First Edition

Writing
Course book
Writing

Table of contents
A. Sentence Composition ........................................................................... 4
B. Paragraph Writing ..................................................................................... 12
C. Writing Styles ............................................................................................... 14
D. Essay Structure ............................................................................................ 22
E. Essay Flow and Connectivity .................................................................. 28
F. Essay Planning .............................................................................................. 29
G. Literary Devices ............................................................................................ 32
H. Sources of Information .............................................................................. 37
I. Essay Practice .................................................................................................. 40
J. Mistakes in Writing ....................................................................................... 41

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Preface
This course is designed to help you learn or review the basics of English
writing. The structure of the course builds on each topic presented.

It is suggested that you go through each page step-by-step.

By completing the course you should have a clear idea on:

Using structures of English writing
Planning and writing essays
Common errors made in English writing

Course Content

A. Sentence Composition
B. Paragraph Writing
C. Writing Styles
D. Essay Structure
E. Essay Flow and Connectivity
F. Essay Planning
G. Literary Devices
H. Sources of Information
|. Essay Practice
J. Mistakes in Writing

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A. Sentence Composition - The basic to the advanced

The Simple Sentence

In English, the most simple sentence is:

Subject + Verb + Object

John + walks + to school.

There are different “tools” to use in grammar to change the most basic
sentences:
A. Time of action = Verb tenses
B. Still or moving = Simple verb or continuous verb
C. Active or passive subject

Time of Action — English Tenses

There are three verb forms in English:

Present Past Past Participle

Work Worked Worked (regular -ed verb)
Eat Ate Eaten (Irregular verb)

Cut Cut Cut (Extraordinary verb)

Note: There is no future tense in English, the future is expressed with the
preposition “will" before the verb.
Ex: I will walk to school.

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Changing Time of Action

Name Structure Example Explanation

Susan plays in A general action
subject +verb
Simple present the living that usually
+ object room happens
An action that
subject + past
Simple Past Susan played in happened in the
verb past and
the living room.
+ object stopped

subject + will Susan will play An action that

Simple Future in the living will happen in
+ verb + object
room the future

Still or Moving?

The simple form of verbs represent a still action, like a picture (it
represents a general idea — like a timeless picture).

Ex. I walk to work

The continuous form of verbs: (verb+ing), represents a moving action,

like a video.

Ex. I am walking to work

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Active or Passive?

ACTIVE - Most sentences are active. This means that the subject ol the
sentence is the agent of the action - the verb. *Academic papers usually
need the active voice,

Example: Jonn — drives his mother to school

Subject+ verb + object (agent)

In this example, John is the doer of the acton. He is steering and

accelerating the car.

PASSIVE: Many sentences are passive. This means that the object
becomes the subject of the sentence (frst part in the sentence) and is
NOT fhe agent of the action (not the doer of the verb).

Example: Jonn is driven to school. (by his mother).

Object + "be” + past participie verb + object. + (agent) (as subject)

In this exampie, John is NOT the doer of the action, his mother is steering
and accelerating the car.

Note: In passive sentences the agent (his mother) can be taken out of
the sentence - this is done to put emphasis on the object and not the
agent.

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Grammar Combos!

Now that you know: Time of Action, Changing Time of Action, Still or
Moving, Active or Passive, you can make combo sentences by
combining these! For example:

A. Present + Moving (Continuous) + Perfect:

I have been studying astronomy.

B. Past + Passive + Perfect:

I had been promoted at work (by my boss).

All kinds of combos are possible!

Exercise: Try 10 Combos:

A. Name the combo
B. Write the sentence

The Advanced Sentence

Sentences answer questions — simple sentences answer a few

questions and advanced sentences answer several questions at once.

Simple sentence: This is an apple. Answers the question: What is this?

Advanced sentence: This is an apple which many people buy

because of its delicious taste. Answers the questions: What is this? Who
buys it? Why is it bought?

There are many ways to make advanced sentences. This section

teaches the two most important: using adjective clauses and using
conjunction's.

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The Descriptive Sentence

The most basic way to make a sentence descriptive is by using

adjectives and adverbs (The tall man reached high in the sky).
Adijective clauses are phrases which create adjectives to describe the
subjects and objects of sentences in more detail.
With people use “who”, with objects use “which”, with places use “where”,
with time use “when”. Examples:

A. People who use computers regularly should sit straight in their

chair. (Who use computers regularly" is an adjective clause for,
“people”.)

B. Cars which have old tires are dangerous. (“Which have old tires”, is
an adjective clause for, “cars”.

C. Places where lots of greenery can be found are relaxing. (“Where

lots of greenery can be found”, is an adjective clause for , “places”.)

D. Days when the weather is warm are nice for picnics. (“When the
weather is warm is an adjective clause for “days”.)

Advanced Sentences: Join Ideas - Conjunctions

Another way to answer more questions in one sentence is to use

conjunctions. Conjunctions are words that “glue” together ideas
which share a relationship.
The relationship between ideas and sentences can be: addition,
cause and effect, time, opposition, and condition.
There are three families of words that join these relationships in ideas
into longer sentences. They are: coordinating, correlative and
subordinating conjunctions.

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Coordinating Conjunctions

The family of coordinating conjunctions includes the following words: for,

and, nor, but, or, yet, so. These words join similar sentence elements.
Look at the examples:

Conjuction What is linked Example

and verb + verb He can run and swim fast
Milk or cheese are a good
or subject + subject source of vitamin D
so sentence + sentence I ate at a restaurant, so I
didn't go grocery shopping.
Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that emphasize the

relationships between sentence elements.

This family includes: both...and, not only...but also, elther...or,

neither...nor, whether...or.

They are used in a similar way as coordinating conjunctions.

Have a look at these examples:

Conjuction What is linked Example

Not only but also noun + noun Not only it's sunny, but also rainning

I need to both listen

both, and verb + verb and write it down
neither will I wait
neither, nor sentence + sentence
nor will Irun away

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Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are the largest family of words that join

sentences.

This family is broken into smaller groups which show a specific

relationship in the information of the sentence. The table shows the four
groups of subordinating conjunctions:

Time Cause and effect Opposition Condition

When Because However If
During As a result Although Provided that
Since Therefore While When
While Since On the other hand Given that

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join together a main clause with

a dependent clause:

Ex: I jumped out the window because the house was on fire.

(mainclause)+(dependantclause)

Here are some more examples of subordinators:

Conjunction What is linked Example

I like sky diving although
Although Opposition
i don't like flying
Since Cause and effect We had to fire him since
he stole from us.
After class I'm going to the movies
After Time
I'm going to the beach provided that
Provided that Condition the weather is good.

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Combining Conjunctions

Advanced sentences often combine families of conjunctions.

Usually, the combinations are a subordinating conjunction with a
coordinating conjunction OR a subordinating conjunction with a
coordinating conjunction.

A. Ex. My friend and I are crying because that clown is very

funny.
This sentence uses a coordinating conjunction “and” + subordinating
conjunction “because”.

B. Ex. Whether we go to a movie or to a restaurant does not matter if

we spend time together.
This sentence uses a correlative conjunction “Whether...or” +
subordinating conjunction “if”.

Grammar and Sentence Super Combos!

You are now ready to write descriptive and advanced sentences,

combine conjunctions and adjective clauses:

Adjective clause(s) + correlative + subordinating conjunction

People who are educated, and those who are not, both deserve equal
rights while living in the same country.

Adjective clause(s) + coordinating + subordinating conjunction

The three months of the year when the sun is shining and warm are
important since farming is the main economy.

All kinds of combos are possible!

Exercise: Try 10 Combos:

A. Name the combo

B. Write the sentence

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B. Paragraph Writing - Expressing a complete idea

What is a paragraph?

Paragraphs are short, often five to ten sentences that communicate a

complete idea to the reader.
It is a set of sentences that presents one idea:

A. Introduce the subject = topic, and the controlling idea = the

perspective on the topic
B. Explain the relationship between the topic and the controlling idea.
C. Give an (visible) example of the idea
D. Restate the topic and controlling idea with paraphrasing

Single Paragraph Structure

A single paragraph has several important parts:

A. Hook + Topic sentence: One or two sentences that catch the reader
and give the topic and controlling idea of the paragrap.
B. Supporting point 1: A sentence which clearly explains the relationship
between the topic and the controlling idea.
C. Supporting point 2: A specific example (or quote, statistic) which
helps to prove the “point 1” explanation.
D. Supporting point 3: A clear connection between the example and
explanation.
E. Concluding sentence: A sentence which summarizes the importance
of the idea — often a paraphrase of the topic sentence.

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An Example Paragraph

(Hook) Bears and pigs are cousins. (Topic sentence) Science shows
that bears likely come from a similar past as pigs.
(Support 1 - explanation) Many of the bears and pigs' habits are
similar, such as eating meat and vegetables, digging for food and
walking long-distances. (Support 2 - Specific Example) In 1987,
scientists found a 70,000 years old fossil in Brazil, now called, “Booboo”
which they believe is the distant relative of both bears and pigs.
(Support 3 - connection of example) This prehistoric animal's bones
seem to indicate that it also ate greens as well as hunted for food and
had a great sense of smell, just like pigs and bears.
(Concluding sentence) Therefore, when looking at these animals, it is
interesting to find that bears and pigs do most likely share a common
past.

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C. Writing Styles -
Part 1: Four Types of Writing, Part 2: Three Voices

Part 1: Four Writing Styles

A. Persuasive Writing: these are argumentative. The goal of the essay is

to convince the reader of an idea.

B. Expository Writing: these essays show and explain an idea.

C. Narrative Writing: these essays tell a story. They take the reader on
an adventure.

D. Descriptive Writing: these essays paint a picture with words. They

give a feeling and an image to the reader.

Persuasive Writing

Goal: Persuasive writing intends to convince the reader of a stated

opinion or belief.

Persuasive Writing Explained

Characteristics:

A. Stated position or belief

B. Factual supports
C. Persuasive techniques
D. Logical argument
E. Call to action

Uses:

Persuasive writing appears in and is not limited to speeches, letters to

the editor, editorials, advertisements, award nominations, pamphlets,
petitions, scholarly, writing, and opinion pieces.

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Persuasive Writing Sample

Should voting be required by law?

It is a belief that voting should be a right, but not a requirement. Voting

is a right which is best exercised by those who are interested in how
their country is being run. For millions of people, this interest is simply
not there, If people are forced to vote by law, these people will not
suddenly become interested in politics. These people are going to
randomly mark an “x” beside whatever name is convenient or
appealling. This is bad for democracy. It is also believed that state
should stay out of people's way whenever possible. Forcing a person to
vote is an entirely needless intrusion into a citizen's life. Voting is a
precious liberty, but once made mandatory, its effectiveness is eroded
and other rights of individuals are infringed upon. Therefore, the choice
to vote must be the privilege of each individual.

Persuasive Writing Practice

Exercises:
1. Write an paragraph arguing for or against the statement: “Students
should take a year off after high school before starting university”.
2. Write a paragraph arguing for or against the statement: “All adults
should be required by law to vote”.
3. Write a speech to be delivered to the school board to convince them
to require or not require school uniforms.

Expository Writing

Goal: Expository writing seeks to inform, explain, clarify, define or instruct.

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Expository Writing Explained

Characteristics: Uses:
A. Focus on main topic Expository writing appears in
B. Logical supporting facts letters, newsletters, definitions,
C. Details, explanations, instructions, guidebooks,
and examples catalogues, newspaper, articles,
D. Strong organization magazine articles, manuals,
E. Clarity pamphiets, reports and research
F. Unity and coherence papers.
G. Logical order
H. Smooth transitions

Expository Writing Sample

Why Parents Have to be Strict

If it were up to children, parents would be extremely lenient and would

let children do whatever they desired. You, the parents, conversely, know
this would be bad for the children. You have to be strict, at least some of
the time, for a number of reasons. First, your job is to keep your children
safe. Children often do not know where the bounds of safety begin and
end so you have to define this for them. For example, a child who is not
punished upon sticking a knife into an electrical socket may eventually
electrocute him or herself. Second, you have to teach children discipline.
A child who does whatever they like, receives a rude awakening when
they enter the real world where this is not the case. Last, your child must
respect you. A child who gets everything does not respect their parents.
In conclusion, it is because children need to be kept safe, to be
disciplined and to be respectful with their parents that you, the parents,
must exercise authority at certain times.

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Expository Writing Practice

Exercises:
1. Explain why you admire a particular person.
2. Describe one of the causes and effects of pollution in the
environment, such as air, water or land pollution.
3. Explain why parents sometimes have to be strict.

Narrative Writing

Goal: Narrative writing tells a story or part of a story.

Narrative Writing Explained

Characteristics:

A. Plot Structure
Introduction
Rising action
Falling action
Resolution plays.
B. Confict
C. Characterization
D. Setting
E. Theme
F. Point of View
G. Sequencing
H. Transitions

Uses:

Narrative writing appears in and is not limited to novels, short stories,

biographies, autobiographies, historical accounts, essays, poems, and
plays.

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Narrative Writing Sample

A Brush with Death

I was fifteen when it happened, and | have never forgotten the events of
that day. It all started early in the morning — six, maybe seven o'clock.
I woke up and something feit wrong. I walked into the kitchen, my mom
wasn't there. Still sleeping, I assumed. The phone rang. There'd been an
accident. My mom had gone for a jog that morning, a car had hit her.
I got to the hospital, the doctors told me things were touch and go.
What I will always remember is the smell of the hospital. It's a smell I
never again want to experience. I went to see her, but she was
unconscious. I kept on thinking “could this be the last time I see my
mom alive?" When I think back on the day, it was as if I were outside my
body for most of it, as if I were watching it all unfold from above. It had
been trie toughest day of my life.

Narrative Writing Practice

Exercises:
1. Write a story about the best celebration you have ever had; tell why
this is your favourite.

2. Think of a time when you were nervous. It might be your first plane
ride or the first time you slept overnight with a friend. Tell what
happened and how you reacted.

3 Write a fictional story about being an eyewitness at a historical event.

Descriptive Writing

Goal: Descriptive writing aims to “draw a picture” with words — describe

a person, place, object, or event.

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Descriptive Writing Explained

Characteristics:
A. Elaborate use of sensory language
B. Rich, vivid, and lively detail
C. Figurative language such as simile, hyperbole, metaphor, symbolism,
and personification.
D. Showing, rather than telling through the use of active verbs and
precise modifiers.

Uses:

Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere and is often included in

other genres, such as in a descriptive introduction of a character in a
narrative.

Descriptive Writing Sample

Summer

The scentis unmistakable. Summer. Barbecues, baseball, and sprinklers

rendering the pavement steamy. The air is humid, It is thick, like having
to move through something, instead of nothing. Children are playing in
distance; their gleeful outbursts bring back memories long forgotten
about summers past. They yell excitedly as the bat cracks the ball
across the field. The cars whiz by like mosquitoes; the smell of burnt
rubber shouts, "Yes!", more youths enjoying summer. The grass, a thirsty
sponge, waits for the sprinkler to pass overhead. in the yards hungry
children anxiously sit and wait for succulent burgers to fill their bellies.

Descriptive Writing Practice

Exercises:
1. Observe, and then describe an event.
2. Describe your walk to school or work.
3. Think of a person or object that stands out in your memory. Write a
description of that subject.

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Part 2: Three Voices for Writing

1st Person: The voice of the writer. This is subjective - from the
perspective of the reader. It uses, “I, me, my”, referring to the author.

2nd Person: Addresses the reader directly. It uses, “you, your, yours",
referring to the experience of the reader.

3rd Person: It is the objective voice. It is the voice of facts and general
opinion. It MUST NOT use, “I or you”.

Combining Writing Styles with Voices

Any of the four essay types can be combined with any of the three
voices — there are 12 possibilities total:

1st person persuasive: 1st person narrative:

I believe that people should One time, I went to

2nd person persuasive: 2nd person narrative:

It is better if you After the long journey, you checked
into a hotel
3rd person persuasive: 3rd person narrative:
Society needs to The dragon flew over the land

1st person expository: 1st person descriptive:

First, I take the onions The house I grew up in had

2nd person expository: 2nd person descriptive:

First, you need to take the onions You are an interesting person
because
3rd person expository: 3rd person descriptive:
First, the onions are chopped The best schools are which

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Recognizing Styles and Voices in Writing — Practice:

Identify which voice (1st, 2nd, or 3d) was used in the example
paragraphs:

1. “Should voting be required by law?"

Answer: Voice/Type: - 3rd person - persuasive
2. "Why Parents Have to be Strict”
Answer: Voice/Type: - 2nd person — expository
3. "A Brush with Death"
Answer: Voice/Type: - 1st person - narrative
4. “Summer”
Answer: Voice/Type: - 3rd person - descriptive

Be Careful!
A very important rule in essay writing is to never combine more than
one type of voice in a paper! You must never use “you” in a 1st Person, or
“I or You" in a 3rd person essay.

Essay types should be clear:

A. In a persuasive essay the style must emphasize the argument and
not an explanation or description.
B. In an expository essay, the style must be an explanation, not an
argument or simply a description
C. In a descriptive essay, the reader must have an emotional and visual
sense, not a feeling of explanation or argument.

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D - Essay Structure -
Introduction, body, paragraphs, conclusion

Essay Structure Introduction

Essays are much like paragraphs; they communicate a complete

idea. Specifically, essays are several paragraphs together that can
get across more complicated thoughts.
Each essay writing is decided by the voice (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and the
style of the idea/paper:

A. Persuasive Writing/Essays: these are argumentative. The goal of the

essay is to convince the reader of an idea.
B. Expository Writing/Essays: these essays show and explain an idea
C. Narrative Writing/Essay: these essays tell a story. They take the
reader on an adventure.
D. Descriptive wingless: these essays paint a picture with words. They
give a feeling and an image to the reader.

Standard English Essay

Introductory Paragraph: Must connect you with the reader

Body Paragraph 1: Develop and convey your idea

Body Paragraph 2: Develop and convey your idea

Conclusion: Emphasize

Title -> Hook, Background, Thesis -> Topic Sentence 1, Clear Explanation,
Specific Example -> Topic Sentence 2, Clear Explanation, Specific
Examples -> Compess, Argument, Implication

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The Introductory Paragraph

Hook Definition: A statement or fact that makes the reader interested in

the topic. Should be one sentence long and should not be in the form of
a question.

Background Definition: Several sentences that give the writer's

understanding of the topic AND explains to the reader why the topic and
the controlling idea are important.
(3-4 sentences)

Thesis: The argument of the writer with purpose and direction which are
broken into key points. (Usually 1 sentence)

Hook -> Background -> Thesis

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Example Introduction for IELTS Task 2

Hook: Even with mandatory physical education in North America, many

young American children are seriously overweight.

Background: For several decades physical education, or PE class, has

been a regular five-hour per week part of school programs in many
countries It involves physical movement of students from grades one to
twelve, through different types of sports. Some people have argued that
PE classes take away valuable time from academic studios, while others
have felt that it is a necessary part of childhood education.

Thesis: Although some time is lost from academic learning, I believe

that the benefit of teaching health, cooperation, and competition to
young learners are more beneficial.

Introductory Paragraph Practice

Now that you understand the parts of an introductory paragraph, write

the introduction for the following question:

Question: Some people believe that higher taxes are better for society
while others believe in lower taxes. Which do you believe? Why? Give
explanations and examples to support your opinion.

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The Body Paragraph

The Body Paragraph contains four elements:

A — The topic sentence - topic and controlling idea

B — An explanation of the topic sentence
C — A specific example to support your explanation
D — A connecting sentence to make the essay flow smooth.

Topic Sentence — Key Point 1 Paraphrase

Clear and quantitative explanation

Specific example - Visual or Descriptive
Connecting Sentence — Transition

Example of Body Paragraph

Topic Sentence: Physical education involves around one hour of class

five times a week which could be used for other academic classes.

Explanation: During this one hour, students could focus on math,

biology, and other important skills of book knowledge.

Specific Example: For example, a high school student may use this one
hour to read a chapter about the circulatory system instead of
participating in a soccer training session.

Connection to 2nd Body Paragraph: However, the physical exercise that

the student might miss is likely more benefícial for both his body and
mind.

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Body Paragraph 2

(Follow the same structure, and leave the main argument as

the later paragraph!)

PE class can positively influence the well-being and social skills of

the students in a regular routine. Students participate in individual and
team sports to perform muscular and cardiovascular exercises. Throuãh
sports such as tennis and basketball they gain a better understanding
of competing against each other, as well as cooperating to achieve a
common goal. A secondary student, for example, can increase their
metabolism and learn how to effectively work as a team in a game of
basketball. Both physical and social skills will become a valuable part of
their later development.

Body Paragraph Practice

Now that you understand the parts of a body paragraph, continue the
essay by writing the body paragraphs for the previous question:

Question: Some people believe that higher taxes are better for society
while others believe in lower taxes. Which do you believe? Why? Give
explanations and examples to support your opinion.

Conclusion Paragraph

Compress: Paraphrase information from the key points and examples

and write them in a condensed strong statement.

Argument: Restate the argument, with strong convincing words such as,
“have to, must, will...”

Implication: This is the message of your argument. Make it

clear. Do not give a new argument/thesis!

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Conclusion Paragraph

Compress: Although the minutes spent in a physical education class

could be used for leaming subjects like math, the increased
cardiovascular health and social skills are a much more valuable
benefit for the future.

Argument: Therefore, in my opinion, the advantages of PE classes in the

regular school curriculum are absolutely necessary and outweigh the
disadvantages.

Implication: Especially with the increasing problem of poor diet and

obesity of children, mandatory physical education is a critical part of
building a better future.

Conclusion Paragraph Practice

Now that you understand the parts of a conclusion, finish the essay by
writing the conclusion for the previous question:

Question: Some people believe that higher taxes are better for society
while others believe in lower taxes. Which do you believe? Why? Give
explanations and examples to support your opinion.

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E. Essay Flow and Connectivity

Shadowing — Using Connecting Sentences

Shadowing/Connecting Sentences: paraphrase the last

and the first sentence of a body paragraph, and add further
information.
Ex. (End of Body Paragraph 2) Both the physical and social skills will
become a valuable part of their later development.

This technique is used to link the introduction to body paragraphs and

body paragraphs to body paragraphs, as well as body paragraphs to
the conclusion.

In an academic essay conjunctions like, therefore, however, etc, help to

join sentences and make the essay flow. However, it must be the
information that joins the ideas between paragraphs.

Coherence in Writing

In good writing, you must plan your essay:

A. The information connects downwards — blue arrows

B. The topic, controlling idea, and thesis are reflected in each
paragraph of the essay - green arrows
C. The conclusion reflects the points discussed in each paragraph —
yellow arrows

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F. Essay Planning - Planning is the key to success

Essay Planning

Before you begin your essay, you should take 4 minutes for planning. On
paper (or in your mind after lots of practice) follow these steps:

Step 1: Read the question carefully. If it is difficult to understand,

paraphrase the question. This will help you:
A - Understand the question more clearly
B - Think deeply about the question
C. Find useful vocabulary to use for your essay (topic, controlling
idea synonyms)

Essay Planning - Critical Thinking

Step 2: Identify the topic of the question. Then ask “What', Why', 'How'
about the topic.

Example Question:
Some people feel that physical education should not be a mandatory
part of public school classes. Others disagree. Discuss both of these
views and give your opinion using explanations and examples from
your own experience.

“What" is the topic?

A: Physical Education

"Why" physical education?

A: To understand its advantages and disadvantages in school
programs

“How" is physical education in schools?

A: From grade one to twelve children do an average of 5 hours of
physical education each school week.

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Step3: Next, identify the con(rollw idea — the context of the topic and
repeat' What', 'Why' and 'How'. Let's continue with the example:

“What" is the controlling idea?

A. The advantages and disadvantages of physical education.

"Why" discuss the advantages and disadvantages of physical

education?
A. To decide whether or not to have it in the school system.

"How" does physical education benefit or harm the school system?

A. Physical education teaches mental and physical health, team work
and competition, but takes time away from other academic studies.

Now we have all the information for a good introduction and most of the
essay!

Second Essay Planning Strategy

Another good way to develop your essay ideas is to practice

top — down, and down — up critical thinking: from general to specific
examples, or specific example to general. Let's take our example.

Top — down: Physical Education —> Exercise —> Soccer.

Down — up: I play soccer —> I get exercise —> I do physical education
—> I am healthy —> I am successful

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Planning Argument Essay — Chi Square

Make a 4x4 Square, then separate the two sides of the argument in the
columns and list the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Advantages Disadvantages

Physical Learning physical competition Possible injury

Education Learning team competition Hostile rivalry
Cardiovascular exercise Time away from
Strength Building academic studies

No Physical More time Lack of physical exercise

Education No physical injuries No support of physical
Freedom of choice development - hand-eye
Focus on academic studies coordination.

Most Important Rule! Understand Your Audience

Always think of your audience (listener or reader) as an alien:

A. They do not know what you know
B. They do not have the same perspective as you
C. They are smart and will analyze the information you give them

Planning Essays: Practice

Now that you understand different ways to plan for essays, try these
skills for the following questions:

1. Write a five-paragraph essay which describes your favourite place

to relax when life is difficult. (Plan only)

2. Choose a device or machine that you can use well (ex. computer,
mobile phone, fridge, car), and in a five-paragraph essay, explain
what it is and how to use it. (Plan only)

3. Some people argue that it is a good idea to travel after high school
while others believe that students should go directly to the university.
Which do you believe? Why? Use clear explanations and examples
to support your opinion. (Plan only)

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G. Literary Devices - Figurative language and
Descriptive tools

The Importance of Literary Devices

A. Humans are visual! We want to, and we need to, see our world.

B. Like a painter with brushes and colors, the writer can paint pictures
and ideas with words. This is the goal of literary devices. They make
words colourful, smooth and emotional.

C. When a reader can clearly see the ideas and images in the mind of
the writer they can empathize and believe the writer.

D. All good writers understand and use literary devices!

Types of Figurative Language and Literary Devices

Alliteration
Onomatopeia
Assonance
Cliché
Hyperbole
Idiom
Metaphor
Simile
Personification
Allusion
Understatement
Oxymoron

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Alliteration
Definition: Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two
or more neighbouring words or syllables.

Example: The wild and woolly walrus waits and wonders when we'll
walk by.

Assonance
Definition: Assonance is the resemblance of sounds in words or
syllables.

Example: Holy and stony.

Example: Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese.

Cliché
Definition: A cliché is a word or phrase that has become overly famíliar
or commonplace.

Example: No pain, no gain.

Example: What goes around comes around.

Hyperbole
Definition: A hyperbole is a big exaggeration, usually with humour.

Example: Mile-high ice cream cones.

Example: My bag weighs a ton.

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Practice Literary Devices (1)

Have another look at the four different types of writing and paragraphs.
Can you identify the literary devices that are used in each?

Now that you learned: alliteration, assonance, cliché, and hyperbole, it is

time to practice.

Question: Can you write three sentences with each one of these
devices?

Idiom
Definition: Idiom is the language peculiar to a group of people.

Example: She sings at the top of her lungs.

Example: It was raining cats and dogs last night.

Metaphor
Definition: Metaphors compare two things that appear to have no
connection, yet one helps to illuminate the nature of the other.

Example: Her hair was silk.

Example: The man was a lion in battle
Example: Her eyes are diamonds.

Simile
Definition: A simile compares two unlike things, often by using
“like” or “as”.

Example: The sun is like a yellow ball of fire in the sky.

Example: Busy as a bee.

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Onomatopeia
Definition: An onomatopoeia is a word that imitates the sound it
describes.

Examples: Woof!, Buzz, Roar!

Personification
Definition: Personification occurs when the writer gives human qualities
to something which is not human.

Example: The stuffed bear smiled as the little boy hugged him close.
Example: The ocean was calling my name.

Allusion
Definition: Allusion is a reference to a place, literary work, event, myth, or
work of art. It can be either a direct reference or merely implied.

Example: Amy didn't like to spend money. She was no Scrooge, but she
rarely bought anything except the essentials.
(The allusion here is to the character Scrooge from Dickens'
“A Christmas Carol")

Example: Like the prodigal son, he returned to his hometown and was
welcomed by all who knew him.
(The allusion here is to the biblical prodigal son)

Understatement
Definition: An expression that contains less strength than would be
expected.

Example: During a hurricane, a weatherman reports the weather as

“cloudy with a small chance of rain and a slight breeze”.

Example: A student's mother asks how he did on a test. The student

remarks “I did okay". The mother later finds out her son got 100%.

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Oxymoron
Definition: An expression that contains contradictory words or terms.

Example: Jumbo shrimp.

Example: Deafening silence.

Practice Literary Devices (2)

Have another look at the four different types of writing and paragraphs.
Can you identify the literary devices that are used in each?

Now that you learned: idiom, metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia,

personification, allusion, understatement, and oxymoron, it is time to
practice.

Question: Can you write two sentences with each one of these
devices?

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H. Source of Information - Rhetoric and Science

Essay and Writing Quality

In order to have an excellent essay, the quality of the information must

be great. To improve the power of the essay to convince the reader, the
writer must consider the following before writing the essay:

A. Rhetoric — Pathos, Ethos and Logos

B. The source of knowledge for the information
C. The measurements used in explanations and examples
D. The reliability and validity of the information

A. Rhetoric

Rhetoric is defined as “the art of speaking or writing effectively”. Rhetoric

can also be thought of as the way a writer or speaker persuades his or
her audience to believe a given argument.
The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the first to describe the
three main methods of persuading an audience. He called these
“pathos”, “ethos” and “logos”.

Pathos Explained

The word “pathos” literally means “pain”, “suffering” or

“emotional experience”. In rhetoric, pathos is defined as an appeal to the
emotions of the audience. This type of rhetoric is commonly used in
advertisements.

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Ethos Explained

The word “ethos” literally means “character”. In rhetoric, ethos is defined

as an appeal to the character of the author or speaker.
Ethos is important because if the audience believes the speaker is of
good character, then they will be more likely to believe what the speaker
is saying. This type of rhetoric is also often used in advertisements.

Logos Explained

The word “logos” literally means “reason”, “account” or “plea”. In rhetoric,

logos is defined as an appeal to the logic of the audience — facts
(numbers, dates, statistics) are used to support the speaker's argument.
This is perhaps the most important type of rhetoric because it is the only
“objective” type — facts cannot be disputed. Logos is also important
because it helps create and support a speaker's ethos. Logos is
common in university, business, and scientific documents.

Critical Thinking Explained - The Quality of Information

The “Four Sources of Knowledge"

Where all of our individual knowledge and information comes from.

The Four Categories of Measurement

Humans like to measure everything. All measurements belong to one
of four types.

Reliability and Validity

The ways we know information is useful or not.

B. Four Sources of Knowledge

A. Empirical Evidence: I see it to be true therefore I know it's true.

B. Authority Opinion: The experts say it's true so it must be true.
C. Majority Opinion: Everyone believes it is true so it has to be true.
D. Intuition (That "gut feeling”): I feel it to be true so it probably is true

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C. Four Types of Measurements

A. Nominal: Placing information into categories. (ex. Man vs. Woman,

smoker vs. non-smoker)

B. Ordinal: The order or arrangement of information. (ex. 1st place, 2nd

place, 3rd place.) Distances between measures are not equal.

C. Interval: A standardized measure where distances between

measures are equal. (ex. Celsius, Hours, Meters).

D. Ratio: The same as interval except the measures include an absolute

zero, where there is an absence of the measurement. (ex. Kelvin)

D. Understanding Reliability & Validity

Reliability: is when a test or a measurement can be repeated and it will

give the same results as long as there is no change in the test-taker.
(Ex. If you keep taking your driver's test without practising driving, will
you pass or fail?)

Validity: is the accuracy of a measure to assess accurately the situation

which it is designed to measure.
(Ex. How far is downtown from your house? Using minutes vs. metres)

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I. Essay Practice - Practice makes perfect

Advanced Essay Practice (1)

Look again at the essay questions that you planned during the
“Essay Planning” of this course.
Use these plans to write complete essays. Here are the questions again:

1. Write a five-paragraph essay which describes your favourite place

to relax when life is difficult.

2. Choose a device or machine that you can use well (ex. computer,
mobile phone, fridge, car) and in a five-paragraph essay, explain what
it is and how to use it.

3. Some people argue that it is a good idea to travel after high school
while others believe that students should go directly to the university.
Which do you believe? Why? Use clear explanations and examples to
support your opinion.

Advanced Essay Practice (2)

Here are some more essay questions, similar to some you may see in
college and university. Remember to plan the essay first then write the
complete essays. Here are the questions:

4. Describe a historic event in the 20th century which you believe

helped shape the modem world.

5. It is argued that advanced math taught in high school is not an

important part of most people's lives. Give an opinion and support it
with explanations and examples.

6. There are several steps a tourist must consider when traveling to a

developing nation. Explain what you believe these steps are and why
they are important.

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J. Proofreading: Mistakes in Writing -
Grammar erros and Usage errors

Proofreading your work

When you are finished the first draft of your essay, you must always
proofread and edit your work to make sure it is top quality.

Much better grades and work performance can be achieved when

documents are proofread twice before submission.

The following slides show the most common grammar errors and
usage errors found in writing.

Note: These errors can often change the meaning of the writing!

English Grammar Errors

There are nine basic types of grammar errors in written English.

They are:

1. Article Errors

2. Participle Errors

3. Preposition Errors

4. Diction and Syntax Errors

5. Idiom Errors

6. Modifier Errors

7. Count and Non-Count Noun Errors

8. Verb Tense Errors

9. Subject Verb Agreement Errors

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A. Article Errors

Article errors are common among ESL speakers because articles are not
part of many other languages.
The two types of articles in English are definite (the) and indefinite
(a/an):

a. Definite articles are used before a specified noun

(the pie belongs to me).

b. Indefinite articles are used before unspecified nouns

(I'm baking a pie).

There are three types of article errors: missing, incorrect definite, and
incorrect indefinite.

Incorrect: I crossed street and ate sandwich. (Article missing)

Correct: I crossed the street and ate a sandwich.

Incorrect: I mowed a lawn this morning. (Incorrect definite article)

Correct: I mowed the lawn this morning.

Incorrect: I wanted to eat the sandwich, but I wasn't sure what I

wanted on one. (Incorrect indefinite article)
Correct: I wanted to eat a sandwich, but I wasn't sure what I wanted on
one.

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Participle Errors

Participle errors can occur when the writer confuses the past participle
(ending in -en, -ed, -d etc.) with the present participle (ending in -ing).

They can also occur when a writer confuses participle with gerunds.

Incorrect: I was boring by the time the movie ended.

Correct: I was bored by the time the movie ended.

Participles and gerunds can both end in —ing, which can lead to
confusion about how to implement each in a sentence. Gerunds can
function as nouns, while participles cannot.

Incorrect: Pleasing is when you are on time.

Correct: It is pleasing when you are on time.

Preposition Errors

Prepositions are used to show relations between words. Time, place and
position relations are indicated by prepositions. Preposition errors which
confuse in/on/at/with/to are common.

Incorrect: In Tuesday, the teacher gave the test with the class.
Correct: On Tuesday, the teacher gave the test fo the class.

Incorrect: We were driving in the road, when we crashed in the tree.

Correct: We were driving on the road when we crashed into a tree.

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Diction and Syntax Errors

Diction errors occur when the writer uses the incorrect word in a context.
Syntax errors occur when the writer uses the correct word in the wrong
place or order.
Correct diction and correct syntax assure that the reader will
understand what has been written.

Incorrect: The sun arriving in the sky in the morning wakes me up.
(Diction error)
Correct: The sun rising in the morning wakes me up.

Incorrect: Knowing is what the correct time important. (Syntax error)

Correct: Knowing the correct time is important.

Incorrect: When I see you smile, I the happiness feel.

(Diction and syntax error)
Correct: When I see you smile, I feel happy.

Idiom Errors

Idiom errors occur when a writer uses an idiom incorrectly, fails to

understand the meaning of an idiom, or makes a mistake in
implementing the idiom (missing words or incorrect words, etc.)

Incorrect: My friend's father is sick, he is about to kick a bucket.

Correct: My friend's father is sick, he is about to Kick the bucket.

Incorrect: I was sure my friend wouldn't let go of the beans, so I told

him the secret.
Correct: I was sure my friend wouldn't spill the beans, so I told him
the secret.

Incorrect: He's a good teacher. On the other hand, he's also a very
nice person.
Correct He's a good teacher. Not only that, he's also a very nice
person.

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Count and Non-Count Noun Errors

In Enghish, some nouns can be made plural whie others cannot.

Count nouns can be counted and can be made plural (cars, bottles,
roads)
Nor-count nouns cannot be counted and therefore cannot be made
plural (information, fumiture, homework). There are nouns which can
be both, depending on the context.

Incorrect: We walked three klometre to the restaurant.

Correct: We walked three kilometres to the restaurant.

Incorrect: There were not enough informations about the assignment.

Comect: There was notenough infommation about the assignment.

Note: An example of a noun that can be both count and non-count is

"hair". Can you think of two sentences which illustrate why this is?

Verb Tense Errors

Verb tense errors occur when the tense of the verb does not agree with
the intended time frame of the action.

Incorrect: I was walk down the street when I see a person wears a
leather jacket.
Correct: I was walking down the street when I saw a person wearing a
leather jacket.

Incorrect: I will going to the doctor today, I am afraid I may was very
sick.
Correct: I will go (I am going) to the doctor today, I am afraid I may be
very sick.

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Writing
Subject-Verb Agreement Errors

Subject-Verb agreement errors occur when the subject and verb do not
agree in both person and number.

Incorrect: The goal of the meeting are to come to an agreement on the

coming year's finances.
Correct: The goal of the meeting s to come to an agreement on the
coming year's finances.

Incorrect: My friends was going to the beach, but I had to do

homework instead.
Correct: My friends were going to the beach, but I had to do homework
instead.

B. English Usage Errors

There are ten basic types of usage errors in written English.

They are:

1. VerbTense Errors

2. Punctuation Errors

3. Sentence Fragments

4. Dangling Modifiers and Misplaced Modifiers

5. Faulty Parallel Structure

6. Colloquial Diction

7. Spelling Errors and Homophone Confusion

8. Shift in Perspective

9. Faulty Subordination

10. Agreement Errors

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Writing
Verb Tense Errors

Using the wrong verb tense in a sentence can obscure the time frame in
which an action is happening. To avoid confusing the reader, the order
of tenses must correctly reflect the time relation of the events referred
to.

Incorrect: He has come late to yesterday's party.

Correct: He came late to the party yesterday.

Incorrect: Two weeks ago you said it will not happen again.
Correct: Two weeks ago you said it would not happen again.

Punctuation Errors - Run-on Sentence

There are three punctuation errors which are most commonly

committed. These are the run-on sentences, the comma splice, and the
misuse of colons and semicolons.

Run-on Sentence - when independent clauses are improperly

separated (punctuation or additional words are required).

Incorrect: Steve went to the party he was late and everyone had left.
Correct: Steve went to the party, but he was late and everyone had
left.

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Writing
Punctuation Errors — Comma Splice

Comma splice — when independent clauses are joined with a comma,

but not with a coordinating conjunction.

Incorrect: I want to sell my house, I think it would be too difficult.

Correct: I want to sell my house, but I think it would be too difficult.
Correct: I want to sell my house; however, I think it would be too
difficult.

Punctuation Errors — Misused Colons and Semicolons

Colon (:) and semicolon (;) misuse often happens because of

confusion on the part of the writer. Colons tell the reader that what
follows the punctuation explains, proves or lists elements of what came
before the punctuation. Semicolons are used to join independent
clauses that are related or are contrasting, or to list items which are
composed of several words.

Incorrect: The house would take the builders only two months to build:
however, it requires the following supplies which are not available;
wood, concrete and brick.

Correct: The house would take the builders only two months to build;
however, it requires the following supplies which are not available:
wood, concrete, and brick.

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Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a sentence which is not complete. Fragments

can be either phrases or dependent clauses. Dependent clauses
become fragments when they are not attached to the independent
clause they should be attached to. Phrases become fragments when
they are not attached to the clause they should be attached to.

Incorrect: Although he is a poor student, Mike has decided to go to

college. Because he wants to be an electrician.
Correct: Although he is a poor student, Mike has decided to go to
college, because he wants to be an electrician.

(Question: What sense of the word “poor” is being used here? How can
you tell?)

Incorrect: I like to travel, so I went to London. On vacation.

Dangling Modifiers and Misplaced Modifiers

Because of the importance of order in the English language, modifiers

like adjectives and adverbs should be as close as possible to what they
modify. If this is not done, the meaning of the sentence can be confused
or lost. A misplaced modifier can be in a part of a sentence and is found
so far away from the word it is modifying that the meaning is confused.
A dangling modifier is only found at the beginning or end of a
sentence. Dangling modifiers are phrases that are illogically attached to
other words, resulting in confusion.

Incorrect: The man went to the store with his dog holding an umbrella.
(Misplaced modifier)
Correct: The man holding an umbrella went to the store.

Incorrect: playing baseball in the hot sun, a mirage was visible in the
outfield. (Dangling modifier)
Correct: Playing baseball in the hot sun, I noticed a mirage was visible
in the outfield.

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Writing
Faulty Parallel Structure

This usage error occurs when the writer lists two or more items, but the
items differ in grammatical form.

Incorrect: Since I've started my new job, I feel happy, fortunate and
wanting to do well.
Correct: Since I've started my new job, I feel happy, fortunate, and
focused.

Incorrect: Simple, easy to use, and it's cheap, this music device is perfect
for me.
Correct: Simple, easy to use, and inexpensive, this music device is
perfect for me.

Colloquial Diction

Colloquial diction is the spoken or written language used in everyday,

casual situations with family and friends. Colloquial diction is
inappropriate in formal situations such as academic writing and
business writing.

Incorrect: Me and my bros almost got in a scrap with those dudes

from Shelbytown.
Correct: My friends and I almost got in a fight with some men from
Shelbytown.

Incorrect: I ain't goin to school, mom. My teacher got a hate-on for me.
Correct: I am not going to school, mom. My teacher hates me.

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Spelling Errors and Homophone Confusion

Homophones are words that sound alike but have different meanings.
Some common errors like this are mistaking "your" for “you're” and "its"
for “it's”. Spelling errors are common mistakes in written English.

Incorrect: There is always a lite at the end of the tunell.

Correct: There is always a light at the end of the tunnel!

Incorrect: Their is something there after. I'm not sure wear it is.
Correct: There is something they're after. I'm not sure where it is.

Shift in Perspective

A shift in perspective error occurs when the writer is inconsistent in his

or her point of view in a sentence or between sentences. Shifts can
occur in verb voice, verb tense, or pronoun.

Incorrect: New workers require passes, whereas experienced workers are

not required to carry passes. (Shift in verb voice)
Correct: New workers require passes, whereas experienced workers do
not require passes.

Incorrect: Last night, I talked to my friend then she hangs up. (Shift in
verb tense)
Correct: Last night, I talked to my friend then she hung up.

Incorrect: If someone needs a vacation, you should start saving.

(Shift in pronoun)
Correct: If you need a vacation, you should start saving.

(Question: Is there another way to correct the final sentence?)

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Faulty Subordination

Faulty subordination occurs when a writer puts the most important

idea (an independent clause) after the less important idea (in a
subordinate clause). Faulty subordination can also occur when the
writer misuses a subordinating conjunction that makes the sentence
logically contusing.

Incorrect: Although he always says he needs money, my friend just

inherited a million dollars.
Correct: Although my friend just inherited a million dollars, he always
says he needs money.

Incorrect: Though he fell off his bike; however, he is not expected to

miss time at work.
Correct: He fell off his bike; however, he is not expected to miss time at
work.

Agreement Errors

Agreement errors occur when the form of a word is not changed

according to the other words it relates to. Subjects and verbs must
agree in number (singular/plural).

Incorrect: Eric and Joe was walking to the store.

Correct: Eric and Joe were walking to the store.

Incorrect: I get worried when my friends let her cat out.

Correct: I get worried when my friends let their cats out.

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