, two, or three digits to
the left of the decimal point times a power of ten that is a multiple of three.
 Metric prefixes are symbols used to represent powers of ten that are multiples of three.
 PART 2

BASIC ELECTRONICS
CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE
 1. ATOM

Atom, is the smallest particle that reflect properties

of a material.
Atom consist of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons
around it. The nucleus contains positively charged
protons and neutral neutrons while the electrons
have negative charge.
There are 109 elements known today and each has a
different structure of atoms and therefore different
properties.
 1. ATOM

• Each atom contains equal numbers of protons and electrons.

• Electrons have negative (-) charge, but protons have positive
(+) charge. Neutrons have no charge.
• Electrons furthest away from the nucleus are know as
valence electrons. They are relatively more vulnerable to
external effects.

- - electron
+

+ + proton

- neutron

Helium atom
 1. ATOM
Electrons residing furthest away from the nucleus, in the higher orbits that
are not completely filled with electrons play an important role regarding
properties of that material. These valence electrons can be moved with an
externally applied energy, e.g. by heating, electric field, pressure etc. The
movement of electrons, that is movement of negative charge, constitute a
current flow. The valence electrons may also be shared by other atoms to
form compounds.

Sharing of a valence electron

 1. ATOM

Materials that are most important for electrical engineering can

be generally categorised as below. These properties are closely
related to number of valence electrons.
a-Conductors (can easily conduct electric current, which means
electrons can move easily)
b-Semi-conductors (electrons can move but not very easy. This
material can be modified to improve conduction and provides
a way to change electrical properties.)
c-Insulators (very difficult to move electrons and conduction at
normal conditions is very poor.)
 1. ATOM
Conductor
Elements having less than four valence electrons in the outermost orbit
are called conductors. These elements easily conduct current. All
metals are good conductors.

-
nucleus
- - -
- - -
- - -
-
- electron
- - - - -
-
-
- - -
- orbit
- -
- -
- -

Element copper and electrons in orbits

 1. ATOM
Insulator
Elements having eight or more electrons in the outermost orbit
are called insulators. Insulators do not conduct current at
normal conditions.
-
-
- -

- P=10
N=10 -
-

- -
-

Electrons in Neon
 1. ATOM

Semi-conductors
Elements having four valence electrons in the outermost orbit are
called semi-conductors. Silicon, germanium, gallium are some
examples of semi-conductors used in electronics.

-
-
-
- - - Valence electrons

- +14 nucleus
-
- Outermost orbit
- -
-
-
-

Silicon atom and electrons

 2. CURRENT
As you have learned, free electrons are available in all conductive
materials. These electrons drift randomly in all directions, from
atom to atom, within the structure of the material, as indicated in
following figure.

Random motion of free electrons in a material

 2. CURRENT
Now, if a voltage is placed across a conductive material, one end becomes positive
and the other negative, as indicated in figure. The repulsive force produced by the
negative voltage at the left end causes the free electrons (negative charges) to
move toward the right.

Electrons flow negative to positive when a voltage is applied across a conductive material.

Current, is a rate of electron movement or rate of charge transfer . Each electron

has a charge of 1.6 10-19 coulombs. The symbol used for current is (I) and the unit is
ampere (A).
 2. CURRENT
One Ampere means charge movement at the rate of one coulomb
per second. Hence , (1.6 10-19 )-1 that is 6.25 1018 electrons has to
move per second to get one ampere.

When a number of electrons having 1 coulomb of charge pass through this cross-sectional
area in 1 second, there is 1 ampere of current
 2. CURRENT
Mechanical analogy to current flow is flow of water in a pipes. Water
flows because a pump push the water to move or there is a pressure
drop in the direction of flow. Similarly, electrons move because there is a
force that make movement. This force may be a potential difference as
we have across the terminals of a battery. So the battery acts like a pump
as in the case of water flow.

Electron current flow

 3. ELECTRIC CHARGE

Both electrons and protons have equal amounts of electric charge,

BUT electrons have negative and protons have positive charge.
The symbol for charge is Q and the unit is coulomb (C).

Electron charge = 1,6 x 10-19 coulomb

1 Coulomb = 6,25x1018 electron

 3. ELECTRIC CHARGE

EXAMPLE-1:
What is the total charge of 93.8x1016 electrons ?

SOLUTION:

93,8 x1016
Q  15 x10  2 C  0,15C
6,25 x1018
 3. ELECTRIC CHARGE

Charged particles having similar polarities REPEL each other

while those having different polarities ATTRACT each other.

+ +

No charge Repel

+ - - -

Attract Repel
 3. ELECTRIC CHARGE

There is a direct proportionality between the current and

electric charge.

Q I : Current (Ampere)
I Q : Charge (Coulomb)
t t : Time (second)
 3. ELECTRIC CHARGE

EXAMPLE-2:
Calculate current flow in a conductor if a charge of 10
Coulomb passed in 2 seconds ?

SOLUTION:
We have Q = 10C, t=2s

Q 10C
I    5A
t 2s
 4. VOLTAGE
We can define voltage as the potential difference between two
points on a conductor carrying a current of 1 ampere when the
power dissipated between the two points is 1 watt.
Alternatively it is the potential difference through which an
energy of 1 joule is required to move a charge of 1 coulomb.
The unit is Volt (V).

V : Voltage (Volt)
W
V  Q: Charge (Coulomb)
Q W: Energy (Joule)
 4. VOLTAGE

EXAMPLE-3:
200 joule of energy is required to move 40 Coulomb of
charge through a conductor . What is the potential
difference across the conductor ?

SOLUTION:

V:?
W 200
Q : 40 C V   5V
W: 200 Joule
Q 40
 4. VOLTAGE

DC Power Supply
DC Power supply generate a dc voltage. It has positive and negative
terminals as shown in the figure below. Electrons move from the
negative terminal pass through the load (lamp) and reach the positive
terminal. Since electrons are negatively charged, the direction of flow
of positive current is from positive terminal towards negative terminal.

Electron flow
lamp
Positive current flow

- - - - -

- -

- -

Dc power supply

DC power supply and current flow

 5. RESISTORS

Resistors show a resistance to flow of current. They form an obstacle

to rate of flow of electrons. Hence, a combination of resistors can be
used in a circuit to control the level of current flow. The symbol is R
and the unit is ohm ( ).
Ohm: If 1 ampere of current flows when a voltage of 1 volt is applied
across a resistor, then the resistance is 1 ohm.

R Symbol

1 Unit

Conductance: This shows the level of conduction and its value is reciprocal
of R. Symbol is G (G = 1 / R )and unit is Siemens.
 5. RESISTORS

TYPES OF RESISTORS

Circuit elements that show a linear relation between I and V

possess the characteristics of a resistance. Resistors are used
to control current flow, to act as a potential divider, to generate
heat. There are many types of resistors, however, they may be
categorised in two main groups. Those with a fixed value and
those with a variable value.
 5. RESISTORS

Fixed value resistors

These are extensively used in electronic circuits. They are made of
different materials and process. Carbon alloy and thick-films are the most
popular. Others are, carbon-film, metal-film, oxide-film and wire wound
(high power) etc.

Carbon alloy resistor Thick-film resistor Metal-film resistor

 5. RESISTORS

Variable resistance
The resistance value of these resistors can be varied manually or
automatically. They are used in voltage division and current
control applications. Pots, potentiometers and rheostats are
controlled manually.

Symbol Pot Potentiometer Rheostat

 5. RESISTORS

Automatically variable resistors

Thermistors (PTC, NTC) are sensitive to heat and the value of
resistance increase (PTC) or decrease (NTC) with ambient
temperature. Light dependant resistors (LDR) are sensitive to light
and voltage dependant resistors (VDR) are sensitive to applied
voltage .
Cadmium
sulfide
Button thermistor surface

Disc thermistor

Stick thermistor symbol

Thermistor LDR VDR

 5. RESISTORS

RESISTANCE COLOR CODES

Coloured strips are printed on the resistor to give the resistance

value and the level of tolerance.

Colour strips
 5. RESISTORS

Colours Remember Value

Siyah Siyah 0
Kahverengi Kadın 1
Kırmızı Kırmızıyı 2 RENK TOLERANS

Portakal Pek 3 Mor % 0,1

Sarı Sever 4 Mavi % 0,25

Yeşil Yeni 5 Yeşil % 0,5

Mavi Mahalleyi 6 Kahverengi %1

Mor Motorla 7 Kırmızı %2

Gri Gezen 8 Altın %5

Beyaz Bilir 9 Gümüş % 10

Renksiz % 20
Altın 0,1

Gümüş 0,01 Tolerance colours

Colour Numbers
 5. RESISTORS

Resistors with Four Colours:

Number of
First digit zeros Tolerance
Second
digit

Red Violet Green Brown

2 7 00000  %1
2,7 M  %1
 5. RESISTORS

Resistors with five and six colours:(These are precision

resistors usually used in military applications)

5 Colours: 3 digits + multiplier + tolerance

6 Colours : 3 digits + multiplier + tolerance +

temperature coefficient
 5. RESISTORS

Resistance Values and Practical Representation

470 5K 33R 4M7 5R6

470 5K 33 4,7M 5,6

47R 5K6 330 47M 2K2

47 5,6K 330 47M 2,2K

 5. RESISTORS

Power Rating of Resistors:

When resistors are used in a circuit there is a voltage drops across
them and power is dissipated. This generates unwanted heating
that may spoil the resistance value. Hence, resistors are made with
different materials and process to allow different power dissipation.
 AS A RESULT
We have studied the atom, current, voltage and
resistance that form the basic parameters in a
circuit.

A potential difference is required to drive electrons

to produce current flow and resistors are used to
control the level of current flow in a circuit.
 SUMMARY
• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that
element.
• The electron is the basic particle of negative electrical charge.
• The proton is the basic particle of positive electrical charge.
• An ion is an atom that has gained or lost an electron and is no longer neutral.
• When electrons in the outer orbit of an atom (valance electrons) break away, they
become free electrons.
• Free electrons make current possible.
• Like charges repel each other, and opposite charges attract each other.
• Voltage must be applied to a circuit before there can be current.
• Resistance limits the current.
 PART 3

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
 6. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

A simple electric circuit consists of a power supply, load and a

conducting path (cables). Diagrams below show a battery as a
power supply and a lamp as a load.

+
V
- Lamp
(load)
 6. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

In many applications the negative terminal of the power supply is connected to

earth. In a motor car, for example, the negative terminal of the battery is connected
to chase. A circuit may be closed, opened or shorted. A switch S can be used to affect
closed and opened circuits while a short path can cause a short circuit as shown
below.

Switch S S is open

S S S
+ + +
V V V
- Lamp - Lamp - lamp
(load)

Closed circuit Open circuit Short circuit

A short circuit is not normally a planned situation and it causes flow of high currents
that may damage circuit components. This damage can be prevented by inserting a
FUSE in the circuit.
 6. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

FUSE
High currents may flow due to some malfunction in a circuit. This may
cause excessive heating and fire. Fuses are used as a protection to such
situations. Fuses actuate an open circuit state if the current flow
exceed a preselected value.

1A fuse

power supply 0,75 A drawing circuit

 6. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
A fuse consists of a piece of wire that can withstand flow of current at
a certain level. The current rating depends on physical properties and
the material of the wire. If current flows above the specified rating ,
then the wire heats extensively and breaks. This causes an open circuit
and protects components in the circuit. There are many shapes and
rating of fuses some of which are shown below.
 6. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
SWITCH
Switches are used to open or close circuits. Usually the closed status is
indicated by labelling “ON or 1” and the open status by “OFF or 0”.
 6. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
WIRES AND CABLES
Conducting wires are used to guide current flow in a circuit. Many wires may
be used in a circuit and these should not touch each other as this would
cause a short circuit. Hence, cables are prepared by covering wires with an
insulating material, sleeves, to protect against short circuit. There are many
different sleeve materials. Varnish is used for applications where the wire
diameter should not be changed much by sleeves.
 6. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
EARTHING
The process of earthing involves connecting, through a copper rod, a part of
power supply to earth (soil). Usually a section of a circuit where most nodes
are joint form a reference point and this point is earthed. However some
circuits are not earthed and these are called floating. For example in a motor
car the negative terminal of the battery is connected to chase which is not
contacting earth because of insulating tyres.

I
+
V
12V - Lamp
(Load)
0

Chase
 7. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
Voltage, current flow and resistance are parameters that are most often
measured in electrical and electronic circuits. Volt meter, amper- meter
and ohm meter are used respectively to measure those parameters. A
multi-meter is designed to measure all these and more. Samples of
analogue and digital multi-meters are shown below.
 7. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
Current Measurement
• A method of connecting an ampermeter into a circuit, to measure current
drawn by a resistor, is shown in the diagram below. Attention should be given
to following procedure.

•Ampermeter is connected in series in a circuit. Positive reading is obtained if

similar polarities are connected or otherwise a negative reading is indicated.

•Always start with the least sensitive scale. If however, the reading is too small
increase the scale sensitivity until a clear reading is obtained.
 7. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Current Measurement

Ampermetre
+ -
A
I I
+ + +
V R V R V R
- - -
 7. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Voltage Measurement
To measure the potential difference across the resistor in the diagram
below, a voltmeter is connected across (parallel) the resistor. If a
multi-meter is used, set the multi-meter dial to read volt and connect
the probes across the resistor.

I
+ +

V VR V Voltmeter
R
- -
 7. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
Resistance Measurements
Resistance is measured after the circuit is open-circuited. The multi-
meter dial is set to read ohms. The probes are connected across the
resistor to measure resistance.

+ +
V R V R  Ohm meter
- -
 SUMMARY
General description of an electrical circuit and measurement of important
parameters.
• An electric circuit consists basically of a source, a load and a current path.
• An open circuit prevents current. It is a break in the current path.
• A closed circuit allows current. It completes a current path.
• A short is an unintentional (usually), low-resistance path that bypasses the normal
current path between two points.
• Fuses actuate an open circuit state if the current flow exceed a preselected value.
• Switches are used to open or close circuits.
• Conducting wires are used to guide current flow in a circuit.
• An ampermeter measures current, a voltmeter meaures voltage and an ohmmeter
measures resistance.
 PART 4

OHMS LAW, ENERGY AND POWER

 1. OHMS LAW

In 1827 George Simon Ohm stated that “the ratio of potential

difference, between two points, to current flow in a conductor
is constant”. The relationship among current flow, potential
difference and resistance across resistor is described by “Ohms
Law” .
V

V  I .R
R

I
voltage current resistor
volt ampere (Ohm)

A
V -
+
 1. OHMS LAW
Using a VIR triangle, as shown below, helps to remember the
formulation of the ohms law. The order of lettering is important. Put
your finger on the parameter that you want to calculate, and observe
the other two in the triangle. For example if you like to calculate V,
you will see that you can do so by multiplying I and R. Similarly, to
find I, you have to divide V by R.

V V

V V
V
 1. OHMS LAW

EXAMPLE – 1 :
Calculate the current flow in the circuit below. Also find how the current
flow will change if the voltage is increased by a factor of 3.

I +
+
5V R 100
- V
-

SOLUTION:
If the voltage is increased three times ;

V  5V
V 5V V 15V
R  100 I   0,05 A  50mA I   0,15 A  150mA
R 100 R 100
I ?
 2. ENERGY AND POWER

Energy: Ability to do work.

Power: Rate of energy consumption.
 2. ENERGY AND POWER

When current flows, energy is supplied from the source to a load.

This energy is converted to some other forms to do a useful work,
such as illumination in a bulb. However, not all the supplied energy
is converted to useful work but some is lost, usually as heat, to
surroundings. The symbol of power is P, and the unit is Watt.

W Energy Joule
P Power  Watt 
t Time time

1 Watt: Represents consumption of 1 joule of energy per second.

 2. ENERGY AND POWER

EXAMPLE–2:
If 80 joules of energy is consumed in 10 seconds, calculate the
power.

SOLUTION:
Energy W = 80J, t = 10sn , P = ? (do not mix energy symbol W
with abbreviation to Watt (W))
W 80
P   8Watt
t 10
 2. ENERGY AND POWER

ELECTRICAL
POWER
APPLIANCE
Air conditioner 860 W
Hair dryer 1300 W
Clock 2W
Dish washer 1200 W
IR Heater 1322 W
The table aside shows typical power ratings Water instant heater 7200 W
of a number of domestic appliances. Hence, Microwave oven 800 W
if the time of usage is known, energy Refrigerator 1800 W

consumption of each unit can be calculated. Television 250 W

Washing machine 400 W
Water heater 2500 W
PC 400 W
Blender 210 W
Iron 2200 W
Fluorescent lamp 32 W
CFL 11 W
 2. ENERGY AND POWER

EXAMPLE-3:
The appliances below are used for different durations in one day. If the
electricity tariff is 0.18 lira per kWh calculate the electricity bill at the end
of a 30 day month(ignore any taxes etc.). Use the table above for the
power rating of the appliances.

Aircinditioner: 15 h Microwave oven: 15 min. (0,25h)

Refrigaretor: 12 h Television: 2 h
Colck: 24 h Iron : 1 h
Water heater: 8 h PC : 7 h
Dish washer: 45 min. (0,75 h)
Hair dryer: 10 min. (0,167 h)
 2. ENERGY AND POWER
SOLUTION:
Using the table above, first calculate the energy consumption per day of each
appliance.
Air conditioner: 0,860KW x 15 h = 12,9 KWh
Hair dryer: 1,3KW x 0,167 h= 0,217 KWh
Clock: 0,002KW x 24 h = 0,048 KWh
Iron : 2,2KW x 1 h = 2,2 KWh
Dish washer: 1,2KW x 0,75 h = 0,9 KWh
Microwave oven: 0,8KW x 0,25 h = 0,2 KWh
Refrigarator: 1,8KW x 12 h = 21,6 KWh
TV: 0,25KW x 2 h = 0,5 KWh
Water heater: 2,5KW x 8 h = 20 KWh
PC : 0,4KW x 7 h = 2,8 KWh
TOTAL PER DAY = 61.365 KWh Monthly bill = 1840.68 x 0.18 = 331.32 TL.
 3. POWERE IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Heat is generated as a by product when current flows in a resistor.

Sometimes this heat is the end product as in the case of an electric
heater, and the amount of heat generated is directly proportional to
value of resistance.

Heat is generated
as a result of
I current flow in a
+ resistor
V R
-

Energy dissipation as a heat in a resistor

 3. POWERE IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
The equation below shows the dependence of power on the values
of resistance and current.
P = I2 . R
This equation can be expressed in different parameters as;
P = I2 . R = I . I . R = (I.R) . I  P=V.I
or;
P = V . I = V ( V/R)  P = V2/R
Where;
P : Power (Watt), I : Current (Ampere) V : Potential difference
(Volt) and R : Resistance(ohm)
 3. POWERE IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Example-4:
Calculate the power across resistor R in the circuits below;

2A 1,5A I
+ + +
10V R V R 68 9V R 15
- - -

SOLUTON;

P=V.I P = I2 . R P = V2 / R
P = 10V . 2A P = 1,52 . 68 P = 92 / 15
P = 20W P = 153W P = 5,4W
 4. POWER SUPPLY

Power supply, supplies power to a load. The load can be a circuit

component or a device such as a, mobile telephone, PC, motor, mp3
player , radio etc..

Power supply Vout I Load Power disipation = vout x I

-
 4. POWER SUPPLY
Dc Power supplies convert alternating current (ac) mains electricity (grid
electricity) at 220 Vac, 50 Hz, to a direct current (dc) electricity that many devices
need to operate.
Although many devices are connected to mains to operate, the electronic circuit
within the device first convert ac to dc electricity to form power supply that
operate the device. Dry cells and batteries are inherently dc supplies that convert
chemical energy to electrical energy.
 4. POWER SUPPLY
The ampere-hour rating of batteries.
All batteries store chemical energy that can be converted to electrical energy.
Since the stored chemical energy is limited, the converted electrical energy is also
limited.
The amount of electrical energy that can be supplied in a certain time is expressed
as the AMPERE-HOUR rating of the battery. It specifies how long (hours) the
battery can supply a certain current to a load operating at the battery voltage.
For example, consider a battery rated at 12 Volt and 70 ampere-hour (70 Ah).
This battery can provide a current flow at 3.5 ampere and 12 volt to a load for a
duration of 20 hours.

This rechargeable
NMH battery has 2500
mAh (2.5Ah) rating.
It can provide 1A
current for only 2.5
hours.
 4. POWER SUPPLY

EXAMPLE-5:
How long can we draw 2 A current from a battery having 90Ah
rating ?

SOLUTION:

90 Ah  (2 A).(hour )
90 Ah We can draw 2A current for 45
hour  hours.
2A
hour  45
 4. POWER SUPPLY

Efficiency of a power supply:

Efficiency is an important property of a power supply. It can be
expressed as the ratio of OUTPUT power to INPUT power.

POUT PO
Efficiency  
PIN Pİ

Pout  Pin  Ploss

 4. POWER SUPPLY
EXAMPLE-6:
If the input and output powers of a power supply are 25W and 20W
respectively, calculate the power supply efficiency and the power
loss.

SOLUTION:

 Po   20W 
Efficiency ( )   .100   .100  %80
 Pi   25W 

Ploss = Pİ – PO = 25W – 20W = 5W

 SUMMARY
• The relationship, among current flow, potential difference and resistance across a resistor
is described by “Ohms Law”.
• Energy: Ability to do work.
• Power: Rate of energy consumption.
• We can use P = V.I, P = I2R and P = V2/R to calculate power.
• Energy is equal to power multiplied by time.
• The kilowatthour is a unit of energy.
• A power supply is an energy source used to operate electrical and electronic devices.
• The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere-hours (Ah).
• One ampere-hour equals one ampere used for one hour, or any other combination of
amperes and hours that has a product of one.
• Efficiency of a power supply is equal to the output power divided by the input power.
Multiply by 100 to get percentage of efficiency.
 PART 5

SERİES CIRCUITS
 1. RESISTORS IN SERIES
Resistors are connected in such a way that same current flows in each of
them. The total value of series connected resistors is equal to the sum of
resistances shown by each resistor.
For example if two resistors having 150Ω each are connected in series, the
total resistance is 300Ω. The total of all resistances connected in series can be
represented by ONE resistance which is called EQUIVALENT resistance, shown
as Req .

R1 R2 R3 Rn
RT

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ....+ Rn
 1. RESISTORS IN SERIES

EXAMPLE–1:
Find the total resistance across A-B in the circuit below.
5 15 10

R1 R2 R3

A B

SOLUTION:
30
RAB = R1 + R2 + R3
RAB = 5 + 15 + 10
RAB = 30 
A B
 1. RESISTORS IN SERIES

The circuits below show different shapes, but the current flow through all
resistors in a given circuit is the same. Hence, the resistors are connected in
series and the total resistance (equivalent resistance) in each case is given as
RAB.
2 8
A A I
B
I 4 6
4 I 3
6 12 9
A
B B 5

R AB  2  4 R AB  8  4  6 R AB  12  9  5  3  6
R AB  6 R AB  18 R AB  35
 2. OHMS LAW AND CURRENT FLOW IN SERIES CIRCUITS
The current flow, I , in resistors R1, R2 ve R3 shown below is the same.
The total resistance RT or Req is the sum of all resistances.

R1 R1
1A
3 RT  3  5  4
I 1A
I RT  12
+ +
V R2 V 5 R2 V 12V
I   1A
- - 12V RT 12

4
1A

R3 R3
 2. OHMS LAW AND CURRENT FLOW IN SERIES CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE–2:
Calculate the total resistance and current in the circuit below.
3 2 5

I 6
+
24V
-
4 SOLUTION:
2 10
Total resistance is the algebraic sum of all
resistances.
RT = 3 + 2 + 5 + 6 + 4 + 10 + 2 = 32

Ohms law can be used to find current flow.

V 24V
I   0,75 A
RT 32
 3. POWER SUPPLIES IN SERIES CONNECTION

Opposite polarities are connected to form series connection of power supplies.

The total potential difference across the supplies is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across each power supply.

S
Elektrik
Akımı

3V I

- + - + Lamba

1,5V 1,5V
V1 V2

Circuit of a lantern
 3. POWER SUPPLIES IN SERIES CONNECTION
EXAMPLE–3:
Find the total voltage supplied by the 1.5 v cells in the circuit below.

VT = ?

1,5V 1,5V 1,5V

- + + - - +
V1 V2 V3

SOLUTION:
It can be seen that the supplies are all connected in series but the
polarities of V1,V3 are positive while that of V2 is negative. Hence, the
algebraic total of the voltages, VT is;
VT = V1 – V2 + V3 = 1,5V – 1,5V + 1,5V = 1,5V
 4. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Kirchhoff's voltage law is one of the most basic laws in circuit analyses and states
that; the algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed circuit is equal to ZERO.
V1
How to write the voltage equation;
+ - Show the direction of current based on the
R1 polarity of the power supply. Current flows out of
I the positive terminal.
+
+
V R2 V2 Assign polarity to voltage drop across each
-
- component. Current flows from higher potential
R3 to lower, hence the side of component where
0 - + current enters is positive (+) and the side where
V3
current leaves the component is negative (-).

Write algebraic sum of all voltages in a given

direction, clockwise or anticlockwise (using the
first sign on the component or supply as the
algebraic sign of the voltage) and equate to ZERO.
- V + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
 4. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Reorganise the equation to get;
-V + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0  V1 + V 2 + V3 = V
It is clear that “in a series circuit the sum of voltage drops across components is
equal to the supply voltage.”

5V 5V

+V +V

VDC = VR + VR
R R
10V = 5V + 5V
10V

+V

VDC
- +

10 voly supply

Seri devrede gerilim ölçme

4. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
EXAMPLE–4:
Calculate voltage V2 in the circuit below.

15V

+ -
V1

+
I
+
Vs V2 ? SOLUTION:
60V
-
-

V3 Write the voltage equation to find

- +
V2.
24V

- Vs + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
- 60V + 15V + V2 + 24V = 0
V2 = 60V – 15V – 24V
V2 = 21V
 5. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
Usually, series circuits are used to perform potential division controlled by resistor
values. The linear dependence of voltage drop, across resistors, on current flow is
used to split supply voltage to fractions proportional to resistance values.

EXAMPLE–5 :
Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor below.

SOLUTION:

V1  I .R1  50mA.100  5V
R1
RT  R1  R2  100  300  400 +
100
100

20V VS
- R2
VS 20V V2  I .R2  50mA.300  15V
I   0,05 A  50mA 300
RT 400
 5. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
The voltage drop across a resistance can be found if the fraction of that
resistance to total resistance is known. Here one does not have to know the value
of current flow, and this fraction is known as POTENTIAL DIVIDER formulae. In a
series circuit the voltage drop VX across resistance RX can easily be found using
the potential divider formulae as below.

VX V 
+ - V X  I .R X   S .R X
 RT 
RX
I
R 
+ - V X   X .VS

 RT 
VS

where;
VX : voltage drop across RX
RT : total resistance
VS : supply voltage
 5. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS

The voltages V1 and V2 in the example above can easily be found

using potential divider formulae as below;

I
 VS   R1   100 
R1 V1  I .R1   .R1  
 R
.VS
 V1   .20V  5V
100
100  RT   T   400 
+
20V VS
- R2

300  VS  R   300 
V2  I .R2   .R2   2 .VS V2 .20V  15V
 RT   RT   400 
 5. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
EXAMPLE–9:
Calculate the voltages shown below.
VAB = ? VAC = ? VBC = ? VBD = ? VCD = ?
SOLUTION;
RT  R1  R2  R3  2 K  10 K  6,8 K  18,8 K
A
+
 R   2 K 
R1 2 K V AB   1 .VS   .48V  5,1V
 T 
R  18,8 K  
-
B
+ +  R  R2   12 K 
VS V AC   1 .VS  
 .48V  30,6V
R2 10 K  RT   18,8 K 
48V - -
C R   10 K 
+ VBC   2 .VS   .48V  25,5V
 T 
R  18,8 K  
R3 6,8 K
-
D  R  R3   16,8 K 
VBD   2 .VS  
 .48V  42,9V
 RT   18,8 K 

R   6,8 K 
VCD   3 .VS   .48V  17,4V
 RT   18,8 K  
 5. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
Adjustable potential dividers (Potentiometer):
Potentiometers are adjustable resistors having three connection legs. The legs are
numbered as shown below, where 3rd leg represent resistance that can be varied.

potentiometer
1 1 1

R13
3
+ +
P 3
VS VS 3
2
- -
+ - R32
2
2
VS

voltmeter voltmeter voltmeter

10V 18V 3V
1 1 1

3
+V +V +V
3
VS + VS + VS +
P P P
3
20V 20V 20V
- - -

2 2 2
 5. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS

Application of potential dividers:

In analogue circuits, volume control on radio, tv and other devices used to have
potential dividers as shown below.

Ses
IF Yükselteci Dedektör
P Yükselteci

Ses
Kontrolü

Volume control by a potential divider in a radio receiver

 5. POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
Another popular use of potential dividers is in dc biasing of transistors.

R R
B1 C

+ Transistör
VS
Gerilim
- Bölücü

R R
B2 E

Dc biasing of a transistor using potential dividers

 6. POWER IN SERIES CIRCUITS
The total power of a series resistive circuit is the sum of powers of each
resistance.
PT

PT is the total power and Pn the

P1 P2 P3 Pn power of nth resistance. Total power
can be found using the equations
R1 R2 R3 Rn
below.
I VS
+ - PT = VS . I
PT = I2 . RT
PT = VS2 / RT
PT = P1 + P1 + P3 + ……… + Pn
Where VS is the power supply
voltage, RT total resistance and I is
the current flow.
 6. POWER IN SERIES CIRCUITS

EXAMPLE-6:
Find the total power in the circuit below.
SOLUTION:
R1
+ -
The total resistance is;
+
22  RT  22  82  47  151
82  R2
The total power is;
+ -
VS 2 252
VS PT    4,14W
RT 151
25V - +
The current is;
47  R3 VS 25V
I    165,5mA
- RT 151

The power on each resistance is;

P1 = (165,5mA)2 . 22 = 0,6W
P2 = (165,5mA)2 . 82 = 2,25W
P3 = (165,5mA)2 . 47 = 1,28W
PT = 0,6W + 2,25W + 1,28W = 4,14W
 SUMMARY
• The current is the same at all points in a series circuit.
• The total series resistance is the sum of all resistors in the series circuit.
•The total resistance between any two points in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all resistors connected in
series between those two points
• If all of the resistors in a series circuit are equal value, the total resistance is the number of resistor multiplied by
the resistance value of one resistor.
• Voltage sources in series add algebraically.
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law: The sum of the voltage drops equals the total source voltage or equivalently, the algebraic
sum of all the voltages around a closed path is zero.
• The voltage drops in a circuit are always opposite in polarity to the total source voltage.
• Current is out of the negative side of a source and into the positive side.
• Current is into the negative side of each resistor and out of the positive side.
• A voltage divider is a series arrangement of resistors.
• A potentiometer can be used as an adjustable voltage divider.
• The total power in a resistive circuit is the sum of all the individual powers of the resistors making up the series
circuit.
 PART 6

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 1. PARALLEL RESISTORS
Parallel connected resistors have one side connected at a given node, while the
other sides are connected to another node. Current flow in each resistor is different
and depends on value of resistance, but the voltage drop is the same.
An equivalent resistance, RT which is always less than the value of any resistance in
parallel connection can be used to represent this combination. A sign “║“ can be
used to indicate parallel connection. Hence, RA║RB indicates RA being in parallel
with RB

R1

R2

R1║R2║R3║…….║Rn
R3

1 1 1 1 1
Rn     .........
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn
RT
 1. PARALLEL RESISTORS
If there are only two resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance RT can
easily be calculated as the PRODUCT DIVIDED BY SUM , as worked out
below.
1 1 1
R1  
RT R1 R2
 R2   R1 

1 R2 R1
R2  
RT R1 .R2 R1 .R2

1 R  R2
 1
RT R1 .R2
RT
R 1 .R 2
RT 
R1  R 2
 1. PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE-1:
Calculate the equivalent resistance across points A and B.

SOLUTION: 1 1 1 1 1 63
    
RT R1 R2 3 6 18
6  3 

1 9

RT 18

R T  2Ω

OR

R1.R2 3.6
RT    2Ω
R1  R2 3  6
 1. PARALLEL RESISTORS
• It helps to know that the value of the equivalent resistance is always less than
even the smallest resistance value in the parallel combination. In the example
above the smallest resistance was 3 while the equivalent resistance only 2.
• Parallel connection of resistors may appear in different shapes in a circuit. Some
examples are shown below and they are all connected in parallel.

A A A

12

5 10 10 3 6 A

10 6
B B B
B

5.10 50 10.10 100 3.6 18 12.6 72

RAB    3,33 RAB    5 R AB    2 R AB    4
5  10 15 10  10 20 3 6 9 12  6 18
 1. PARALLEL RESISTORS
Equal Resistance in Parallel Branches:
Equivalent resistance RT of resistances R in n branches can easily found by
dividing a branch resistance by the number of branches.

Here;
R n: number of branches
RT  R: resistance in any one branch
n
RT: Equivalent resistance
EXAMPLE-2:
Calculate the equivalent resistance across terminals A-B.

A SOLUTION:

120 120 120 120

R= 120, n=4 therefore
R 120
B RT    30
n 4
 1. PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE-3:
Calculate the equivalent resistance across terminals A-B.
A
R1 R2 R3
30 60 120
SOLUTION:
B
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 21 7
       
RT R1 R2 R3 30 60 120 120 120
(4) (2) (1)

1 7

RT 120
120
RT 
7
RT  17 ,14
2. VOLTAGE IN PARALLEL CONNECTION AND OHMS LAW
Current flow in each branch of a parallel connection is inversely proportional to the
resistance in that branch. However, the voltage drop across each branch is equal, as shown
below. Points marked as A, B, C ve D on the left-hand side are all at the same potential .
Similarly the points E, F, G ve H on the right-hand side.

5V

+V

- +
V
VS
5V

+V R1
D E

- +
V
VS

C F 5V
R2
+V

-
B G VS +
V

R3
A H
- + - + - +
V
VS

VS 5V - +

VS = 5V
 2. VOLTAGE IN PARALLEL CONNECTION AND OHMS LAW
EXAMPLE-4:
Calculate the equivalent resistance across the supply voltage Vs ,the total
current flow IT and the current flow in resistance R1.
R2 SOLUTION:
R1 .R2 (90).(60)
60 RT    36
R1  R2 90  60
IT

VS +
R1
90
18V -
Use Ohms law to find total current
VS 18V
IT    0,5 A
RT 36

Since voltage drop across R1 is also 18 volts the current I1 is found as,

V1 18V
I1    0,2 A
R1 90
3. KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW
Kirchhoff's current law states that the total current flow INTO a node is
equal to total current flow OUT of the node.

I1
IT I2

I3

NODE is a point where at least two components are connected. Current

IT, entering the node is equal to sum of currents I1, I2 and I3 leaving the
node. Hence, we can write,

IT = I 1 + I 2 + I 3
3. KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW

I1 + I2 + I3 = IT
I1 I1
Ampermetre
2mA
Ampermetre
Node A Node B
+
5mA -
I2 I2

Ampermetre
+ 3mA
I3 I3

IT IT
+ -

+ - + -

VS VS

Current entering the node = current leaving the node

3. KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW
Kirchhoff's current law can also be stated as, the algebraic sum of all
currents at a node is equal to zero. Here, it is usual to take currents
entering the node as (+) and those leaving the node as (–). Hence, an
equation can be written as below,

I3
I1

I2 I4

I5
+ I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
 3. KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW
EXAMPLE-5:
Calculate current I2 in the circuit below.
R1
I1  60 mA
200

R2
I2  ?
200 SOLUTION:

R3
300
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
I 3  40mA
160mA = 60mA + I2 + 40mA
I T  160mA I2 = 160mA – 60mA – 40mA
+ - I2 = 60mA
VS
 4. CURRENT DIVIDERS
Parallel connection of resistors form a current division, as shown below.

R1

Current IT flows into a node where it is

I1
divided into currents I1 ve I2 , which are
I2
inversely proportional to branch
IT
resistances.
R2 Hence, the larger resistance takes smaller
portion while the smaller resistance takes
larger portion of the total current. This is
+ -
VS
because the voltage drop across each
resistor is the same.
 4. CURRENT DIVIDERS
Ampermetre

Ampermetre
2mA
R1 Two resistors are shown in parallel
10mA + -
connection and total and branch currents
4 K
Ampermetre
are measured. Hence,
8mA
+
VS 8V
R2
I1    2mA
+ -
R1 4 K
1K

VS 8V
+ 8V - I2    8mA
R2 1K
VS

It can be seen that the ratio of branch

currents is equal to reciprocal of
resistance ratio.
 4. CURRENT DIVIDERS
Current Divider Formulae:
The branch currents can be written in terms of total current, using only the
values of resistances.

R1
 R .R 
IT I T . 1 2 
 R1  R2    R 2 
I1
V I .R
I1   T T  R R .I T
I2 R1 R1 R1  1 2 

R2
 R .R 
I T . 1 2 
V V I T .RT  R1  R2    R 1 
+ - I2    R R .I T
R2 R2 R2  1 2 

The current divider formulae can be generalised for any number of branches as below,
where Ix is current flow in RX and the equivalent resistance is RT .

 RT 
IX   .I T
 RX 
 4. CURRENT DIVIDERS

EXAMPLE-6:
Use current divider formulae to calculate current flow in branches.

SOLUTION:
R1
100
Using the formulae for two resistances,
200mA
I1

+ -
I2
 R2  47Ω
I 1   .IT  .200mA  64mA
R2  R1  R2  147 Ω
47

 R1  100Ω
I 2   .IT  .200mA  136mA
 R1  R2  147 Ω
 5. POWER IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
The total power in a parallel connection is equal to sum of powers in each
branch.

IT
+
VS R1 P1 R2 P2 R3 P3 Rn Pn PT = P1 + P1 + P3 + ……… + Pn
-

Where PT is the total power and Pn is the power of nth resistance. The total
power can also be calculated using the following equations.
PT = VS . I PT = I2 . RT PT = VS2 / RT
Here, VS is the voltage drop across the parallel connection, RT the equivalent
resistance and I is the total current flow.
 5. POWER IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE-7:
An amplifier feeds 4 speakers connected in parallel as shown below. If the
maximum voltage supply is 12 volts, calculate total power rating of the
speakers.

SOLUTION:
4

The voltage drop across each speaker is 12 volt

since they are parallel connected.
4

amplifier

Vmax 2 12V 2
4 Pmax    36W
R 4

PT  Pmax  Pmax  Pmax  Pmax  [Link]  4.(36W )  144W

4
 6. SOME PARALLEL CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS
Lighting Circuit of a Motorcar:
In parallel circuits if there is an open circuit in any branch, this does not
effect operation of other branches.

Lamps switch Head lamps

+
12V
-

Brake Brake stop

switch lamps lamps

chase

Motorcar lighting circuit

 6. SOME PARALLEL CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS
Domestic Lighting:
It is a common practice to use parallel connected circuits for domestic
installations. The diagram below shows two lighting and three socket
circuits in parallel connection. Such connections are required to abide
standards set by the local electricity authority.

220V

A typical domestic installation circuit in a room.

 SUMMARY
• Resistors in parallel are connected across the same two nodes in a circuit.
• A parallel circuit provides more than one path for current.
• The number of current paths equals the number of resistors in parallel.
• The total parallel resistance is less than the lowest-value parallel resistor.
• The voltage across all branches of a parallel circuit are the same.
• Kirchhoff’s current law: The sum of the currents into a node equals the sum of the currents out of the
node or, equivalently, the algebraic sum of all the currents entering and leaving a node is zero.
• A parallel circuit is a current divider, so called because the total current entering a node divides up
into each of the branches connected to the node.
• If all of the branches of a parallel circuit have equal resistance, the currents through all of the
branches are equal.
• The total power in a parallel-resistive circuit is the sum of all of the individual powers of the resistors
making up the parallel circuit.