COMMUNICATION SKILLS.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCUTION TO
COMMUNICATION
Definition of the term communication
Communication has been defined differently by
different authors and the following are some of
the definition:
 Communication is that which takes place
when one persons thought or feeling is
conveyed to one or many people in such a
way that it elicits a response showing either
he understands or that that clarification is
required.
 S. Sillas says that communication is giving,
receiving, or exchange of information,
opinion or ideas by writing speech or visual
means or any combination of the two, so
 that material communicated is completely
understood by everyone concerned.
 Salemi says it's the means to provide
required information to the concerned
persons. He defines it as the act of any
natural or artificial means of conveying
information or giving instructions.
 Communication is the process of passing
information and understanding from one
person to another, transmitting information
between an individual and or organization so
that an understanding response results.

The above definitions imply that:

1). Communication involves a process which in
turn involves communication of ideas.
2). The ideas should be accurately
replicated. Reproduced) in the receivers mind.
(decoded)
3) The transmitter is assured of accurate
replication of ideas by feedback i.e. the
receiver's response which is communicated
back to the sender.
4) To elicit action- communication therefore is
a process by which information is passed or
exchanged and understood by two or more
people usually with the intent to motivate,
influence behavior. It's also a process by
which information is passed between
individuals or organizations by previous of
agreed symbols.

Objectives of communication
When we communicate, we want to do
something. The passing of information that the
other person needs either immediately or later to
enable him or her to store in his or her memory
until required. We communicate to:
 Influence others to obtain their view points
or their support.
 We communicate to persuade.
 Socialize
 Educate/ pass knowledge to each other
 Entertain
 Motivate each other.
 Caution or warn
 Give morale etc.

Communication thus is essential and all human

beings communicate. Every act of human
communication involves at least two people,
one who is giving the information - the
transmitter, source, encoder, emitter, conveyer,
sender; and the other one who is receives the
information i.e. the receiver, recipient, and
decoder.

Importance of communication
1. Good communication makes it easier to
implement change.
2. Make Successful decision making.
3. Have impact upon employee's motivation
and performance.
4. Cornerstone of coordination- different
departments in organizations can easily pursue
their objectives with the aid of communication.
5. Enables the organization to identify
customer's needs and wants through market
research and ensures that these needs are being
satisfied on an ongoing basis.
6. Manager communicates most effectively
with the stake holders who include: shareholders
media, staff, supervisors, customers and
suppliers. Today's managers are measured on
how well they communicate and not so much on
what they communicate

Purpose of communication
1. To provide employees with orders and
instructions in connection with their duties.
2. To keep employees informed on company's
progress.
3. To solicit information from the employees -
this may aid management.
4. To make each employee interested in his
respective job and in the work of a company as
a whole
5. To express management interests in its
personnel.
6. To reduce or prevent labour turn over.
7. To indoctrinate employees with the will to
work and the benefits derived from their
association with the company.
8. To instill each employee with personal pride
in being a member of the company.
Benefits of effective communication
(Essentials)
For a successful organization, good
communication at all levels is essential.
The following can be achieved as result of
effective communication:-
1. Stronger decision making and problem
solving
2. Upturn in productivity.
3. Convincing and compelling corporate
material.
4. Clearer more streamlined work flow
5. Enhanced professional image
6. Sound business relationships
7. Successful response ensured

CHAPTER TWO

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication is the process of transmitting
thoughts or ideas from one person to another.
The person who initiates the process is the
sender, and the other person is the receiver.
The communication process begins with the
sender who has a thought or idea to relay to
another person.
The sender expresses this thought in a form he
believes the receiver will understand, whether
verbal or non verbal. Once the message is
encoded, that is, expressed in an understandable
format; it is then transmitted or sent through a
medium such as voice, fax, memo, email etc.
Once the receiver receives the message he then
decodes or interprets the meaning of the
symbols used by the sender to understand or
comprehend the meaning of the message.
To the extent that the understanding of the
receiver and the senders thought are the same,
communication is effective.

The receiver can give the sender feedback

indicating he has received and understood the
message. The feedback process uses the same
six steps with the receiver and the sender
exchanging roles.
SENDER MESSAGE CHANNEL
ENCODING

FEEDBACK
RECEIVER
Elements in the communication process:
The process of communication involves seven
major elements:
1. Sender (encoder}
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Receiver (decoder)
5. Feedback
The above elements are explained as follows:
[Link] – the sender is the person who
transmits a message. He is the
communicator, initiator, transmitter and
conveyor.
He is the one who get the entire process of
communication started. He wants to get his
opinions, ideas facts, thought or information
 across to the receiver. He is thus, also said to
be the transmitter of a message.
[Link] – a message is the actual
information that has to be conveyed.
Communication is unthinkable without a
message. A message triggers a response
from the receiver. Message can broadly be
divided into verbal and non-verbal. The
message must be clear, complete,
unambiguous and courteous.
[Link] – the seeds of communication are
sown the moment the sender thinks of
transmitting a certain message. These
thoughts have to be converted into suitable
words, pictures, charts or symbols so that
they can be delivered to the receiver. This
process of converting thoughts into suitable
words, charts symbols or any other form in
which they can be understood by the
 methods of communication is made here-
will the message be verbal or non- verbal?
[Link]: - how does one communicate- this
is what a channel deals with.
Communication is achieved through
channels. The channels can be a letter, an
email, a fax, a telephone, memos, reporters,
bulletins, posters and manuals.
The choice depends on the relationship
between the sender and the receiver as well
as on the message that has to be
communicated. Other factors that tend to
influence the choice of a channel include the
gravity of the message, the number of
receivers, the cost involved and the amount
of information.
[Link]- the person who receives the
message, decodes it and understands it, or
attaches some meaning to it is the receiver.
 The receiver has to perform three functions
I. Reception of the message – this is the
stage when a message sent by the sender
is seniority taken in by the receiver
II. Decoding the message after receiving
the message the receiver has to attach
some meaning to it.
III. Understanding the message – he then has
to interpret it in the same way and in the
same sense as the sender meant it.
[Link] back the return of communication from
the receiver to the sender is known as
feedback. It is the response, reaction or reply
to the communication

Feedback keeps everyone on track.

That’s beneficial for everyone involved in
any type of activities: working on a project,
preparing for an event, studying, etc.
 Feedback helps your team avoid major
mistakes.
By creating a clear and honest
communication flow during any kind of
teamwork, it saves you the time of
correcting someone’s work, reduces errors
caused by miscommunication to a
minimum, and prevents regrets of those
who feel like they failed.
You form better relationships.
Feedback promotes honesty and trust. It
often involves criticism, which is something
most people aren’t comfortable with. But
when given in the right way, it can help
them evolve.
Constructive feedback motivates
people.
A friendly approach works well here. You
can not only help others see what they
might be doing wrong, but allow them to
use this as a piece of advice, not judgment.
Make them feel like you believe in them and
just want to help them reach the project’s
goal sooner. That will make them even
more motivated to do a good job.
7. Feedback promotes personal and
professional growth.
Feedback is about listening actively, taking
the time to analyze, and then thinking of the
best possible solution to perform better. It
provides positive criticism and allows to see
what everyone can change to improve their
focus and results. It brings people together
and creates a healthy communication flow.
8. Feedback helps to create a
friendly work environment.
Openness to criticism and an urge to seek
feedback are the other positive effects that
save you big time. It’s not uncommon that
the best ideas come from someone on the
team who simply mentions a solution to a
problem or points out an issue that others
haven’t noticed yet.
9. Feedback produces some
business-related, direct benefits.
They are business growth, saving money,
making more sales, completing projects on
time, and other positive changes in finance,
relationships with customers, and
company’s market positions.

ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION OF
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 The source of communication i.e. the sender
 The contents of communication i.e.
message\the process by which
communication is produced e.g. dictation
and typing
 The method which the message is
transmitted e.g. letter, telephone, telex
  Procedures involved in receiving a
communication e.g. mail handling
distribution
 The destination of the communication i.e.
the recipient
 The understanding of the communication by
the recipient, therefore-
NB where communication situation exists there
is a person (sender or transmitter)
There is a person (sender or transmitter)
decision of passing on the information
There is another person (receiver) to whom the
information is to be passed to.
The receiver partially or wholly understands the
message passed on to him.
The receiver responds to the message i.e. these
is some kind of feedback
Questions
1. Explain the role of the sender and the
receiver in the communication process.
2. Explain the importance of feedback as an
element in the communication process.

Factors to consider in choosing the channel of

communication
The channel (means) chosen to send or transmit
the message is very important tool in the process
of communication. If the channel is well chosen
it influences the message and how that message
is interpreted by the recipient. Each situation
should be judged individually and will depend
on various factors such as:
1. Cost
 Consider how much the communication will
cost in terms of results expected. Suggest
whether an internal message would be hand
written or whether printed copy will be more
important and cheap. Consider the cost of
different channels you can use. E.g. postal
service satisfactory compared to email or fax
2. Confidentiality
Email or fax may not be appropriate.
A telephone call would be overheard.
An internal memo may need to be enclosed in
an envelope.
3. Safety and security
Consider whether a special post office service
can be used e.g. registered or recorded delivery.
Consider whether a courier service, DHL,
skynet etc are justified
4. Influence
 To convey a certain impression would a
congratulatory telegram or invitation ~ be
suitable? Multicolored letter heads on high
quality paper convey a good image of a
company.
5. Urgency
Choose the method that will produce the desired
results in the time available. Perhaps the higher
cost of a fax will be justified by the results
obtained through its speed though it is
expensive.
6. Distance
Consider whether the communication is within
the building, in the same town, or the other side
of the world, then choose the most appropriate
channel.
7. Time of day
 This particularly important when
communicating with oversees countries where
time varies.
8. Resources
Consider the equipment and staff available on
both sides i.e. sender_ and recipient.
9. Written record
Written communications carry more authority
and are proof of a transaction. (reference)

10. Recipient
- consider who is sending or receiving the
message.
-personal contact may be appropriate on certain
occasions.
- Verbal communications may not be
appropriate where complex information or bad
news is concerned. - choose language
appropriately, considering the situation and the
relationship between the sender and the
recipient.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION\ESSENTIALS
They are specific aspects which must be taken
in to consideration to account in all aspects or
all media of communication. They include
a. Clarity
[Link]
c. Conciseness
[Link]
e. Courtesy
f. Correctness.
They help to make various forms of
communication e.g. letters, memorandum,
reports, representations etc
They are most important and relevant to written
communication
[Link]
[Link] of thought-generation of ideas in the
transmitters mind
Great deal of clarity is needed at this
stage
Communicators must be clear about:-
 Objective of communication
 What is to be communicated?
 About the suitable media/channels
for this purpose

[Link] of expression
This learned by the receiver in the transmitters
mind through the coded message.
If the encoding is faulty the message may be
misinterpreted.
Transmitter needs to be careful about the
meaning and organization of words with the
help of words
The following points should be put in to
consideration
 Use simple words i.e. avoid pompous and
heavy words e.g. use tell or inform instead
of acquaint
 Use concrete expressions
 Avoid use of vague and general expression
but give definite facts e.g. use goods will be
dispatched on 2nd July, instead of goods will
be dispatched soon.

[Link] active construction instead of passive

These are easier to understand eg passive
(your efforts are appreciated by all of us)
Active (all of us appreciate your efforts. NB
active verb are more specific, personal and
emphatic than passive
[Link] excessive use of the infinitive
Use of infinitive tend to make the style
impersonal and formal
E.g. active in the infinitive (impersonal,
indirect)
It is the duty of the cashier to disburse
salaries,
It’s my job to supervise
Action in the verb (direct)
The cashier disburses salaries
I supervise

[Link] jargon
Refers to the special language of a trade,
profession or field of study e.g. medical field,
lawyers, teachers, engineering etc
They create difficulties of understanding,
 Makes the style formal and stiff

[Link] ambiguity
Meaning more than one thing
It is often caused by a careless use of personal
pronouns

b. Completeness
This involves the completeness of facts
Incomplete communication irritates the reader
for it leaves him baffled
Your communication must include all the
relevant facts, size color, catalogue, number,
quantity, mode of payment, mode of dispatch,
date by which you need the items etc.
When responding the letter makes sure you have
answered the questions
Checking for the five “W” question i.e. what
when, why, where and who and any other
relevant point like how e.g. when announcing a
meeting, specify when and where the meeting
will occur, who will attend, what will be
discussed, how members are expected to reach
the venue.
c. Conciseness (brevity)
Be brief as possible
Brevity in a statement wins the attention of the
reader, but, brevity should not be affected at the
cost of appropriateness or courtesy. To achieve
brevity the following rules will be observed:-
Include only relevant facts
Avoid repletion
Avoid titles and wordy expressions
Organize your message well

d. Consideration
I.e. show consideration for the reader this can be
achieved in the following ways:-
Adapt the you-attitude e.g. thank you instead of
I was happy
Emphasize positive, pleasant facts we regret
to…., instead, thank you for which is positive or
it is very unfortunate negatively instead say it
was kind of you to (positive)

e. courtesy :- creating, friendliness with those

to when we write
Principles of courtesy
Answer the letter promptly (immediately
you receive)
Omit irritating expressions
I.e. negative words in connotation and
irritating the reader
 Some are provocative especially when use
with you. E.g. expression like
 You forgot
 You failed
 Your irresponsible approach
 Apologize sincerely for an omission
thank generously for a favor.

f. Correctness
 Give correct facts
 Send your message at the correct time
 Send your message in the correct style

Questions for discussion

1. Explain the various means of oral
communication.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages
of using a telephone as a means of
communication?
3. How can telephone calls become effective?
4. If you were the manager of a large business
firm, what instructions would you like to give to
the members of your staff to make an effective
use of the telephone?

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION
1. Physical barriers
These include physical noise and mechanical
noise from faulty machines
2. Time and distance
Physical distance between employees of an
organization.
Time of communication (time of the day or
hour)
3. Communication process barrier
This includes all the elements of the
communication process- sender barrier,
encoding barrier, medium barrier, decoding
barrier, receiver barrier, feedback barrier.
Question: explain how a sender, a receiver, can
be a barrier to communication.
4. Semantic barrier
 Semantic is the scientific meaning of
meaning words may mean the same thing to
two persons.
 Symbols or words usually have a variety of
meanings.
 Sender and the receiver have to choose one
meaning from among many.
 Also refers to as language used.
 Interpretation of words
  By- passed instructions- using one word
with different meanings
5. Social psychological barriers- this include
attitudes and opinions, emotional, closed mind
etc.
6. Barriers due to organizational structures:
Complex structures involving layers of
supervision, long communication lines, may
cause break down at any level of supervision
due to faulty transmission.
7. Relationship
 Status determines the position a member
holds in the organization.
 Psychological distance between the
subordinate and the superior is created due
to the status symbol of the superior.
 Status symbol include high quality furniture,
separate room facilities etc.
  Subordinate has a sense of inferiority
complex in his mind and this does not allow
him/ her to seek clarifications from the
superior.
8. Filtering of information
 This involves sending or passing only
information which will look favorable to the
receiver
 Heb does not want to show his mistakes to
someone else and vice versa

9. Perception error
 A person’s perception is determined by his
needs, social environment, level of
education, cultural factors etc.
 Each person tries to interpret the information
he receives from his own angle or point of
view.
  This creates complexity in the area of
communication.
10. Closed mind
 With a closed mind, the listener will always
evaluate things from his own point of view
and will not be receptive to new ideas.
 If a listener is suffering from the mirage of
too much knowledge, he will be rigid and
dogmatic in attitude.
11. Lack of ability to communicate-
 Skills in communication may come naturally
to some.
 An average man may need-some sort of
braining and practice-by way of
interviewing, public speaking etc.
12. Inattention (lack of paying attention)
 Simple failure to read bulletins, notices,
minutes, and reports etc.
  Verbal communication has the impact on
those who are pre occupied or are unwilling
to listen.
 Premature evaluators are too quick in
commenting on information as it is being
received from the sender causing frustration
and a sense of futility
13. Resistance to change
 Listening apparatus may act as a filter in
rejecting new ideas being communicated.
Human beings maintain status quo.
 Resistance to change is an obstacle to
effective communication.
 Especially where a new change would affect
the employees e.g. changes in timing, place
and order of work, installation of new plant,
technological changes etc.
14. Situational factors
  Specific situations such as physical
conditions e.g. noise or insufficient light,
information overload ( an executive is
overloaded with information and does not
have time to organize the information.) etc
15. Miscellaneous barriers:
 Unclarified assumptions by the sender and
receiver of message, emotional reactions,
irrelevant message, lack of trust etc.

Overcoming barriers to communication

An effective system is one that ensures the
smooth flow of information in the organization
and overcomes barriers to communication. Such
a system has the following characteristics.
1. Free flow of information- the system of
communication should be so designed that it
short lines of information flow. There should be
free movement of information both vertically
and horizontally. The rigid organization
structure should not be allowed to come in the
way of smooth and speedy flow of information.
Moreover, delegation and decentralization of
authority should be encouraged to cut delays in
decision making and speed up communication
2. Positive attitude- there should be a change in
the attitudes of superiors and subordinates so
that there is open communication at all times
between various levels. They should overcome
the status barrier to create understanding. The
superiors must keeping touch with the
subordinates regarding their problems,
suggestion etc. this is necessary to achieve the
organizational goals effectively.
3. Clarity of message- the message must be
clear as possible. No ambiguity should creep
into it. The message can be conveyed properly
only if it is clearly formulated in the mind of the
communicator.
The message should be encoded in direct and
simple language so that the receiver is able to
understand it without much difficulty.
4. Open mind- the parties to communication
must have open minds. They should not try to
withhold information just to serve their personal
interests. They should be able to interpret the
information without any prejudice or bias. They
should also receptive to new ideas that may
come across. They should not react before
receiving and understanding the full message.
5. Communication skill- every person should
have the necessary skill to share information
with superiors, peers and subordinates. This will
improve human relations in the organization and
also help in ensuring greater productivity.
6. Effective listening- the sender must listen to
the receivers words attentively so that the
receiver must also listen to the sender at the
same time. It is also necessary for every
employee to update his knowledge by reading
company notices, bulletins, reports etc.
7. Receptive to new ideas- the employees
should be prepared to accept new ideas and
change them accordingly. They should be
willing to receive information from internal and
external sources which call for change in the
organization.
8. Flexibility- a good system should be flexible
enough to adjust to the changing requirements.
It should be able to carry extra loads of
information without much strain. It should
absorb new techniques of communication with
little resistance. Use of wide range of media
such as oral and written messages, face to face
contacts, telephonic calls, group meetings etc.
should be encouraged without any hesitation.
9. Reliance on feedback- feedback refers to
transmission of information concerning the effect
of any act of communication. For example, the
manager, who sends a directive 0 his
subordinates, should come to know the response
of the latter. Feedback information flows
upwards and downward. Its purpose is to
reinforce or correct the action implied in any act
of communication. Feedback also provides an
opportunity for suggestion and criticism.
CHAPTER THREE
Business Etiquette, protocol & diplomacy
Etiquette
Definition of the term etiquette
It is the forms, manners and ceremonies
established by observation as acceptable or
required in social relations, in profession or in
official life or
The practices and forms that are prescribe by
social convention or by authority or
Customs or rules that govern behaviour regarded
as correct or acceptable in official or social life,
also a conventional but unwritten code of
practice followed by members of any of certain
professions or group.
This sets a requirement in this means that it is a
conventional requirements as to social
behaviour, proprietor of conduct as established
in any class or community or for any occasion
which must be an acceptable code of wage in all
matters of ceremony, as at a court or in official or
other formal observation.
It must be a code of ethical behaviour regarding
professional practice or action among the
members of a profession in their dealing s with
each other e.g. medical etiquette.
N/B:
Etiquette, decorum, propriety imply observance
of the formal requirements governing behaviour
in polite society.
Etiquette refers to conventional forms and usages
(e.g. rules of etiquette).
Decorum suggests dignity and a sense of what is
becoming or appropriate for a person of good
breeding e.g. a fine sense of decorum).
Propriety implies established conventions of
moral and good taste e.g. she never fails to
observe the proprieties.
Business Etiquette
Due to changes in times, the guidelines of
etiquette have been affected.
Common sense will typically be your best guide,
but it is helpful to have some general ideas
regarding business etiquette.
In business etiquette, everyone should be treated
with equal courtesy and respect. Whether
administrators or office support staff, each one
must b seen as an important person and should
not be taken for granted. All should be treated
with courtesy in all transactions and be treated
the same way you would wish to be treated.
Business Etiquette should be a given and take to
help each other when help is needed and have
consideration for others. Gender no longer needs
to be a deciding factor in everyday events.
What makes human beings different from
animals?
What makes human being to be different form
animals is the way they carry themselves in the
society.
It is essential for an individual to behave in a
responsible manner acceptable to the society.
People around us must not feel embarrassed by
our behaviour one should not behave irrationally
or illogically in public.
In simpler works, etiquette is a good behaviour
which distinguishes human being form animals.
Human being is a social animal and it is really
important for him to behave in an appropriate
way. Etiquette refers to behaviour in a socially
responsible way.
It is a guideline which control the way a
responsible individual should behave in the
society.
NEED FOR ETIQUETTE
 Etiquette makes you a cultured individual who
leaves his mark wherever he goes.
 Etiquette teaches you the way to talk, walk and
most importantly behave in the society.
 Etiquette is essential for an everlasting first
impression. The way you interact with your
superiors, parents, fellow workers, friends
speak a lot about your personality and
upbringing.
 Etiquette enables the individuals to earn respect
and appreciation in the society. No one would
 feel like talking to a person who does not know
how to speak or behave in the society. Etiquette
inculcates a feeling of trust and loyalty in the
individuals. One becomes more responsible
and mature. Etiquette helps individuals to
value relationships.
Importance for etiquette
1. It shows respect.
2. One is likely to be taken seriously throughout
higher life e.g. in their careers and with their
acquaintances.
3. Being a sign of respect, it resembles the way
you intend to handle people in your life.
4. Having social grace, one can maneuver
through any situation with ease e.g. in
 interview or on a dinner date. Have
confidence and put your companion at ease.
5. In business setting, one is able to adapt to
ever changing situations and act with
confidence.
Types of etiquette
1. Social Etiquette
Social etiquette is important for an individual
as it teaches him to behave in the society.
2. Bathroom Etiquette
Bathroom etiquette refers to the set rules
which an individual needs to follow while
using public restrooms or office toilets.
Make sure you leave eh restroom clean
and tidy for the other person.
3. Corporate Etiquette
Corporate etiquette refers to how an
individual should behave while he is at work.
Each one needs to maintain the decorum of the
organization. Don’t loiter around
unnecessary or peep into others cubicle.
4. Wedding Etiquette
Wedding etiquette is a special event in every
one’s life. Individuals should ensure they
behave sensibly at weddings. Never be late to
weddings or drink uncontrollably.
5. Meeting Etiquette
Meeting etiquette refers to styles one need to
adopt when he is attending any meeting,
seminar, presentation and so on. Listen to what
the other person has to say. Never enter
meeting room without a notepad and pen. It is
important to jot down important points for
future reference.
6. Telephone Etiquette
Telephone etiquette is essential to learn how
one should interact with the other person
over the phone. Telephone etiquette refers to the
way an individual should speak on the phone.
Never put the other person on long holds. Make
sure you greet the other person. Take care of
your pitch and tone.
7. Eating Etiquette
Eating etiquette individuals must follow
certain decorum while eating in public. Don’t
make noise while eating. One should not leave
the table unless and until everyone has finished
eating.
8. Business Etiquette
Business etiquette includes ways to conduct
a certain business. Don’t ever cheat customers.
It is simply unethical.
Situation where etiquette is applied
Greeting
When meeting someone, rise if you are seated,
smile, extend your hand and repeat the other
person’s name in your greeting. A good
handshake is important. It should be firm and
held for 3-4 seconds. Today, in the business
world, it is not necessary to wait for a female to
initiate the handshake. Females/males should
both be ready t o initiate the handshake.
Introductions
Introducing people is one of the most important
acts in business life, yet few people know how to
do it. Introduce a younger person to an older
person; introduce a non-official person to an
official person; and in business introduce the
junior t the senior. Be sure to explain who people
are and use their full names. Also do not assume
that everyone wants to be called by his or her first
name – wait until you are told to use a first name.
Nametags
In many situations you will e wearing a nametag
to identify yourself and your affiliation.
Nametags serve an important purpose and should
be worn on the right hand side of your front
shoulder area. Do not clip nametags to the
bottom edge of your jacket. Wearing the name
tag on the right side of your shoulder
immediately enables a person to see your name,
particularly as you are shaking hands. If the
nametag is one worn on a cord around the neck,
be sure to adjust the length so it can be easily the
other person having to look down. If writing your
own nametag, write in large clear letters that can
be easily read by others.
Reception/social hour
Most receptions or social hours are for the
purpose of mingling and making contacts
whether for job leads, as part of an interview or
an employee entertaining clients. When you
enter the reception observes the layout of the
room; is everyone standing; some cocktail
rounds or tables for seating. Seeing the room
layout gives you a clue on how to proceed at the
reception
If no ables are available, you should only have a
drink or your food in your hand – never both.
You should be prepared to greet and shake hands
with individuals. If having a drink hold it in your
hand to keep your right hand dry and ready to
shake hands. If eating hold your plate on the right
hand and eat with the left hand and your right
hand is clean and ready to shake. If tables are
available you may have your drink and food
together. However, always be ready to stand and
greet people.
Networking and /or mingling are an import ant
aspect of attending a business function even if the
event is described as a social time. Be sure to
greet of introduce yourself to the host/hostess.
Spend a few minutes conversing with them on
topics that relate to the event or to their business.
To move on you can politely say “I know you
need to talk with your guests”. Connect with as
many of the attendees as is possible. Don’t
interrupt people but wait until they include you
or there is a break in the conversation and you
can introduce yourself. To start conversations,
ask the person something about themselves or
their job. You will find most people enjoy
talking about themselves and this is a good way
to begin a conversation. Do not be looking
around the room for your next contact as you
carry on a conversation with someone. Focus eye
contact on tat individual and after a time politely
excuse yourself to move on to someone else.
Office parties
Office parties are good opportunities to improve
morale and build good will. Keep in mind these
people who see you every day and they will
remember a lapse in behaviour. Be aware of your
alcohol consumption and do not embarrass
yourself. Do not discuss business – this is a
social occasion and an opportunity to learn more
about your co-workers.
Punctuality
Be on time – no one wants to be kept waiting. If
it is an avoidable delay, try to contact the person.
Keep in mind that you never know when you will
encounter heavy traffic, wrecks, construction of
other delays. Always allow extra time
particularly if you are going to interview. For
interviews you should arrive 10-15 minutes
before the interview time
Smoking
Be aware of smoking policies. You should never
smoke during an interview, at a meal, or when
you are aware that the other person’s pleasure
does not include tobacco smoke.
Telephone
Telephone manners are very important. Have a
definite purpose for calling someone because
telephone calls are an intrusion into their busy
day. Identify yourself and speak clearly in the
phone – never chew gum, eat, drink or smoke
while suing the telephone.
Voice/answering machine
If you encounter someone’s voice mail, state
your name, organization and slowly give your
telephone number. Many people will leave a very
good, clear message and them quickly rattle off
their phone number. Voice mail is most efficient
if you leave a concise but detailed message.
Many times the person receiving the call will be
able to get the information you need and leave
that in their return call or message to you. Use
voice mail wisely and efficiently. Always have a
concise, professional greeting on your answering
machine/voicemail.
E-mail
E-mail has become an important part of our
communication and should be used in a
professional manner. It can be a quick and
effective means of communication. Always put
identifying information in the subject line to help
the individual receiving the message now what it
is in reference to. The text box of the e-mail
message should begin with salutation such as
“Dear Ms. Smith” or “Hello John” depending on
the relationship. After the salutation, drop down
to the next line to begin the message used to
complete sentence and appropriate capitalization
and punctuation as you would use in a business
letter. If needed, you may have multiple
paragraphs. The causal e-mail correspondence
you have with your friends is not appropriate for
business. Do not use all caps in the message nor
the symbols for happy faces, etc. even if you
have automatic signature on your e-mail, you
should still close the message. (Example: Thank
you, Ann Smith). Remember to read your
message through after you have written it and to
spell check before you click on the send button.
Cultural courtesy
Cultural courtesy is becoming very important as
more business is being conduced in and with
foreign countries. Show appreciation and respect
for the differences between our country and
someone else’s you should always be aware of
these cultural differences in etiquette. Be
sensitive to their rules of etiquette. If you are
travelling overseas representing an American
firm be very aware of the customs and culture of
the country you are visiting. This can be very
important to your business dealings. Research
the customs and culture of the country with
which you will have business transactions.
Five key words
Remember the five words that are too often
neglected in business: please, thank you and
well done.
Social skills can help us build productive
relationships. In these changing times, one needs
to prepare for a variety of encounters in both the
business and social environments.

PROTOCOL
1. It is a code of conduct or rules of appropriate
behaviour.
2. It is a diplomatic and political term that refers
to appropriate behaviour and rules of conduct
for a particular situation or event. Protocol can
also be a more sophisticated word to use to
denote appropriate actions or rules in business.
Protocol can also be used as a verb, meaning
“to draw up or issue a protocol.
It is most often used to refer to rules or
conventions.
As a rule, it describes how an activity should be
performed, especially in the field of diplomacy.
In a diplomatic services and governmental fields
of endeavour, protocols are often unwritten
guidelines.
Protocols specify the proper and general
accepted behaviour in matters of state and
diplomacy such as showing appropriate respect
to a head of state, ranking diploma in
chronological order of their accredition at court
etc.
Protocol can as well be described as a set of
international courtesy rules.
These well established and time honored rules
have made it easier for nations, people, business
etc to live and work together in harmony.
Part of protocol has always been the
acknowledgement of the hierarchical standing of
all present.
USAGE OF PROTOCOL
1. General use
Unwritten rules or guidelines that are
peculiar to every culture or organization and are
supported and to be observed by all parties in the
conduct of business, entertaining, negotiating
and politics etc.
2. Product development
Statement of attributes (features and benefits)
that a new product must be designed to
have product protocol is prepared by
consulting all parties e.g. customers, marketing,
production, distribution etc to the project.

3. Technology
 Set of agreed upon and open published and
distributed standards that enables different
firms to manufacture compatible devices to the
same specification. All devices made under
the same protocol work with one another without
any adjustment or modification.
Examples
(1) Business protocol requires that we arrive
at this meeting well prepared and on time
(etiquette).
(2) We currently have several security
protocols in place to insure that any
sensitive company information is protected
(rules).
 (3) The countries established a new trade
protocol to help further their
respective economies and relations with each
other (agreement).
(4) Carol Broke Company protocol when she
used her work e-mail address to send
personal e-mails.
N/B: The term protocol is used in various fields
including communication and for office
etiquette. In general protocol means sets of rules
or guidelines that need to e followed.
In communication it is called TCP/IP protocol
and in office it is termed for code of conduct or
behavior.
Protocol generally means that proper etiquette
and was of doing things e.g. in politics, protocol
is the proper etiquette observed by diplomats and
head of state.
Diplomacy
It is broadly described as the art of conducting
negotiations, agreements and relations between
two or more parties in a sensitive way.
These parties could be anything from husband
and wife to two countries.
The importance of protocol
 Protocol is the rules for correct behaviour.
 It’s all about respect for our dedicated leaders.
 It’s part of the “culture and tradition” of our
organization.
 This recognition is part “compensation” for
their leadership work.
 It’s a way of thinking them for their dedication
in our organization.
Types of diplomacy
1. Bilateral diplomacy
This is between two nations or interests.
Mutual benefit or relations are the only
ones which are considered important. It is
some measure the basis for other more
complex relationships.
2. Multilateral diplomacy
This is a more recent development of
diplomacy with its origins dating near or
after the end of First World War.
 Types are:-
(a) War diplomacy
It requires the most rust and confidence
between antagonists.
(b) Preventive diplomacy
It requires the most trust and confidence
between antagonists.
It also requires extreme patience and
independence for coercion.
(c) Developmental diplomacy
Is a more economic form of diplomacy
which seeks a promotion of
economic interests.
(d) Multi track diplomacy
 A more pragmatic and modern approach
which encompasses all the other
diplomacy types and focuses on to issue at
hand from the rivals point view.
(e) Public diplomacy
One which encompasses government
public relations.
3. Deference (in an organization)
Deference is the idea that people should
recognize and submit t the authority of their
superiors e.g. in workplace. “It would be deemed
acceptable for your boss to tell you what to do,
but unacceptable for you to tell both what to do
because your boss has more authority than you
do, thus has the power to control your actions
and behaviour.
4. Appeasement
This is where her main aim of
communication is to avoid full frontal war. This
is done by making concessions to and
negotiations with powers or leaders who are
acting in an aggressive way.
Citizen Diplomacy
Is the political idea that average citizens can act
as representatives of a cause if “official” or
governmental interactions are inappropriate, it
does not involve direct address or
conversation and takes the form of sporting
events or scientific exchanges.
Importance of diplomacy
1. For negotiation purposes
In order to avoid wars and conflicts between
nations, it is necessary to conduct interstate
negotiations.
2. Achieving the objective of the
organizations and even the government
The aim of foreign policy is to achieve the
goals through clear and honest methods.
The aim of foreign policy is to achieve the
goals through clear and honest methods.
Also states use the diplomacy as a means to
attain their objectives and diplomacy if its
implication is never clear and moral.
3. Diplomacy occupies important position in
building relations between nations, parting
organizations, institutions (families) etc.
Reasons
 The valuable information above the
organization relations of the past comes
from diplomatic dispatches.
 It provides an insight into various events
which have shaped international relations
organizations etc.
 Diplomacy is very important for avoiding
wars between two hostile tribes, states,
families etc.
 Where diplomacy fails, war become
unavoidable.
There are two types of diplomacy are:-
1. Positive diplomacy
When the political conditions and capabilities
of the states are almost equal with each other.
2. Negative diplomacy
When the capabilities of the state are unequal
with their goals.
Ingredient of diplomacy
1. Compromises
2. Bargain (Deal)
No positive affairs can be conducted without
compromises.

CHAPTER FOUR
CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
(FORMS OF COMMUNICATION)
Channels are the ways of passing on
information from the sender to the receiver. It is
the path through which information passes.
Namely:
 Oral
 written
 Electronic communication
 Visual communication
 Audio-visual communication
 Silence
Classification of the media (channel)
[Link] verbal communication- this includes
written communication e.g. letters, notices,
memos, newspapers, reports, forms, circulars,
telegrams, minutes, questionnaires, manuals etc.
2. Verbal or oral communications i.e. talking
e.g. conversation between individuals, group
discussions and meetings.
3. Visual communication
4. Audio-visual communication
5. Communication using new technology-
includes texts messaging, fax, email, internet,
video conferencing, multimedia presentations
and corporate intra net.
Written communication
Merits of written communication
[Link] is accurate and precise
 Great care is taken when using when using
written communication
 Since it is open to verification, and its
authenticity can be easily challenged, the
communicator has to be accurate and
factual.
[Link] can be repeatedly referred to:
 It can be read and re-read for a clearer
understanding
 No danger of losing any part of the message.
[Link] is a permanent record
 Useful for future reference.
 Can be referred to for fresh decisions.
[Link] is a legal document:
 It is acceptable as a legal document,
 Used in court of law as evidence.
[Link] facilitates the assignment of
responsibilities.
 When information is preserved in writing it
is much easier to assign responsibilities.
[Link] wide access
 If the communicator and the receiver are far
removed from each other, written
communication is the cheapest and may be
the only available means of communication
between them.
Limitations of written communications
1. It is time consuming in terms of writing
skills.
2. Costly: e.g. writing letters e.g. due to the
number of people involved in sending out a
letter from the organization.
3. Quick clarification is not possible.
In case the receiver of written communication
has certain doubts or questions about the
messege, he cannot seek immediate
clarification.
Has to write and wait for a reply.
Essentials of effective written communication
1. Clarity of thought and expression
2. Completeness
3. Conciseness- brevity, only facts, avoids
wordy expressions.
4. Consideration- adopt the you- attitude,
positive pleasant facts.
5. Courtesy - promptly, omit irritating
expressions.
6. Correctness- correct facts, time, style

Oral communication
Face to face conversations, over the telephone,
mobiles, radio broad casts, interviews, group
discussion, meeting conferences and seminars,
announcement over the public address system,
speeches etc.

1. Saves time
 In a situation where action is required to be
taken immediately.
 When workload builds up, one can't write
but organizes for a quick transmission of
information e.g. telephone call, calling a
 snap conference, walk down the corridor
and give oral instructions.
2. Saves money e.g. within the organization.
3. Speech is a more powerful means of
persuasion.
4. Speaker can convey shades of meaning with
the help of variations in the tone, pitch and
intensity of voice.
5. Speaker can find how his message is being
received i.e. whether:
 Is creating a favorable impression on the
receiver or antagonizing him.
 Whether the receiver accepts or protests
 Whether it is clearly understood
6. Oral presentation is more reliable since there
is an opportunity of feedback and clarification.
7. It promotes friendly relations between the
parties communicating with each other.
8. It is useful while communicating with
groups at assemblies, meetings etc.
Limitations
[Link] is not possible if the communicator and
the receiver are far apart and there is no
mechanical device available to connect
them. E.g. no network on mobile phones.
2. Cannot be used to communicate lengthy
messages. Something of vital importance can be
missed.
3. Messages cannot be retained for a long
term. No records are kept; hence they cannot
be used for further reference.
4. They do not have any legal validity unless
they are tapped and made part of permanent
record.
5. There are greater chances of
misunderstanding.
  I.e. where the speaker gives his message
without organizing it earlier he may not be
able to make himself quite clear.
 Receiver may miss the message on account
of his inattentiveness.
6. Responsibilities for mistakes, if any,
cannot be specifically assigned
Essentials of effective oral communication
[Link] communication.
 Pronounce words clearly and correctly.
 Inability to use jaws freely, speak with a
limber tongue and limber lips, speak slowly
makes poor transmission.
[Link]:
 Keep the message as brief as possible
without appearing abrupt and
discourteous.
3. Precision- be specific e.g. on time, point on
a point.
 4. Conviction:-
 Lack of conviction causes lack of
confidence, hence will not be able to
impress the receiver with the message.
 Sincerity of approach, careful thinking and
planning brings conviction.
 Careful analysis and objective evaluation of
message while formulating it also promotes
speakers conviction.
5. Logical sequencer-
Speakers need to arrange his message in
a logical sequence to avoid confusion.
6. Appropriate word choice:-
 It is more important to use terms familiar to
the listener rattler than those familiar to the
speaker alone.
 Speaker should not assume that his listener
knows what he means while using difficult
terms familiar to him.
 Avoiding hackneyed phrases and clinches;
hackneyed phrases are like 'what I mean, do
you follow, isn't it, see is it okay etc.
 They interrupt the flow of speech.
 Speaker uses them unconsciously and he
should take deliberate pains to exclude them
from their speech
[Link] voice:-
 Speaker is required to try and tone down an
unusual accent and discard all affectations of
speech.
 Try to cultivate a pleasing voice and speak
clearly and distinctly.
  Correct, natural and affected is the most
effective speech,
9. Findings the register:
Efficient oral communication tunes in to the
listeners wave length by subtly and perhaps
unconsciously, adjusting hiss vocabulary,
loudness, speech of delivery and accent .
The speaker should understand different cultural
and educational levels that use different kinds of
languages
7 C`s Important to remember in oral
communication
1. Candid- not hiding ones thought
2. Clear
3. Complete
4. Concise- brief
5. Concrete-definite, positive
6. Correct
7. Courteous- showing good manners, hence
act promptly.

Hints on giving oral instructions

1. Do not assume that your listener has any
prior knowledge about the subject
2. Select a proper time to give these
instructions
3. Organize your instructions so that they may
make sense to the listener.
4. Use simple, clear, concise and accurate
language.
5. Do not give any irrelevant or unimportant
details
6. Carefully watch the expression on your
listeners face in order to find out whether
your message is getting through or not.
7. Allow opportunity to your listener to ask
questions
8. Repeat complicated instructions
9. If desirable, follow up detailed oral
instructions in writing

FACE TO FACE COMMUNICATION

NB: face to face communication can be oral but
not all the time oral communication can be face
to face. E.g. telephone communication is oral
but not face to face
Merits of face to face communication
1. Facial expression and gestures help to
communicate better.
 The message in oral/ face to face
communication is reinforced with the help
of the tone, pitch, and intensity of the
speaker's voice.
 In face to face communication, the message
being communicated gets the assistance of
facial expressions and gestures as well.
2. Particularly suitable for discussion:-
This is because there is immediate feedback
from the total personality.
Vibrations emitted by it give it weight.
Face to face provides the speaker with better
opportunity for adjustment. E.g. the speaker
learns the reception of the listener from how he
behaves.
Puzzle look indicates lack of understanding.
A blank face with head turned sideways
suggests lack of interest.
A twist of the lips, a frown on the forehead, a
contraction of the facial muscles points out that
your message is not welcome, hence, change
your tone and make yourself sound and look
more considerable and sympathetic.
Limitations of face to face communication
1. Difficult to practice in large- sized
organizations e.g. if there are various units or
departments situated at different places
2. Not effective in large gatherings:-
It is difficult to get a message across to large
gatherings.
Vital personal touch is missing.
Due to absence of satisfactory feedback, his
speech lapses into a mono log.
3. Ineffective if the listener is not attentive:
This is common face to face and oral
communication.
Human beings listen to grasp messages faster
than the speed at which they are delivered,
hence can easily get diverted.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION
This includes:-
• Gestures and facial expressions
• Tables and charts
• Diagrams
• Posters
• Slides
• Film strips
• Mime can be used to communicate ideas and
emotions through facial expressions and
gestures

Visual communication

Meaning of visual communication

The communication which is done through sight
is called visual communication. Such as facial
expression, gesture, eye contact, signals, map,
chart, poster etc. it also includes graphic design,
illustration and animation, books, print,
magazines, screen-based media, interactive web
design, short film, design for advertising,
promotion, corporate identity and packaging
design etc.
Visual presentation of information and data is
having an increasing impact on our practical
life. In spite of having impact on our life, visual
communication is not alone sufficient for
exchanging information. For example to
indicate ‘danger’ we use red sign, to indicate
‘no smoking’; we use an image showing a
lighted cigarette with across mark on it etc.
So, visual communication is a communication
where the ideas and information can be read or
viewed through the means of visual aid.

Advantages of visual communication

Now-a-days, most of the business organizations
are using visual techniques to present the
information. It is becoming very popular day by
day. Visual presentation is beneficial for many
reasons. Some of them are as follows:
[Link] for illiterate receiver: If the
receivers are illiterate, the visual
communication will be more effective to
exchange information. They can easily
understand the information that is
presented visually.
[Link] in oral communication: Visual
techniques can be used with oral
communication. Oral communication
becomes more meaningful if graphs,
pictures and diagrams are used with it.
[Link] explanation: Everyone can explain
the meaning of it very easily. Easy
explanation has made the visual techniques
more popular.
[Link] presentation: Complex
information, data and figures can be easily
presented very simply on graphs, pictures
and diagrams.
[Link] wastage of time: Visual
techniques help to prevent the wastage of
time. Written and oral communication
 takes much time to exchange information.
But number of receivers can be
communicated at a time through visual
methods.
[Link] in quick decision: Visual
communication helps to take quick
decision. So management prefers visual
techniques to communicate with others.
[Link]: Visual communication is very
much popular because people do not like
much speech and long explanation rather
than a chart of a diagram.
[Link]: Artful presentation, Ads impact to
the information, quicker understanding.

Disadvantages of visual communication:

There are some limitations of visual
communication as follows:
[Link]: The visual methods of
communication are more costly than those
of other methods. To draw maps, charts,
 diagram is costly. That is why only large
company or organization can use this
technique.
[Link] presentation: Sometimes visual
presentation of information becomes
complex. The receivers cannot understand
the meaning of the presentation.
[Link] method: This technique is
considered as an incomplete method.
Visual presentation is not sufficient to
communicate effectively and clearly but
also it can be successfully used with oral
communication.
[Link] of time: Sometimes visual
techniques take much time to
communicate. Whereas oral
communication takes no time to exchange
information.
[Link] to understand: Difficult to
understand and requires a lot of repetitions
in visual communication. Since it uses
gestures, facial expressions, eye contact,
 touch etc. for communicating with others
which may not be understandable for the
simple and foolish people.
[Link] for general readers: General
people are not prefers to communicate
through visual communication with others.
Sometimes it cannot create an impression
upon people or listeners. It is less
influential and cannot be used everywhere.
[Link]: Ambiguity, situational problem,
delays in taking decision

It means the presentation of information by use

of diagrams and pictures without the use of
words.
1. Organizational charts- diagram showing the
organizational structure of the firm
2. Photographs- are reprographic processes,
including copying machine, by which
photographs can be reproduced.
3. Films- are normally 16mm. can be hired
borrowed free of charge from certain
organizations or purchased. Larger
companies sponsor the production of film
relevant to business
4. Graphs and signals and wall charts used-
used to illustrate an application and to
present statistical information.
5. Posters –uses
 Used in situation of illiterate people or
workers to educate them e.g. in factories
they educate workers on how to operate a
machine.
 On roads- to give road signs and traffic
signals as well as to suggest the hazards of
regular and rash driving.
 Advertising i.e. small posters with brief but
effective story can often be seen inside
banks and on the railway platforms and
 waiting halls in the lounge of cinema halls
etc. large hoardings are displayed almost
everywhere on the road side.
How to make posters effective
1. Since most of the posters whether displayed
out door or indoor a re seen only for a
fleeting moment, they mostly tell their story
simple and quickly. In the poster the burden
of communication should be put mainly on
the picture. The copy should be reduced to a
headline or a head and sub headed at the
most. Some of the most effective posters
have but one or two words of copy.
2. In poster advertising, the sales message
should be repeated many times at different
locations so that the disadvantage of having
just a moment glance at it is set off.
3. Posters should be displayed in such a way
that their layout is artistic and appealing and
visibility adequate.
4. Proper attention should be paid to the color
scheme of the posters since different colors
have different effect on the mind.
NB -Visual communication is effectively used
in combination with other media. E.g.
diagrammatic representations combine the
written with visuals.

 Pie charts and pictograms also combine the

two for there is always a written indication
of what is shown in them.
 Used in the representation of statistical data.

Facial expressions and gestures

Non- verbal elements include the pitch and the
tone of the voice as well a facial expressions
and gestures.
These include:
• Body language
• Rolling
• Shrinking
• Winking and twinkling of the eyes
• Frowning
• Twisting the lips
• Wobbling the head
 Staring in the vacuum with blank listless
eyes
• Fidgeting in the seat
• Fumbling the pockets
• Biting the nails
• Clattering the teeth
• Raising the fist and thumping the table
• Grinning and grimacing
• Pacing up and down in the room
• Sawing the air with violence
• Movement of the arms.
Either of those expressions / body languages can
be used to communicate nervousness, anger,
fear, scorn, determination, horror, sympathy,
pity, lack of understanding, disinterest,
resentment etc.

Audi visual means of communication

Audio visual communication combines the
auditory and the visual, i.e. while people are
observing something on the television or cinema
screen they are also hearing a narrative or
descriptive remarks so that so that what they see
is adequately supplemented and there is more
impression on their mind.
Use d by government to keep people well
informed of its programs and policies.
Used for the propagation of family welfare
program in villages
Used to educate the farmers on the techniques of
improving agriculture production in large
commercial and industrial houses, the technique
is used to bridge the communication gap
between the organization and its external public
(s) as well as between the executives and the
operatives. E.g. marketing division of the
companies use this technique to educate the
public on the quality price and supply of their
products and on special facilities and discounts
that can be offered along with their sale.
Also on any new sophisticated techniques of
production to keep them informed of the
policies and achievements of the company at
large.
• How to make audio-visual communication
effective
1. Pictures, slides and films:
 Need to be imaginatively produced. Cartoon
strips are usually very interesting.
 If the pictures are colorful, blending and
harmonizing the colors should be done with
discretion (carefully)
 The layout should be attractive.
2. Description and narration:
 Brief and adequate
 Language used in description or narration
should be precise lucid and easily
understandable
[Link] and slides should be shown to the
people at a time, which is suitable for them.
[Link] producing such films and slides, the
educational and economic level and the social
and economic background of the people for
whom they are meant should always be kept
in view.
Audio visual combination:
It combines the auditory and the visual.
People are observing something on the
television or cinema screen, TV, and also
hearing a narrative or descriptive remarks.
What they see is adequately supplemented
therefore combines sight and sound.
It can make use of written words as well.
It is not found to be adequate in its self.
Information transmitted through audio-visual
means is retained much longer than through any
other means.
It is found most suitable for mass publicity
(such as advertising), mass propaganda (public
rally) and mass education e.g. educating
workers, publicizing products.
To make effective use of this technique:-
1. Make films and slides attractive and
interesting
2. Make narration clear, precise and easily
understandable
3. Keep the films short
4. Screen them at an appropriate time.

It makes use of telecasts, short films on the

cinema screen, video tapes, digital video disc
etc.
With every technology, there are both
advantages and disadvantages. And the same
applies to Audio video solutions. But regardless
this technology has helped many individuals and
universities to teach their curriculum in an
effective way. Here are some of the advantages
and disadvantages of using AV solutions

Advantages
 The students/audience work with more zeal
 help you teach accurate concepts
  The visual experience is always better than a
teacher bombarding the lesson from a book
 Audio-Visual aids provide variety and
provide different tool s in the hands of the
teacher.
 The use of audio-visual aids provides
immense opportunities to the pupils to see,
handle and manipulate things.

Disadvantages
 No matter how high-quality your system is,
it will definitely have some technical
glitches
 Visual aids are more of a distraction if used
throughout the entire presentation versus
during key points
 An audiovisual system is expensive
 AV presentations can take a considerable
amount of time to prepare
 AV systems can be bulky and difficult to
handle and transport
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
This involves use of electronic equipment such
as computers and televisions.
Includes:
Electronic banking: - is a system where you
access information and make your banking
transactions from you r computer using the
internet.
Electronic publishing: - system of producing
books, magazines, etc. in a form that can be read
on computer.
Electronic ticketing: - a service provided by
airlines that allow people to book and buy
tickets on the internet , Electronic
communication through computer are used
everywhere to communicate, negotiate,
cooperate and collaborate both locally and
globally (technology has made the world to be a
global village)
Use of computer system is used due to its
identified characteristics such as:
• Speed
• Storage
• Automation (automatic)
• Accuracy
• Versatility- having many uses
• Efficiency

Use of satellite communication through

television and the cable has made the world into
a 'global village'.
Profusion of broadcasting channels is all over
the world. When computer is coded it can
represent any form of information i.e. words,
symbols, photographs, diagrams, moving
pictures, speeches or music
It can communicate directly with other
electronic devices that use digital technology
e.g. fax machines, digital telephones, digital
cameras and image scanners.
Use of internet while linked by the wires,
cables, radio waves and satellite of the telecom
system can convert and carry signals between
computers
World Wide Web (www or the net) provides
millions of pages of information which are
made available to millions of people.
Advantages and disadvantages of electronic
communication
Electronic communication is fast, cost-effective
and convenient, but these attributes contain
inherent disadvantages. The technology that
enables people to keep in touch at all times also
can invade privacy and cut into valuable
relaxation time.

Electronic communications are quick and

convenient.

Mobility
Devices such as cell phones with mobile
communication technology and portable laptops
enable people to stay in touch with friends and
co-workers at all times. This lets you work and
go online in public locations, such as trains and
in cafes, and has enabled people to avoid
traveling long distances to work from home. It
also encourages productivity. For example,
someone who has to meet a professional
deadline could save valuable time by working
on a laptop on the train or bus trip to work.

Speed and Convenience

Electronic communication is convenient and
usually instantaneous. It dispenses with the need
to mail or fax documents that can be safely
backed up online or on portable electronic
devices to protect against loss or theft. These
attributes facilitate research and learning.
Someone with a complicated health problem
might gain invaluable information from an
authoritative medical website. Universities can
save time and money by posting study materials
on campus websites.

Security
Electronic communication leaves people
vulnerable to cyber attacks from online
criminals and can pose a physical threat,
particularly to children, as online chat rooms
can attract predators who pose as peers to gain
trust and personal information. It also
potentially exposes children to pornographic
images. Installing a firewall and keeping
security software up to date helps protect
against viruses and hackers. Parents can protect
children by installing software that blocks
sexual content and by using safe search engines.

Distraction
Distractions and interruptions caused by
electronic communication compromise quality
time and can even damage your intelligence
quotient, or IQ, according to a 2005 study by
Dr. Glenn Wilson, a psychiatrist at King's
College London University, that was
commissioned by Hewlett-Packard. Dr. Wilson
found that the IQ of people who continuously
monitored their email when working dipped by
10 points over the course of the working day,
the equivalent of losing a night's sleep. People
often feel compelled to check email and text
messages even when they are not working and
are vulnerable to interruptions from employers
and coworkers outside office hours.

SILECENCE

Silence is golden!
Living with silence is challenging. Humans are
wired and often compelled to speak in the
absence of noise. Our current society further
conditions us to expect frenetic environments
where silence is virtually absent.
While verbal communication is a primary
foundation for human interaction, incorporating
silence as a common practice enhances our
quality of life and provides a much-needed
opportunity to process the world around
us. Without silence, we lack the ability to think
thoroughly, reflect deeply, and grow
immeasurably.
Silence, at times, can be negatively associated
with being alone or being reprimanded in a
relationship by the silent treatment.
Silence often gets a bad rap when its value is
immensely influential. It does not necessarily
equate to being alone, nor are we mistreating
others if we remain quiet. Even extroverts who
derive energy from others require periods of
quiet time and could yield valuable insights
from the tranquility introverts require. We all
need silence for time to reflect, process, and
accordingly grow.

Advantages of silence

A few gifts silence grants according to

Psychology Today…
An ability to listen effectively. Many of us
engage in listening only as a way of waiting
until it is our turn to speak. If you cannot resist
thinking about what you want to say when
listening, focus instead specifically on being
silent. You will be surprised how much your
ability to concentrate will improve. If you can
stop focusing on what you want to say when
listening and instead concentrate entirely on
what is being said to you, then silence will not
just bring you a new skill, it will bring you new
knowledge.

A clear view into the hearts of others. As the

saying goes, “It is not what you say; it is how
you say it.” Silence gives us the ability to listen
to not only what is said, but how it is
said. This how provides a glimpse into the
personality and character of the person which
you may not have experienced. With years of
interacting and observing nuances in human
behavior, expression, and tone, our intuition
becomes more accurate… Silence increases the
power of this ability.

Attractiveness. As humans fight constant

noise, more than anything we strongly desire to
be heard and understood. Those who fulfill that
role are left viewed as… powerfully
charismatic.

Self-Control. When seeing or hearing

something that sparks a strong reaction, the
expected response is one containing
emotion. Responding with silence, or after you
can process what is experienced is practicing
self control.

Wisdom. When facing a new challenge,

making silence your first response gives you a
chance to reflect before you speak, increasing
the likelihood that what you say and do will be
on target, intelligent, and useful. Using silence
as a response when facing a new challenge, you
provide yourself with the opportunity to reflect
before you speak increasing the quality of your
response.

Embrace silence and its influence: ponder,

process, and reflect

Silence is also a channel through which

information is conveyed
It contains in it the essence of generations of
experience
E.g. A girl is proposed by a Youngman but she
lowers her dead in silence and a faint blush
appears on her face without uttering any word.
Hence, the message is communicated
Two strangers meet and start talking all of a
sudden they keep quiet and remain silent there is
a communication gap between the two.
The boss enter the room and all the workers
remain silent- assign of respect
A police inspector passes through
An employer requests his boss for a salary
increment but the boss remains silent – a sign of
refusal.
NB silence can communicate responses like:
Disapproval, anger, resentment, lack of interest
etc.
Giving a slight pause before or after making an
important point creates suspense, raises a sense
of anticipation making the listener to keenly
listen to the next point
Pause after a point suggests that an important
message has been passed and the speaker
desires his audience to assimilate it and realize
its significance before he passes on to the next
point.

CHAPTER FIVE
Types of communication
Every firm and organization depends on
communication network which have developed
over the years for its daily functioning.
The bigger the organization the more elaborate
the information and as a result, a precise form of
network is important. This varies from one
organization to another
There are basically 2 types of communication
network used in an organization:-
 Internal communication
 External communication
These two further classified in different types
based on the direction the flow the relationship
means of communication and methods and
equipment used.
Internal communication
It forms into different directions in an
organization according to the organization
structure and need of the enterprise.
The internal communication is further divided
into
 Vertical internal communication
 Horizontal /diagonal
 Grapevine
Vertical internal communication
This is divided in to two
 Downward flow of internal communication
 Upward flow of internal communication
Downward flow of internal communication
The information flows from the superior to the
subordinate at different levels of the
organization. Thus, type passes information on
plans, decisions, instructions, and policies etc.
which are communicated to the lower levels for
implementation.
Downward communication works in an
organization in which the line of authority runs
directly downward, each rank directly below
another to which it’s directly related.
Downward communication may be oral or
written or both important information that
initiates action can be passed through letters,
policies and procedures. It can also pass
information through written means e.g. journal,
reports, memorandums and business letters.
Communication can also be passed orally
especially to convey a meeting in a depertment
and discuss crucial maters. An audio visual
media can be used e.g films and video as well.
 Sign in
. Objectives of downward communication
Downward communication mainly aims at
providing subordinates with the goals, policies,
and procedures of the company along with the
instructions, orders, and directions of the
superiors. In the following the main objective or
purposes of downward communication are
discussed:
[Link] inform the subordinates: The prime
objective of downward communication is to
communicate organizational goals, plans,
programmers’, policies and procedures to
the employees. Downward communication
also helps the employees to understand their
duties and to relate their duties to those of
others in the organization.
[Link] give task directives: Another main
objective of downward communication is to
give a directive to the subordinates. Though
downward communication, manager’s issue
 various task directives to their subordinates
and them well informed of their duties.
[Link] explain organization policies and
procedures: Subordinates may not always
correctly understand the inner meanings of
organizational policies and procedures. In
such a situation, managers provide necessary
explanations of organizational policies, and
procedures to the subordinates through
downward communication.
[Link] provide performance feedback:
Downward communication is a means to
provide performance feedback to employees.
Based on such information, employees can
take steps to improve their performance.
[Link] delegate authority: Delegating authority
is necessary for the smooth functioning of
the organization. Downward communication
is the vehicle through which superiors
delegate authority to their subordinates.
[Link] Motivate and inspire employees:
Another objective of downward
communication is to motive and inspire
 employees. Through downward
communication, managers communicate
various motivational programmers’ to the
subordinates. Moreover, employees also feel
inspired when superiors talk with them.
[Link] establish discipline: In performing
organizational activities, proper discipline
should be maintained. Through downward
communication, manager’s issue task related
rules and regulations time to time in order to
maintain discipline.
[Link] explain the changed environment: In
order to cope with environmental changes,
managers require to change organizational
plans, policies, procedures, and
programmers’. Those changes are
communicated to the subordinates through
downward communication.
Sign in
Advantage or merits of downward
communication
Downward communication benefits the
organization in many different ways. Through
this communication, superior provide necessary
information and directives to the subordinates.
The major advantages of downward
communication are highlighted below:
[Link] authority and responsibility:
Delegation means entrusting the
subordinates with some responsibilities
along with due authority. It is essential to
make the subordinates capable in performing
their jobs. Since downward communication
starts form higher level, it helps mangers in
delegating authority and responsibility to the
right persons.
[Link] discipline: Downward
communication occurs in conformity with
officially recognized rules and regulations.
So it helps in establishing official discipline
in the organization.
[Link] efficiency: Downward
communication provides necessary
 guidance, orders, instructions and
explanations of various complex issues to
the subordinates that ultimately increase the
efficiency of the employees.
[Link] organizational plans and
procedures: In an organization, the top-
level executives develop the plans, policies,
strategies, procedures etc. downward
communication plays a significant role in
communicating those plans, policies,
strategies’ and procedures to the lower levels
of the organization.
[Link] the complex issues: Sometimes
subordinates need explanation of
organizational policies and procedures. In
such situations, managers rely on downward
communication to provide necessary
explanations and analysis.
[Link] orders and instructions:
Downward communication is the only
means to circulate various orders,
instructions, guidance, and advices to the
subordinates. Without downward
 communication, organization is like a boat
without boatman.
[Link] by-passing of hierarchy:
Downward communication takes place by
following the established chain of command
of the organization. Thus, it reduces the
chance of sending message to someone
through by-passing the immediate
subordinate.
[Link] good labor-management
relationship: Downward communication
helps to create and maintain good labor-
management relationships in the
organization. When top-level executives
communicate with their subordinates
sincerely and courteously, it develops good
interpersonal and inter-group relationships
between management and works. In turn,
this will motivate the employees and ensure
good labor-management relation in the
organization.
In conclusion we can say that Downward
communication ties together the entire
organization and ensures the achievement of
organizational goals.
Disadvantages or demerits of downward
communication
Though downward communication provides
many advantages to the organization, it is not
free limitations. Its main limitations or
disadvantages are discussed below:
[Link]-consuming: Downward
communication is a delayed process. In this
communication, information flows through
different levels of hierarchy. As a result,
when information reaches to the lower level
workers, it may have lost its significance or
utility.
[Link] of information: Downward
communication also suffers form problem of
distortion of message. People have a
tendency to modify or manipulate
 information. Therefore, information is
passed from one individual to another or
form one level to another, authenticity of
information is lost.
[Link] of explanation: In most cases,
downward communication contains
messages without necessary explanation and
clarification. For this reason, subordinates
fail to understand the message accurately.
[Link] of relationship: Heavy
reliance on downward communication also
deteriorates the labor-management
relationships. Because it does not provide
any scope of direct communication between
them.
[Link] of feedback: Absence of feedback is
another major drawback of downward
communication. The top-level executives
usually place little or no importance to the
messages received from subordinates.
Superiors hardly seek feedback from the
subordinates. Due to negligence of the
superiors, subordinates also seldom send
 feedback. As a result, communication
becomes ineffective.
[Link] of enthusiasm: Managers send orders
instructions and advices to the subordinates
through downward communication. This
form of communication energizes and
activates the employees. Therefore, delay in
the downward flow of information adversely
affects the enthusiasm of the employees.
[Link] of frustration: Downward
communication is directive in nature. This
type of communication hardly allows the
subordinates to discuss any matter with their
superiors. Moreover, the subordinates are
compelled to follow the orders and
instructions of the superiors. Such coercion
creates frustration in the mind of the
employees.
From the above discussion, it appears that
downward communication is not always
effective and successful. Therefore, along with
downward communication, managers should
use other forms of communication.

Limitations of downward communication

[Link] and under communication
People at the top can either provide little or a lot
about their job. Sometimes they work under
presumption and can communicate decisions
without giving background information on how
they resulted to the decisions. Under
information may also involve incomplete
information leading to unsatisfactory
performance. Over communication on the other
hand leads to leakage of information.
[Link]
The lines of downward communication are time
consuming by the time information arrives at its
destination it has lost much of its significance or
caused damaging.
[Link] of information
Unless communication is written, it is not likely
to be transmitted in its entirely original form,
part of it certain to be lost.
[Link]
In long lines of communication information is
not only lost but distorted. Whenever a piece of
information is passed from one person to
another it loses a little authenticity. By the time
it reaches its destination it may not contain even
an iota of truth.
[Link]
Downward communication contains a lot of
authority. Subordinates at the lower level do not
get opportunities to participate in decision
making process. They are expected to receive
the policy decision and directives without
 questioning their appropriateness, utility and
validity which they resent.
Essentials of effective downward
communication
I. Managers should keep themselves well
informed o the objectives and achievements
of their organization.
II. Managers must work according to the
organization plan. They must decide before
hand what information is to be
communicated and at what time.
III. They should avoid over concentration of
authority at the highest level. If instructions
can originate from various levels then the
line of communication will be shortened.
Delays will be eliminated; loss of
information and possibility of distortion will
be minimized.
IV. The information must be passed on to the
correct person in the hierarchy. If this is not
 done it can create future problems for
smooth flow of downward communication.

UPWARD COMMUNICATION
In upward communication, information flows
from down to up in an organization. Through
this form of communication information is
passed in the mode of opinions, views complain,
grievances and what is in lack.
Importance of upward communication
[Link] managers have to submit information
down the line of authority, the also need to
revise information coming from levels
below them
 Upward communication provides the
manager with the necessary feedback, they
are able to ascertain whether the directions
issued have been understood and followed.
[Link] also get valuable information on what
the employees may need or their problems
[Link] provides an outlet for pent up emotions
gives the employees to air out their
problems and grievances. It is important for
the managers to look at employees problems
as the employees work for them.
The genuine and pressing grievances must
be addressed immediately and ground
prepared for the solution of other problems.
This way the employees feel that they are
part of the organization.
[Link] suggestions; when employees
offer constructive suggestions which
promote the welfare of the organization
 when implemented prove beneficial to the
organization management should take up
these suggestions seriously.
[Link] introduction of new skills: when
employees become part of decision making
process it helps organization produce new
skills. They not only willingly lend their
support but go an extra mile to ensure
success of it.
[Link] communication creates cohesion
and harmony. It makes the atmosphere of
the organization conducive and creates
harmony in organization. Creating harmony
and cohesion between management and
employees

Methods of upward communication

Some of the commonly use methods of upward
communication include;
 [Link] door policy, employees have the
opportunity to walk in the manager’s office
to give their problems without hesitation.
[Link] or suggestion box
These are placed strategically and
employees are encouraged to drop their
complains or suggestion if any in the boxes.
It’s meant for the employees I an
organization or outside
[Link] gathering
These can be arranged in various
departments or sections of the organization
with an informal atmosphere where
employees can feel free air their complains
and suggestions.

[Link] correspondence
The manager can directly communicate to
employees, face to face, through phones or
letters.
 [Link]
Employees may be required to submit
reports about the progress of their work at
regular intervals
[Link]
In some organization workers are encouraged to
seek the counsel of their superiors or those in
guidance and counseling section. Counseling
may provide managers with information as they
talk during counseling. While counseling helps
employees to solve their problems information
provided is utilized by managers to give a better
ground to future policies.
Limitations of upward communication
Upward communication suffers from a number
of limitations some of which include
[Link] are usually reluctant to initiate
upward communication
 [Link] may keep their doors open but
cannot force the employees to walk in.
[Link] feel uneasy that if the relate their
problems it will reflect on their deficiency.
[Link] flow of communication may be
distorted deliberately.
[Link] workers may become too bold
and ignore the immediate superior and
approach the top most authorities. This can
seem harmful in two ways
[Link] who have been bypassed feel
intimidated and undermined. Therefore the
relationship between the superiors and the
employees gets strained.
Essentials of effective upward
communication
I. Managers should keep encouraging workers
to come out of their shell and communicate
freely. They can do this by taking the
invitation to communicate with the workers
II. Distortion by editing can be avoided if the
lines of communication are kept as short as
possible. All upward communication can be
properly analyzed e.g. Genuine grievances
should be resolved immediately suggestion
for information should be taken out for
implementation.
Horizontal communication
A. Information between different people of
the same level in the managerial hierarchy of
the organization
[Link]’s also information that flows diagonally
with people at different levels
[Link] most frequently used method of
communication
D. It’s important for
I. Promoting understanding and co-
ordination among various department
II. Sharing of departmental information
enabling realization of what and how
others do in their departments and how it
can affect others in their own department
E. Speed up inflow of communication
F. Enhancement of co-operation and a lot of
consultation between departments
G. It speeds up information
H. Cooperation is enhanced
I. It can be done through oral, face to face,
observation, telephone etc.
J. It allows freedom of expression
K. Immediate feedback
L. Misunderstanding are sorted out
M. Written means these are mainly letters
memos and reports.
Some managers however discourage
horizontal communication because workers
may get tooProduction
friendly to one another and
cause problems to the management. There’s
 need for organizations to balance between
allowing freedom of expression and at the
same time selling boundaries so that the
workers do not get too friendly to raise
concern.

Purchase Marketing

Accounts Public relation

Administration

Grapevine
They operate in every organization besides the
formal channels
An informal channels of communication is
called grapevine
It follows not set lines or definite rules but
spreads like a bush fire.
Grapevine moves in any direction anywhere
Grapevine can be defined as information passed
through rumors, gossips and scandals.
This means of passing information operates
unofficially though organization recognizes it as
a communication pattern. It’s quite natural for a
group of people working together to be
interested in one another, and talk about issues
that affect them both professionally or out of
work.
Information in most of these issues is sometimes
supposed to be secret. Some people derive great
pleasure from gathering the secrets of others ant
transmitting them to others. These are leaders
who control grapevine. They whisper the
information whenever they come across any
piece which is interesting enough to be
transmitted through grapevine, swearing those
they meet into secrecy.
Those who receive the information also whisper
to others and swear them to secrecy. Finally the
secret will have spread to everyone.
Keith Davis states that grapevine is more a
product of a situation than it is on the person eg.
Certain situations like, insecurity of service,
uncertainty over promotion, certain innovations
in the organization that are likely to affect the
employees are sure to activate the leader of the
grapevine , so that vey soon all kind of rumors
are spread in the whole organization.
Grapevine is a channel of horizontal
communication because it only involves people
working in the same level if the hierarchy.
The fact is grapevine doesn’t follow any set of
pattern but can be effective, horizontally,
diagonally and vertically
Grapevine operates during coffee breaks, lunch
breaks and during social gatherings e.g. sports
clubs etc.
This helps in exchange of information from one
section to another. There’s consultation that
brings out efficiency within the organization.

Importance of grapevine
[Link] valve
It act as a kind of safety valve for pent up
emotions
Apprehension experience by workers can
become an obsession and talking about them
may not alleviate fears but it will continually
provide emotional relief
 [Link] solidarity and cohesion
The existence of grapevine proves that workers
are interested in each other. The very fact that
they talk among themselves promotes
organizational solidarity and cohesion.
Properly used grapevine may raise the morale of
employees
[Link] supplement other channels
All information cannot be transmitted to
employees through official channels. Grapevine
is quick in assisting formal channel and
providing a guide to the accuracy of the
channels.
[Link] transmission
Grapevine is very fast. The speed with which
the information is transmitted through grapevine
is quite remarkable.
[Link] back
Grapevine provides feedback to the
management. Management is able to know what
is happening in the organization. It also enables
them to know what the employees think about
the organization and various activities.
Demerits of grapevine
a. Grapevine can spread baseless or distorted
news which can prove harmful to both the
employee and the organization. There are
somehow accurate but often become
inaccurate and distorted. Grapevine is
generally believed and difficult to stop.

[Link] information
Information in grapevine is usually
incomplete and there is a likelihood of it
being misinterpreted.
c. Damaging swiftness
The swiftness with which grapevine
transmits information may be damaging
 A rumor may spread and cause serious damage
before the organization is aware of it and can
lack rectifying steps, grapevine can be used
effectively in the following ways.
I. Managers should try to spot the leader and
those active in grapevine and keep them
well informed, with the happiness so that
harmful and keep them well informed, with
the happiness so that harmful rumors does
not reach the employees.
II. Grapevine should be used to fill the pause of
the employees.
III. If there’s any false rumor, management
should immediately use official channels to
contradict or dispel the fears of the
employees. The manager should involve
workers in decision making process and this
way rumors will cease. Since they will be
aware of what is happening.
Harmful effects of grapevine will be
successfully controlled.
Importance of internal communication
[Link] understanding between the
employer and employees.
It minimizes misunderstanding

[Link] efficiency
Enable the management to instruct the
supervisors and subordinates staff about
any change of policy, hence, increasing
the efficiency of workers.
[Link] co-ordination
Employees can co-ordinate more
effectively in the presence of good
communication system. E.g. different
departments can inform the other
departments of their strategies.
[Link] avoid losses.
 Employees are free to inform the
management of any breakdown of
machinery or other shortages.
Management can take action in time and
avoid any possible losses.

External communication
Most firms at all times of the working day
transmit information vertically both upward and
downward and also horizontally. This is usually
the internal communication within which we
have formal and informal communication.
Every firm however will link with the outside
world, which includes customers, suppliers,
government, banks, other branches, trade
unions, media etc. this is known as external
communication.
External communication can present serious
difficulties in that the person at the other end of
communication channel is often somebody you
know very little about and whose
communication methods you’ve no control over.
This can cause misunderstanding that takes a
longtime to clear up. Its therefore important that
external communication be flexible, friendly,
patient, cautious , in your attitude when you deal
with the outside world.
External communication is communication
between a company and the external
environment i.e. customers, suppliers financial
institution etc.
A company can communicate in variety of ways
to keep the public informed of the activities and
to add public understanding of itself and its
products services, policies etc.
 The main methods of eternal communication
includes
I. Letters
Letters should be well written, well displayed
and the content clear and organized since they
give information about an organization. They
are important and used extensively and therefore
carry the image of the organization.
II. Reports
Those of interest in the public include annual
reports of shareholders, market research, state
report etc.
They should be written effectively and a lot of
care should be taken since they also carry the
image of the organization
III. Telephone/telex/ fax/ email
Communication with the public occurs daily
throughout the world by lines under the sea,
 linked by telex, radio, computer, satellites video
conference etc.
The image of the firm is deeply enhanced by
good communication techniques.
IV. Representatives
Representatives or commercial travelers are
knowledgeable members of sales department
sent out to find customers. They represent an
organization and are assigned to a particular
area to establish products/services arranged for
servicing and keep their customers up to date
take orders and write reports to the organization.
V. Customer relations/care
A person deals with the public either directly
whenever they visit the organizations or
indirectly through the telephone. They play an
important role portraying the image of the firm.
The personnel under this department need
 understanding of human relations especially
listening skills.
VI. Literature
Organizations communicate through leaflets,
booklets, brochures’, circulars
They should be clear simple and direct helpful
and available.
VII. Conference/ exhibition
These are important means of contacting the
public where the organization may set up a
conference to exchange ideas with delegates
from other branches and other organizations
communication techniques may include
lectures, seminars and films. Planning
conference/ exhibition need detailed preparation
and materials e.g. films have to be vivid and
informative.
Importance of external
communication
[Link] reputation
It establishes a good reputation, hence
increases prestige of that company.
[Link] in public relation
The company keeps the general public
informed about their activities and
services and this makes it possible for
more people becoming interested to
deal with that company.
[Link] business prospects:
Company can attract more customers
Company increases sales and profits.
[Link] of customers
The company is able to identify the
needs and wants, likes and dislikes of
customers. This would help the
company to produce goods according
to the choice of customers.
[Link] departments:
 Companies deal with different public
companies like licensing authorities,
banks, and other financial institutions,
income tax, post office authorities etc.
many a time, they find themselves in
tricky situations that can only be
handled through tactful negotiations
hence communication.
[Link] requirements
Dress like personnel, public relations,
marketing, sales, labour relations etc,
all calls for exceptional
communication skills, others like
editors, writers, teachers, advocates,
and researchers also require highly
developed ability to communicate
Executives also are expected to give
speeches, prepare pamphlets,
brochures, souvenirs and give
interviews to the media in order to
 project a favourable image of their
organization
Thus, ability to communicate
effectively has become an important
tool in job requirement.

CHAPTER SIX
Business correspondence
Communication correspondence between one
organizations to another frequently occurs
through written or oral means. This is important
since it creates the image of the person who is
representing an organization. Hence, care
should be taken when communicating in any
organization.
Business correspondence represents
organization policies, Progress and objectives.
They include:
 Letters
 Memos
 Circulars
 Telex
 Telegram
 Questionnaires
 Email
Letters:
There are three different kinds of letters.
These are:
Personal- letters
-written to people who are related and within
the personal level. They are written to our
acquaintances, i.e., those with whom either we
have had relationships or wish to maintain some
relationship. Due to their very purpose, personal
letters are informal in nature. The salutation
may be that of a relation or a friend and starts
with ‘my dear’ ‘my very dear’ and ends with
‘yours only’ ‘yours sincerely’. Etc. They can
also be intimate with expressions of feelings.
They have no specific purpose achieved except
renewing or reinforcing love and affection.

Business letter
These are letters written to business clients,
customers, in the office, in organizations to
other organizations generally in business circles.
The objective of business letters is purely
business activity. They are written for a definite
objective e.g. selling, purchasing, and
inquiring about something.
They are formal in nature and follow a laid
procedure and certain set of rules
They have to be accurate to the point and
written in cool and calculated manner with a
specific purpose or motive.
Official letters
These are letters sent out by any organization
regardless of who writes them. They represent
the organization and therefore, care should be
taken to ensure that they provide not only
accurate information but also the truth.
FORMAT\STYLE OF BUSINESS LETTER:
The following formats are used in business
letters:
-Full or complete block format
All parts of a letter begin from the left margin.
E.g date, salutation, subject etc, flush from the
left margin
Advantage
Format is clear and straightforward.
it is easier to write or type because the typist
does not have to adjust different margins for
different parts of the letter.
Disadvantage
Since this format mostly concentrates on the left
margin, the margin appears to be crowded and
unbalanced
Example:

Name of the company

 Date
  Ref: .yours
.Ours
 Inside address
 Salutation
 Subject
 Body
 Complimentary clause
 Enclosure
 Copies

 Block style format:

Date line, complementary signature, name of the
writer, designation etc. everything is aligned on
the right margin .All others like reference
number, inside address, salutation, enclosure are
aligned with the left margin.
 Indented format or layout.
It is one of the oldest and most traditional forms
of business letters.
The address line and the body of the letter are
indented two or four spaces from the previous
lines. The address lines have a comma at the end
of each line and a full stop at the end of the last
line.
It is generally used when the letter is written in
hands.
It requires more time to type as the typist has to
keep shifting because of the indent.
 Simplified format :
All lines are flushed with the left margin but
salutation and complimentary clause are done
away with.
Hence, it does not involve the confusion of
gender specific salutation is simple and saves
time.
PARTS OF A LETTER
[Link] or head address
Head address contains the name and address
of the person/organization writing the letter
e.g. telephone number, fax email, website
etc.
The letter head serves the purpose of
providing the address and other details for
correspondence. Also acts as advertisement.
[Link]
It is written below the head address in the
right side or left side depending on the
format of the letter. In some letters, a printed
line is made to indicate where the date
should be.
Dates build up the history of the situation
and also help to know how urgent
information is.
 Dates should not be written in numbers or
figures instead should be written in fill e.g.
1st march 2014 or March 1st 2014. The
following are also in correct 12, March,14 or
march 12,14.
[Link] number
It is normally written on the left side of the
letter on the same side as the date.
Sometimes, letters may contain two lines, to
indicate reference of the other party, written
as ‘your reference’ and own reference
written as ‘our’
Reference no. makes it easier to file the
letters at the right place and connect it with
earlier correspondence for sending replies.
Care should be taken to mention the
reference number as exactly what was
written in the correspondence of the other
party, no changes in punctuation, small or
 capital letters etc. should be made to avoid
ambiguity.
It speeds up communication.
[Link] inside address
 This is the address of the person who is
receiving the letter i.e. to whom the letter is
sent to.
 Has to be written carefully to ensure the
letters reaches the right person.
 Written below the date and above the
salutation
 Sometimes the inside address may be used
as outside address e.g. in the window
envelopes.

[Link] address may take the following

forms:
 While writing to a company for the first
time, an individual is not addressed.
 Miss or m/s should be written only if the
name of the company contains a person’s
name
 If a letter is written to an office by name
,the following should be observed
 Miss- for unmarried
 Mrs – for married
 Mr –for men
 Dr/Prof/Rev/Hon etc where a person has a
special title.

[Link] line:
 It is written if the letter is marked to a
particular individual of a company to draw
his/her attention.
 It ensures prompt action to be taken on the
letter
 Written below the inside address and above
the salutation line.
 It is underlined to highlight the effect e.g.
attention: P.M Odinga.

[Link]
 It’s the greetings to the receiver of the
letter,
 Written below the attention line (if it is
there), or below the inside address.
 Written on the left side margin.
 It,s format and style depends on the
relationship of the sender and the
receiver. E.g.
 Dear sir/madam is written for both
married and unmarried men and women.
 If it is written to a group of people e.g.
club, association or agency, dear sirs or
madams may be used.
  In any formal letters ,sirs, or madams are
the only ones used i.e letters written to
superiors head office, newspaper editors
etc.
 Where a letter is written to an officer by
name, then the salutation will be as
follows:
 Dear sir/
 Dear mr John

If the writers knows the receiver of the letter

or is a close friend, the salutation may be
less formal e.g. dear John/Dr. John/Prof.
John
[Link] caption or subject
 It comes just after the salutation.
 It aims at letter readers to know what the
correspondence is all about and save
time.
 It summarizes the theme of the letter
  It ensures that the letter is passed to the
right person or department without
delay.
 The reader is able to focus the
background of the matter and apprehend
the contents more easily.
 It gives a nutshell of what follows in the
body of the letter.
 It should be carefully choosen so that it
is not misleading
 e.g
Dear Sirs
Subject: SUPPLY OF OFFICE
EQUIPEMENTS
The abbreviation Re: may be used
[Link] body of the letter
It is the most important part of the letter as it
contains the message the writer want to
convey to the reader.
It is therefore important that special
attention be paid to this part in organizing
and arranging the contents so that they have
the desired impact on the person who is to
take action.
It is written below the salutation line or the
subject line.
The body of the letter is divided into three
parts:

a) The opening/introductory part

 It is short and to the point
 It immediately attracts the attention of
the reader
 It constitutes the purpose of the letter
 Based on the subject heading

b) Main communication
 It may take the form of many paragraphs
or sub- paragraphs, depending upon the
details and length of the letter
It develops the body of the letter.
e.g. based on the above subject of: supply
of office equipments, you give all the
detailed information of say, the
quantity, colour,quality,size,time
required,etc.

c) Closing part of the body

It is short and it mentions the action the
writer expects the recipient of the letter to
take.
E.g. “J wish to receive the goods the
soonest possible”

10. Complementary clause:

o It is a polite way of ending a letter,
o It is a form of saying goodbye or a
courteous way of taking leave from the
reader.
o Written on the right or the left of the
letter (depending on the format used) as
a convectional and polite way of ending
the correspondence.\
o The complimentary clause and the
salutation used have a relationship.
o The more informal the salutation the
more informal the closing and vice-
versa.
o E.g. sir, dear sir(s), dear madam(s), the
complementary clause will be yours
faithfully
o Dear John, Mr. John, My Dear John etc,
the complementary clause will be yours
sincerely.
o In case a student writes to the teacher or
principal, “yours respectfully” is used
 (but not in business). This is also used
when writing to a high official e.g. his
Excellency,
o NB: ‘ Y ‘ has to be capitalized and no
apostrophe in the word ‘yours’

11. Signature
 It is placed below the complimentary
closure, and above the name and
designation (in most cases typed) while
the signature is hand written.
 No “Mrs. /Mr.” is used
 Legally the signature has a lot of
importance as it is the signatory of the
letter who is held responsible for the
contents in the letter.
12. Identified marks or reference initials:
 It is used for the identification of the
person who has typed the letter.
  The initials of the person who dictated
the letter may also be put along with the
initials of the person who has typed the
letter.
 e.g. TMC/LM, if the leter has been
dictated by TM carol and typed by Lucy
Mwangi.

13. Enclosure
Enclosure is the material that has been
enclosed with the letter and is written on the
left side below the signature line.
If the sender has enclosed any documents,he
must edicate by writing abbreviations
ENCL: then write whatever is enclosed.

PRINCIPALS OF BUSINESS LETTER

WRITING
 Courteousness and consideration i.e
language and style.
  Direct approach and conciseness.
 Remember the basic aim of the letter.
 Try to make use of appropriate words.
 Convey the message directly.

 Avoid verbosity:
 Avoid unnecessary words or phrases
which become an irritant to the reader.
 Be simple, straight forward by using
minimum words.

Participial endings
 Certain sentences at the end of the letter
do not convey anything essential, they
just add to the length of the letter.
 E.g. “hoping you will continue to show
your interest in the future as well” “it
goes without saying that we shall be
 delighted to get a communication from
you in this regard” etc
 Positive and direct statements
Negative expressions create avoidable
confusion.

CHAPTER 20
Corporate Communication

What should you know?

20.1 Corporate Communication
20.2 House Journals, Corporate Brochures,
Information' Booklets
20.3 Press Releases and Press Conferences
"20.4 'Company Meetings, Agenda, Notices and
Minutes
20.5 Public Relations (PR)
20.6 Basics of Advertisement
20.7 International Communication

20.1 CORPORATE COMMUNICATION

Corporate communication is a wide term. It
denotes, first, the communication channels -
downward, upward, horizontal and crosswise -
that are at work in an organization. (See Chapter
2.) More importantly, it denotes the governance
of an organization’s image-building
communication within itself and with the
outside world. Like production, marketing and
finance, now communication is also taken as a
specialised functional area. Hence, by corporate
communication we also mean an organization’s
conscious effort to make its managers better
speakers, better writers and more polished
personalities.
Corporate communication
 Downward, upward, horizontal,' crosswise
communication
 Image-building communication within a
company and with public
 Making managers better communicators

The need to nurture corporate communication

skills has been especially felt after World War
II, which ended in 1945, leading us into an Age
of Information. People are more conscious of
knowing about the company with which they
deal as shareholders, customers, sellers, etc. To
meet this situation, corporations are overhauling
and fine-tuning their communications. Much of
corporate communication is governed by the
public relations (PR) and marketing wings of an
organization.

Here we shall not deal with the routine internal

communication (letters, meetings, etc.) of a
business house, since various earlier chapters
cover it. We shall take up the other aspects of
corporate communication.
Corporate communication takes many forms.
Within the organization, it works by means of a
house journal and ongoing programs to improve
its managers' speaking, writing and personality
caliber. With the outside world, an organization
communicates through corporate brochures,
information booklets, press releases, press
conferences, ads, etc. Larger companies have
public relations department which
communicates two-way with the various publics
of a company and helps foster a good image of
itself.

Through effective management of corporate

communication, a company earns a good name,
attracts good workers as employees, keeps the
existing staff satisfied and growing, gets
prestigious business houses to deal with it, gets
government recognition and, of course, creates a
market for its products,

International communication is another aspect

of corporate communication. This is a study of
fruitful communication across international
cultural differences.

20.1.1 Skills Developed in Managers

Nowadays it is customary to develop in the
managers of a. company various personality
skills to project a good and uniform image of
the company, reflecting the corporate culture.
Managers are taught -
• How to greet properly
• How to conduct themselves physically, how
to work, sitor take a stand on the stage
• How to dress
• How to listen proactively
• How manners differ in different regions and
countries
• How to show special regard for senior
citizens, ladies and poorly communicating
clients

Communication abilities required in a

manager
A manager of a modern corporation is often
required to spend the largest part of his time
listening, speaking: writing or reading as part of
his duties. Specifically, he has to-
• Receive and react to communications from
other departments.
• Send appropriate information to his
colleagues
• Transmit new ideas to his higher-ups
• Brief his subordinates to get things done the
required way
• Keep his communications free from bias
HOUSE JOURNAL.
Nature and Functions of a House Journal

A house journal is a company's own magazine

primarily for internal circulation, with itself as
the main theme. It has variants like bulletins and
newsletters. It is circulated internally but also
kept open for public reading. It is a reflection of
the company’s pride in itself. The house journal
contains a good' deal of pure entertainment also
in which the employees and their family
members participate as contributors and readers.
CONTENTS OF HOUSE JOURNAL.
The contents of a typical house journal are:

• New developments involving the company's

top brass, their visits and meetings with
leaders and dignitaries
• Inaugurations, new branches, major
postings, reshuffle
• Employees' and their families: achievements
in exams, public service, sports, fine arts, etc.
• Humor, especially related to the company's
line of functioning. Scholarly writings on the
 Company’s field of activity
• Creative writing, viz. poems, stories, satires
 Photographs related to the above or
general interest

• Paintings, especially by employees or their

relatives
• News on births, marriages, promotions
• Goodwill activities like donations, tree
plantation, schemes for the handicapped
• Grant of scholarships by the company or
award of scholarships to its employees or
their relatives
• Letters by readers
Objectives of a house journal
I. To emphasize all that is positive about the
company, its growth and its contribution to
society's development .
2. To create an awareness of its business
breakthroughs such as bagging an export
contract or an export council award
3. To give scope to creative talents of its
employees and their family members
4. To keep harmonious relations with rank and
file of the organization. Employees in the
lower posts may have talents in writing,
photography, dramatics, singing etc. which
get either projected or reported on in the
house journal.
5. To entertain its readers in, a unique way,
that is in a way other than a general magazine
6. To acquaint the readers with the top brass
through their photos, messages or write-ups
7. To reflect the corporate philosophy which is
generally more than just making profits, viz
fostering self-reliance, raising the standard of
living of the 'people, bringing innovations,
global competition, etc.
8. To create the feeling of a shared culture and
family bond among the employees

Nature and Functions of a Brochure

Brochures are printed handouts as small as a
leaflet or as large as a booklet or folder, usually
using glossy paper and color pictures to enhance
the effect. Brochures inform in brief and in
polished language about a company or an aspect
of it. The writing and designing of a brochure is
a specialized job of copywriters, graphic artists
and publicity personnel. Brochures may be
distributed through a company's marketing
personnel to reach the clients or prospects. They
may be given to distributors and dealers for their
information and to the public at POP (point of
purchase), and to various connected
organizations. .
A well-produced brochure can give a major
boost to a company's sales efforts. The quality
of its production is taken as a symbol or the
company's worth. A glitzy and colorful brochure
tells half the story before it is opened and read.
Hence a company pays much attention to its
brochure in its promotional activity.

The following may be remembered about the

nature of a brochure:
• It is an instrument of-publicity that is
compact and impressive.
• The writing of it is in polished prose, using
minimal words.
• Pictures, diagrams, charts, tables etc: are
used in a highly orderly manner.
• Close-up technical pictures help to explain
finer processes and this sometimes earns the
respect of a technically informed reader. For
example, why is a particular kind of steel
more wieldable or how a particular
toothbrush cleans the teeth better than
others? '
 Pictures of a company's plant, office,
employees at work, its machinery, and
testimonies of satisfied users, etc. to help
convince the reader.
• Sometimes, a brochure incorporates a sample
of the product itself, e.g. a perfume, a piece of
'fabric, etc.
• A brochure often uses a catchy headline or a
matter-of-fact statement about the company or
its product. E.g., a car brochure may be
captioned, "What drives the stars in their b
orbits " An agricultural product may simply
 state(for its less sophisticated reader)."Better
yield, more disease resistance."
• Brochures are produced in the language best
understood by the target audience. In India
however, there is a peculiar tendency to use
English for producing a brochure even if the
target audience understands the regional
language better.
• Brochures are expensive to produce and
need to be circulated accurately and without
waste. Also, since information can become
outdated in course of time, the quantity of
brochures to be printed has to be properly
estimated.
Functions of a brochure
I. It informs vividly and engagingly about a
product, service or the company itself. Since
it can be preserved, carried abput, compared
 with other brochures! it acts as a powerful
means of publicity,
2. The pictures sometimes tell the story better
than long descriptions. In this age of audio-
visual media, there is a right tendency to
keep the pictures up front to arrest the eye
without the need to read too much.
3. Technical processes and specifications are
clarified.
4. Tables and charts help to show the
comparative merits of a product over others,
especially the conventional ones.
5. Unlike TV ads, they correlate pictures and
words in a leisurely way. They help to redouble
the impact of TV ads.
6. They can be stacked in a special stand at the
sales outlet, for customers to pick up at their
 choice. A customer un-approached by a
salesman feels freer to make a choice.
7. Brochures are extensively used in tourism.
8. Sometimes a brochure is disguised as a
supplement to a general magazine and
delivered along with it. Such a brochure
offers attractive general information or
advice, and marketing appears to be a
'secondary aim.
9. Some brochures try to enhance their
preservation value by giving tips on
maintenance, healthcare, financial advice,
etc. They win the goodwill of the reader and
make him feel grateful towards the
company.

Information Booklet
A business house has to compile various types
of information in a handy, readable form for
ready reference by: different categories of
people it deals with. Thus the details of a
scheme, the addresses and features of its
branches, regulations, etc. may be published in
an information booklet. Good information
booklets help the readers to understand the
products, schemes, method of use (as in the'
case of cosmetics) and serve to reinforce
marketing. A financial service provider may
bring out a booklet on its investment schemes
or, in public interest, on calculating income tax.
This serves as indirect advertisement.
Employees of an organization may benefit from
a compilation of essential service rules
including facilities available. '
An organization needs to plan what information
booklets it should have, how they can be made
reader-friendly (simple language, illustrations,
analogies etc.) and arrange for their distribution.
An information booklet helps to reduce the
mental distance between management and
potential users of the information.
When an organization is expanding rapidly -
geographically or in terms of products and
services (e.g. cell phones in the first decade of
the twenty-first century) - timely issuance of
information booklets and their updating can help
the company's customers etc. to keep track of
the developments.
An information booklet is simpler and mo~e
detailed than a brochure, which is a pithy
publicity device.

A variant of information booklet is the

instructions manual. In case of modern and
complex gadgets, an instructions manual/user's
manual is a must. Technology is expanding
rapidly, there is little standardization, and non-
technical readers have to be attracted to new
technology. They should fit from it to the point
of delight. While such manuals are being issued
as rapidly as new technology is pushing its way
into common use, they are at present generally
unsatisfactory. Often one has to be a patient
linguistics expert or a technocrat to make
headway with them. Again, although American
English is little used in India in school and
college education, these manuals tend to use
American usages wholesale. This is a sorry state
of affairs and a good field of action for able
communicators. The lack of good writing here is
slowing down technology and business. Hence,
when a business house launches new
technological products, it would do very well to
hold workshops, short training programs etc.
with live demos.
PRESS RELEASES AND PRESS
CONFERENCES
To keep the public or a target section of it
properly informed about a company's activities,
especially those of news value, it has to issue
timely press releases. In these, mass media
reporters are given the company's version.
These releases are mailed, handed personally in
the media office (to newspapers, magazines, TV
channels, radio etc.) or presented at a press
conference. The conference, whether in a hotel
or a press bureau, allows the reporters to ask
questions and clarify things even better.
Companies use various methods to induce the
newspapers to print their version. This may be
by giving simultaneous ads (the bigger the ad,
the more the coverage to the press release!) or
through samples, customary gifts, etc.
, .
Nature of a Press Release
Since it is meant for creating a news item or
influencing an editorial, a press release is
primarily informative and persuasive. .
1. It is generally given on the company's
letterhead by a responsible officer (PRO,
general manager etc.).
2. It incorporates accurate; official information
with names, places, figures, endorsements, etc.
3. Skilled writers or ad agencies are employed
for writing press releases.
4. Most newspapers have a business page
where the press releases appear after
conversion into news items. Some
companies try to give a draft that may be
straight away used as a news item, editing
the press release from the newspapers' point
 of view. However, most companies prefer to
use their own formula.
5. If it is to promote a product, the AIDA
formula (Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action)
'is used.
A press release is usually supported by an
advert either the same day or thereabouts.
The terse and appealing message of the
advert and the detailed message of the news
(based on the press release) supplement
each other.
6 A press release can be supported by signed
documents, statements, etc. which help to
convince the newspaper about the truth of
the release.
7. To get' the press releases a good coverage, a
company needs to maintain cordial relations
with the media.
8. The PR department has to follow up after
giving a press release to ensure that it is
reported duly and accurately. Some
omissions can be critical to the company's
image and interests. For instance, if a report
omits the fact that the product is
technologically the best (to appease
competing products and get their ads), the
PR department has to get active.
9. A press release is part of a complex PR
operation and requires much activity before,
after And alongside to make the best impact

Functions of a Press Release

A press release is as much an opportunity for a
company as a duty. Its chief functions are:
• It is an instrument of timely mass
information. It can inform the public about
 the formation of a business house, its
expansion, reorganization, merger,
collaboration, relocation, new appointments,
etc. Press release at the time of a new share
issue (initial public offer) can influence the
fate of the issue and the company together.
• It helps to remove misinformation. For
instance, when bird flu had struck, press
releases told how safe chickens were for
eating. This controlled the panic reaction of
the public and prevented the destruction of
thousands of birds.
• Since a press release is presented through a
reportorial third party (newspaper etc.), it
may carry greater convincing power than an
ad
• While ad space is limited and expensive, a
news item based on a pre, release allows the
company to talk at length about itself.
• By devising something newsworthy every
now and then, a company can remain in the
news with regularity. It is an age of "publish
or perish."
• Facts have the convincing power of cold
logic. While these may look unimpressive in
ads, they are the meat of a news report.
Therefore, the facts in a press release are a
necessity for winning public confidence.
• In times of strike, accident etc., if .loud
leaders carry the public opinion, a press
release, supported" by an intellectual
medium, takes the wind out of them.
• Prompt and accurate press releases are a
duty the company owes to its shareholders,
investors, clients, franchisees, distributors,
dealers, etc. Each has his own interest angle,
as a user, dependant or financial partner, and
 he looks to the outcome of press releases. A
press-mart company naturally surges ahead.
Composing and Delivering Press Releases
This is a job for persuasive writers. In
organizing a press release, the following points
may be noted:
I. It should be prompt.
2. It should select the mass media to cover all
concerned readers, viewers, etc.
3. The headline itself should sum up the story.
Just as many readers browse only headlines,
the news editor may also glance at a press
release caption and decide about it.
4. A good headline should be followed up by a
lead (opening line) that gets into the heart of
the story: This will keep the editor interested
enough to read it through.
5. Since the news editor is an intellectual, he
may not be impressed by gimmicky
headlines or leads. They should appeal to
him/her.
6. It should not hurt any interest group or the
news editor's sense of values.
7. It should be neatly typed and be free/from
errors.
8. How a press release is presented is ..• also
important. It should get as close as possible
to the person who decides whether and how
to publish it. In a newspaper office, it should
reach the specialized desk and find the
functionary in a favorable mood about it.
9. An ignored and delayed press release serves
no function. Hence press cooperation has to be
sought and there has to be a follow-up. .
10. Some press releases are in two parts - a
letter requesting the editor to publish it, and
then the release itself.
11. The language of a release has to follow all
the principles of effective writing discussed
elsewhere (in chapters on letter. writing and
report writing) such as clarity, conciseness,
completeness, use of simple language, and the
sales formula of AIDA.
Specimen Press Releases

1. Press release informing about the Easy Exit

Scheme of Ministry of Corporate Affairs
Covering Letter and Press Release
15th December 2o12
The Editor
The Nations Newspaper

Dear Sir,
Kindly publish the below mentioned press
release of the Ministry of
Corporate Affairs in your esteemed newspaper
and oblige.
Dr. V.K. Odongo,
Chairman
MCA.
Press Release
The Ministry of Corporate Affairs has decided
to introduce a Scheme namely, "Easy Exit
Scheme, 2013" under section 560 of the
companies Act, 1956 to give an opportunity to
the defunct companies, for getting their names
struck off from the register of companies.
The scheme will be in operation from 1st
January, 2013 to 31st January, 2013.
For details, refer to General Circular No. 6/2010
dated 03.12.2011 available at [Link]
2. Press release to inform that now every
Indian state has HERBO distributors
Press release
HERBO presence in all states
With the appointment of distributors in all the
states of India now, HERBO Natural Medicines
has more reasons to let people believe what it
has always believed itself - that purity pays. The
recent appointment of distributors in four north-
eastern states of India gives us the rare record of
being a herbal medicine company with
distributors in all the states of the Union. While
the market is continually being flooded with
cheap, fantasy-promising tonics, HERBO has
stood its ground where many herbal companies
compromised. HERBO has not changed its
formula to accommodate allopathic medicines.
On the contrary, it has reinforced its formulation
with the help of constant feedback and research,
but staying close to the ancient and time-
honored formulations for giving vigor and
vitality to men and women: Thus we can safely
claim to be purely ancient, nicely up-to-date

20.3.5 Press Conference

A press conference is held to interact with the
media rather than just pass on one-way
information (as in sending press releases by
messenger etc.). It creates a sense of occasion. It
is helpful to:
• Launch a product, a new model, etc.
• Declare the opening of a new business
establishment, regional entry
• Announce a merger, takeover, new
appointment, etc.
• Give company's version in case of rumors or
crises
• Give news of achievements, breakthroughs,
etc.
• Announce schemes, discounts, etc.

Planning a Press Conference

In planning a press conference, the organizer
has to think of a suitable place, time,
spokesperson and message. The attendees need
to be induced to be present. This is done by an
alluring invitation and intellectual bait, and
well-timed repeat contacts.
The spokesperson has to make a presentation
with all the devices he can command - slides,
film clips and so on.

Stages of a press conference

1. Greeting: It has been found by researchers
that in an oral presentation 7% of a message
 are by words alone. Nearly 38% is through
tone, accent, voice modulation and 55%
through non-verbal factors like gestures,
posture, dress, etc. Hence a cheerful, whole-
hearted greeting is necessary.
2. Outline: This is to communicate in about 20
seconds the conference plan.

3. Important information: Now you can tell

about the length of your talk, the handout or
press release, the question-answer session
and the refreshments (if any).

4. Body message: After this you can launch

systematically with your detailed briefing.
One male and one female speaker together
hold the attention better. Graphic aids
should be used for relieving monotony. It is
 a fine achievement if you can make the
audience feel, "How time has flown!
Highlight the main points with a
combination of emphasis and subtlety. How
is subtlety used? "That will cost the
company an additional rupees three cores,
but let's skip that."
5. Summary: Make a summary of your talk
before you close. If it is a product launch,
e.g. a water filter, you can highlight the
technology, the availability and the discount
(early bird scheme).
6. Question-answer session: The organizers
may need to go as a group to face media queries
and also for mutual moral support. The media
persons must be encouraged to speak and led
into asking questions. Overcome the silences by
raising questions yourself and answering them.
Let the microphone go to the questioner and let
the question be clear. Let the questioner be
introduced. Among organizers, decide who will
handle the query. A good question- answer
session makes it a proper two-way
communication and is a halfway victory.
7. Conclusion: Now conclude the sum of the
question-answer session in just a few words,
thank the attendees for their participation,
make sure there are no more questions - or,
if time is up against you, continue the
questions over the refreshments. Invite the
guests to refreshments.


CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMERY/PRECIS WRITING
Précis is a communication skill where large
amount of data can be sifted and organized into
a short piece. Word précis originates from a lain
word “praecism” which means “to cut short”
Précis is a shortened version of original writing
and contains all essential ideas, feeling and
thoughts. Precise is used as a noun and convey
what the reader is reading as an abbreviated or
summery statement and not the original text.
Précis is also called abstract or summary of the
entire text through charity of mind ability to
distinguish non-essentials from essentials, good
command over vocabulary,
A good précis should have:-
 Sequence
 Coherence of thoughts of the author
 Make a complete reading.
 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD PRECIS
These include the qualities of good précis
writing:-
I. Direct form of speech or fist person is not
used. Précis is always written in the third
person.
II. As far as possible, a clear title should be
given to the précis.
III. It should be complete, in the sense that no
essential information and data is left out. No
important idea or fact should be omitted;
hence, this shows one’s ability and skills
IV. It must be clear and unambiguous in its
meaning. Anyone who has not read the
original should be able to get the exact
meaning of the original.
V. It should be a coherent piece of reading
material. The sequence of ideas in the
original must not be “scarified”
STEPS TO PRECIS WRITING:
NB: There must always be a comprehension of
the material of which a summary or brief is to
be made.
The following are guidelines for writing a good
summary:-
[Link] the passage slowly and carefully trying
to understand what is important.
[Link]-read the passage once again putting on a
piece of paper in logical, sequential and
chronological order
[Link] or highlight the essentials i.e. key
persons, figures, phrases, words etc.
[Link] up and select the most important issues,
ideas, facts etc. from what you have already
written. Reject any material that may not be
necessary.
[Link] down a title that would sum up the
theme of the passage.
 [Link] the first draft of the précis by:-
I. Using your own language
II. Don’t reproduce the words of the author
III. Avoid any repetition
IV. Ensure coherence in whatever you have
written (sequential)
[Link]-read the passage again and compare it
with your draft to see if all the relevant and
important points are included.
 Check the length of précis by counting the
words. NB when counting the words, do not
make them exactly a third
 Cut down certain sentences; use more
appropriate expressions etc to reduce the
size, if you feel it’s more than required.
[Link] the draft you have prepared once
again considering the correct formation of
sentences and grammar
 NB considers the principles of writing an
effective communication –i.e. clarity,
 brevity, consideration, completeness,
promptness.
[Link] your rough draft, reconsidering,
and the appropriateness of the title and
amend it if necessary.
10. Prepare the final draft.

Qualities of a good précis:

I. Conciseness – brevity
II. Clarity – of thought of expression
III. Coherence
IV. Complete
V. Consideration – adopt the you attitude
emphasize positive, pleasant facts, impact
integrity, to your message
VI. Courtesy – promptly
VII. Correctness
Rules of writing a précis
[Link] the theme of the passage very
carefully i.e. the central idea of the passage.
[Link] the reproduction of important
sentences NB that précis writing is not the
art of selecting and deleting but the art of
remodeling
[Link] is good but not at the cost of clarity.
 Brevity is the soul or précis writing but
no at the cost of clarity
 Brevity should not lead to ambiguity or
obscurity
[Link] précis ought to be intelligible even to a
person who has not read the original
passage. One who has read and one who has
not should both have the advantage.
[Link] your own language:- use your own
words and expressions.
[Link]écis is always written in the third person
 Where autobiographical form of narration or
description is used, you need to change it.
Begin the passage with “the author says”
Avoid use of direct speech in the précis, but
use direct speech to make it more compact.
[Link] your discretion if the passage contains
statistical information.
 Where statistical figures are used to
generalize facts, omit them, but if figures
are used as basic to the very
understanding of the general drift of the
passage, they can be retained.
[Link] proportion:
 Treat and deal with each part of the
original passage according to its
importance but not according to the
space assigned to it.
[Link] not make any comments:
 I.e. avoid any comment either appreciative
or critical on the ideas expressed in the
passage.
10. Reproduce the passage to its one-third.
The passage should be reduced to 1/3 of its
original unless otherwise indicated or
advised,
 How To Summarize A Passage ?
Summarization Skills Techniques

A summary is a short statement or

statements that give only the main points or
core information of something excluding
redundant information. Basically it
reproduces main points of a speech, article,
section, chapter or book. It does not strive for
the style and tone of the original.
Today's work culture ultimately requires
summary writing skills to save time, money
and energy as use of summarized versions
in a business organisation is essential at
various stages. Thus, today candidates with
adequate summarization skills are in great
demand for employment.

Summarization is a skill and requires proper

guidance, constant practice, special efforts
and proper training. An abstract is written by
an expert for experts. It presents specific
analysis, whereas synopsis is brief account
of research or business proposal and an
outline is primarily a sketch presented
professionally. These types of writing
involves summarization skills. While writing
summary one has to remember that he or
she is not directed or allowed to mould, alter
or change the main idea and introduce new
ideas. Thus, summarization is a process that
requires careful attention.

An engineer may be asked to submit a 10

minutes summary of 10000 pages long
proposal. To present such a report in
stipulated efficient time summarization skills
acquired.

A summary is required at various stages in

an organization. Board of directors, chief
executive, secretary, chairman and others
may not have sufficient time to read
complete proposal. They prefer a perfect
summary. A prejudiced or partial summary
will misguide and hinder smooth flow of
communication. Thus, a complete, candid,
perfect and unbiased summary is welcomed
and used in the process of decision making
 Essential Steps To Summarization ↓

1. Use perfect reading skills : As cited

earlier, reading is a skill. If proper steps
are taken, it will remain multi-beneficial. It
also plays vital role in summarization skill.
In the process of summarization, it helps to
segregate following aspects of reading
material.
1. Facts and opinions
2. Examples, figures, tables, anecdotes
3. Main ideas and supporting ideas
4. Most important and redundant or less
important points
The information of these factors will lead
better understanding and select core
information to write a summary.
2. Underline or note-down major idea :
An important step in the process of
summarization is to note-down or
underline major ideas during the reading
stage. It helps to collect and reproduce
 major ideas while writing summary. This
stage requires best selection and perfect
analytical skills. The wrong selection will
be futile and create chaos. The notes
taken or underlined segment will become
the base of a summary.
3. Check for appropriation : After
collecting (i.e. noting-down) major points,
summary writer is directed to check for
appropriateness of ideas to be reproduced
in the summary. If proper steps are not
taken, the collected points may misguide
and not help to reproduce the perfect
summary.
4. Prepare the first draft : Next important
step in summary writing is the prepartion
of first draft. In this stage try to frame
simple, self-dependent, short sentences
and club points to develop logical link. This
draft must be a complete, candid and
include maximum points. Enough care is
required to avoid needless repetitions and
omit examples, anecdotes, and other
 redundant [Link] is also essential to
develop structured paragraphs during this
stage.
5. Tailor and limit your summary : First
draft always requires proper brush up and
improvements. Hence, it is essential to
check for perfectness. During this stage it
is recommended to check for complete
package and logical arrangement It is
recommended to select and reproduce
theme and meaning or message of the
story, table or statistical data, use your
own language and active voice. It is also
essential to write objectively and insert link
between each segment with the help of
words such as, therefore, because, as,
neverthless, however, on the other hand,
such as and others to write a professional
summary. It is also essential to adjust
length of summary. It must not exceed ⅓rd
of the original text.
 Three Important Summarization
Techniques ↓

There are three important summarization

techniques. They are selection, rejection and
substitution. They are discussed hereunder.
1. Selection : Selection is an important
summarization technique. It is essential to
select major idea, key words and phrases,
special terms and interpretations
presented in the original [Link]
aspects must be considered seriously
while writing these summary. It is an
important summarization technique as it
helps to include all major ideas in
summary.
2. Rejection : Rejection is an important
summarization technique. lt is a process of
removing unnecessary data. As cited
earlier, try to reject repetitions, examples,
illustrations, anecdotes, redundant,
expressions, tables and statistical data.
 Basically rejection helps to prepare a
perfect summary.
3. Substitution : It is also an important
summarization technique. Basically it
includes synthesis. It is a mode of
combining several sentences into one
sentence. It is recommended to use
sentence substitutions, short sentences to
replace lengthy sentences. Use of one-
word substitutions is an added advantage
in the summary writing process.

Tips - How To Summarize Any Given

Passage? ↓

1. Be careful to select the theme of

passage or reading material.
2. Do not reproduce sentences from
original text.
3. Do not provide scope for ambiguity.
4. Include all major ideas.
5. Be objective and write summary in third
person.
6. Observe proportion.
7. Do not include any redundant data.
8. Never introduce your ideas.
9. Do not criticize or change the original
source.
10. Limit your summary, it must not be more
than ⅓rd the length of the original
passage.
11. Prefer short, simple and self dependent
sentences.
12. Be strigent with words.
13. Avoid cluttering, pleonasm or redundant
phares.
14. Avoid needless repetitions.
15. Logically link each section.

Final Quick Glance On Summarization ↓

A summary presents main ideas of given
passage. The objective style is used to write
a summary. A perfect summary is useful in
todays professional era.

Glossary - Important Terms of

Summarization ↓

Summary : Giving main points of some

resource.
Synopsis : A summary of a piece.
Excerpt : A short piece of writing taken from
a longer source.
Synthesis : The act of combining seperate
ideas, beliefs, etc.
Rejection : That something cannot be used
or sold because of something wrong.

LINKS
Why are Summaries So Important?
One of the most highly valued skills in any
workplace that generates a lot of words—
whether written or spoken—is the ability to
effectively summarize that information into a
more concise and readable form. That is
essentially what summarizing is. Good
summaries are valuable because they keep
busy readers informed without demanding
more time than necessary to get the
information they need.
Today we generate and exchange information
at a volume and speed that never diminish.
Administrators may deal with reports,
proposals, policy documents and briefing
notes that together easily reach hundreds of
pages. The only way busy administrators can
deal with the flood of information is to rely on
effective summaries that can efficiently
present the most important information. A
good summary tells readers enough about a
topic that they can decide whether they need
to read more.
Just think of some of the summarizing tasks
you might encounter in a typical government
workplace. You may have to report on
discussions at a meeting, summarize the
responses received as part of a public
consultation or report on a teleconference.
You may have to write an executive summary
of a report, describe how a project is going,
convey the recommendations arising from a
lengthy study. In every case, you will have to
sort through the original information, extract
the essential details from all the rest and then
create a coherent abbreviated version of the
information that the reader can rely on as an
accurate representation of the most important
points.
Why is summery writing important?
Writing a summary is an important skill that
students will use throughout their academic
careers. In addition, summarizing improves
reading skills as students pick out the main
ideas of a reading; it also helps with vocabulary
skills as students paraphrase a reading, altering
the vocabulary and grammar as they do so.
What Defines a Summary?
Summaries always have two important
features:
 they are shorter than the source
 they capture the same message as the
original but without the same words
Whatever you're summarizing, the task is the
same: to convey the essential message (or
information) accurately and succinctly, in your
own words.
The essential message in any well-written
document is easy enough to identify. Try it
with the following excerpt from a report on
Canada's seafood inspection systems.
Canada has one of the world's most
respected fish inspection and control systems.
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)
sets the policies, requirements and inspection
standards for fish products, federally
registered fish and seafood processing
establishments, importers, fishing vessels,
and equipment used for handling, transporting
and storing fish. All
establishments which process fish and
seafood for export or inter-provincial trade
must be federally registered and must develop
and implement a HACCP-based Quality
Management Program (QMP) plan. A
processing establishment's QMP plan outlines
the controls implemented by the fish
processor to ensure that all fish products are
processed under sanitary conditions, and that
the resulting products are safe and meet all
regulatory requirements. Canada's fish-
inspection and control system contributes to
Canada's worldwide reputation for safe,
wholesome fish and seafood products.
The essential message is made up of three
ideas:
 The Canadian Food Inspection Agency is
one of the world's most respected
inspection and control systems.
 Any company that processes seafood for
internal or external trade must be
registered with the CFIA and have a plan
outlining what controls they use to ensure
their products meet all regulatory
requirements.
 Canada's inspection and control system
contributes to its reputation for safe,
wholesome fish and seafood.
 We could turn these statements into the
following summary:
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)
contributes to Canada's reputation for safe
seafood by requiring that all fish and seafood
processors meet the agency's safety
requirements.
This summary is about 20% of the original
because the original itself is short. With a
longer original, a summary might be 5% or
less. But length is less important than
informative value: an effective summary gives
readers just what they need and no more.
The language of the summary puts the
original ideas into new words. If statements
are taken directly from the original, they are
enclosed in quotation marks.
What are the Characteristics of an Effective
Summary?
 An effective summary captures the most
important information
The important information usually includes
controlling ideas (purpose statements and
topic sentences), major findings, and
conclusions or recommendations.
It usually doesn't include any of the following:
non-essential background information; the
author's personal comments or conjectures;
introductions; long explanations, examples, or
definitions; visuals; or data of questionable
accuracy.

An effective summary is highly readable

People read summaries to get the information
they need as efficiently as possible. In a large
document, the summary may be the only part
a reader actually reads. Make sure to write in
a readable, clear style. Translate specific
details into general statements (e.g., instead
of "47.3% of respondents polled said they
 agreed or strongly agreed that food labels
should include information about the
percentage of transfats the food item
contained," summarize to "Almost half of
respondents want food labels to include
transfats").

An effective summary can stand on its own

Think of your summary as a highly condensed
version of the source document. All the extras
have been squeezed out, but the essential
meaning should still be there. A reader should
be able to read, understand and find the
essential meaning by reading your summary.
Readers should have to turn to the source
document only if they need more detail—not
to get the main ideas.

An effective summary is faithful to the

original
As a rule, add nothing to the original. Avoid
adding comments or modifiers that add
 meaning that was not in the original (e.g. "The
authors correctly point out," "The report
seems to suggest," "This important
recommendation").

An effective summary is as concise as

possible
Use the fewest words possible that still
preserve all the essential meaning. Whatever
you do, don't sacrifice clarity for economy.
 CHAPTER EIGHT
REPORT WRITING
Definition
 It is an orderly presentation of facts about
specific business activity or program.
 Defined as a communication from someone
who has information to someone who wants
to use that information (C.A. Brown)
 A document in which a given problem is
examined for the purpose of conveying
information, reporting findings, putting
forward ideas and at times making
recommendations.
 A technical report is a written statement of
the facts of a situation, project, process or
test; how these facts were ascertained; their
 significance; the conclusions that have been
drawn from them recommendations that are
being ,made.
What is common in the definitions?
1.A report is a formal statement of an account,
facts, information etc.
[Link] is presented in a particular format.
[Link] is written for specific individual or for a
group of individuals
[Link] includes the methodology of collection of
information and its significance
[Link] contains the findings or the conclusions
reached by the writer of the report
[Link] gives recommendations which can be
implemented.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
REPORT
[Link]
Precision gives unity and coherence to the
report and makes it valuable document clarity of
purpose is well outlined by the writer and his
investigation, analysis and recommendations are
directed by his central purpose.
[Link] of facts
Reports are purposed and directed to decision
making hence inaccurate facts may lead to
disastrous decisions.
[Link]
 Irrelevant information in a report makes it
confusing, incomplete and misleading.
[Link] orientation
 Keep in mind the persons who are to read
the report.
 A report directed to layman will be different
from another meant for technical experts.
[Link] of recommendation:-
 Recommendations made at the end of the
report must be impartial and objective.
 They should come to a logical conclusion to
investigation and analysis
 Should also not reveal any self-interest on
the part of the writer
 Simple and unambiguous language
[Link] simple and avoid any ambiguous
language
[Link] - clarity depends on proper
arrangement of facts. Be clear, define the
sources, state his findings and make
necessary recommendations
 Divide the report into short paragraphs
sieving them headings, and insert other
suitable sign posts to achieve greater clarity.
[Link] – brief
 Be as brief as possible, but not at the cost of
clarity, or completeness
[Link] accuracy:
Avoid faulty language, faulty construction of
sentences that would make the meaning obscure
and ambiguous.

Oral and Written report:

Oral report is simple and easy to present
 It is face to face communication from the
person who has some information which has
to be given to other who has to use it for a
business purpose.
 Resorted in to incase o an emergency or
immediate action required to be taken to
correct the situation
 No need is kept, hence receiver requires to
listen very carefully and understand every
word may moot be accurate
 May leave ambiguity due to poor
communication
 CHAPTER NINE

Interview
An interview is said to have taken place when
two or more people meet to achieve a fore
defined objective through mutual interrogation
asking and answering of question.
Reasons for interview
 Employment purpose – to get the right
candidate for employee.
 To get information (workers attitude, working
conditions, managerial effectiveness etc).
 To give information (periodic evaluation or as a
means of communication).
 To evaluate a person.
 Handle confidential matters.
 Change behaviors’.
 Interact and improve relationship.
 Provide counseling services]

Common forms of interviews

1. Job selection interview
The purpose of a job selection interview is of
three fold:-
(i) Find the most suitable candidate for job.
(ii) Ensuring that a candidate understands the
job, and any future prospects to able to
grade whether he/she wants the job or not and
making all the applicants fill that they
were given a fair treatment whether this get the
job or not.
2. Promotion interviews
Conducted when an employee has applied for
a job of a higher caliber within the
organization. They are conducted in a
manner similar to selection interviews and aim
to establish whether the applicant has the
necessary qualifications and abilities to
perform the job.
3. Appraisal interviews
These are ways of assessing the work done or
the progress made by individual employees.
Usually they are done at yearly intervals. Their
results aid in planning, promotion, training or
transfers. They may give employees a chance to
comment on the organizations procedure.
4. Instructional interviews
Interviews used to issue instructions about
new procedures. They involve explanation
and demonstration of the procedure
concerned.
5. Disciplinary interviews
These are the least pleasant and are
conducted when an employee has been
accused of committing a breach of the
company’s policies. These should be
conducted on the basis of sound, factual
knowledge, the objective being to arrive at the
truth.

6. Grievance interviews
Takes place when an employee feels that
another member of the organization has treated
him/her wrongly. In many organizations there
are clearly defined grievances procedures.
7. Decisions making interviews
These are essentially meetings that bring
company members to equal states.
Preparation for an interview
(i) Determine the objectives.
(ii) Prepare content if there is need e.g. a list of
specific questions.
(iii)Physical preparation to include, obtaining
suitable room for the interview.
Opening
 Explain the purpose of the interview.
 Establish the tome and the atmosphere of the
interview e.g. formality or informality
established by the layout of the room, the
number of interviews etc.
In the middle
 Ask the right questions.
 Listen to the answers.
(i) Open questions
 The type of who, what, where? etc requires
the interviewee to put answers into
complete sentences.
 They encourage the interview to talk at
length and keeps the interview flowing.
 They are however time consuming and give
the interviewer little control of the
interview.
(ii) Closed questions
Yes, No or questions that require short
answers.
  These obtain answers only to the questions
asked.
 Do not allow the interviewee to express
personality and make it easier for the
interviewer to conceal information.
(iii) Probing questions
 Similar to open questions.
 They aim to obtain deeper meaning of an
answer.
 They help to clarify issues and clarify to the
interviewee that the interviewer is listening.

(iv) Multiple questions

Two or more questions asked at once. These
are used to encourage the interviewee to talk
at length and to test interviewee’s ability to listen
and to handle a large amount of information.
Guidelines in planning and conducting
interviews
Interviews
(i) Plan the interviews
Determine the information needs. These are
usually expressed in a list of questions such a
list should be prepared and used as an outline.
(ii) Make the purpose clear
Explain the purpose to the interviewee from
the beginning.
(iii) Put the interviewee at ease
 e.g. begin with some friendly talk or enquire
about the interviewees home town, hobbies
etc.
(iv) Let the interviewee do most of the
talking
Talk only to guide the interviewee and take
care not to put words in their mouth.
(v) Guide the interview
Ask questions and get answers.
(vi) Listen and make it apparent that you are
listening.
(vii) Keep a record
Take notes during the interview or soon after
the interview.
(viii) End the interview
 With a finalizing question, a friendly fall or
outline the steps.
For the interviewee
(i) Prepare for the interview
If you know the purpose of the interview, you
anticipate questions and form answers. Also
gather additional information for instance about
the company, its history, its current activities
etc. your knowledge of the company can
impress the interviewee.
(ii) Make appropriate appearance
What is appropriate suits with e situations
observe standards of dressing, neatness, your
posture, facial expression, physical movement
should give a favourable impression.
(iii) Show interest
How you show interest varies with the
occasion. However, look at the interviewee
and give him or her undivided attention.
(iv) Answer correctly and completely
Dishonest answers benefits no one.
(v) Practice courtesy
A major part of impression for every human
contact.
Advantages of interviews
(i) Immediate feedback.
(ii) Highly interactive – ideas can be exchanged.
(iii) Non-verbal signals can be observed.
(iv) Encourages honesty and openness.
(v) Helps change behaviours
(vi) Useful for handling conflicts
(vii) Useful for confidential matters.
Problems involved in interviews
 The interviewee is usually nervous.
 Limited interview time.
 Artificial as both parties do not display their
bad behaviour.
 Lack of honesty by the interviewee.
 Interviewer might be prejudiced or
judgmental.

CHAPTER TEN
MEETINGS
Meetings are convened to involve people in fact
finding and decision making, whereby hoping to
gain peoples commitments. Daves and Shapel
(1800) defined a meeting as “coming together of
two or more people for any lawful purposes,
between groups of people with an intention to
socialize or for any other purpose. It can be
political, economical, religious etc. Meetings
must be properly convened, constitute and held.
Meeting to be legally constituted means that;
 There must be a proper quorum’
 There must be a proper chairman.
 Quorum means the minimum number of
members who must be present at a meeting as
required by law/rules.
Everybody concerned must attend; thereby a
notice is necessary to be given beforehand.
The planning of a meeting should be based on
these five items.
Features
1. Notice
2. Agenda
3. Leadership/chairperson
4. Correct action by the secretary(minutes must
be written).
5. Behavior required of the members.
Purpose of meetings
(i) Socializing
(ii) Solving problems affecting the people
involved.
(iii)Provide information to a group of people.
(iv) Report on some activity or an achievement
/problem.
(v) Coordination and arranging activities within
an organization.
(vi) To obtain assistance.
(vii) Put forward ideas/grievances for
discussions.
(viii) Create involvement and interest
Figure 2—purpose of meetings
The following figure illustrates the purposes of a
meeting.

To coordinates or to give
information to a group
arrange activities of people
to report on some MEETINGS to
obtain assistance
activity or experience

to put forward ideas or to

create involvement
grievances for discussion and
interest
Any organization which has a number of
members needs to hold regular meetings of
various kinds:
 To bring members together.
 To exchange ideas.
 Solve problems.
 Take or make decisions.
 Make sure that each section/department
knows what is going on in other areas of the
organizations.
Meetings can take shortest or longest time
depending on the agenda of the meeting.
E.g. if he purpose of the meeting was to pass
information it can take the shortest time.
It can take the longest time if the purpose of the
meeting involves open discussion.
To safeguard against poorly run meeting which
are lengthy, dull and controlled by people who
like the sound of their own voices, it is essential
that members involved in a meeting have clear
idea of the purpose and should contribute fully
and effectively to the discussion.
The planning and control of the meeting should
be based on five items which are discussed
below.
NOTICE
This is sent to everyone required to be present
and in time for him/her to arrange and prepare for
the meeting. Messages should be sent through
phones, text messages, making calls, letters etc.
The rules that govern the organizations stipulates
minimum time given, A notice of a meeting
should be seven days (one week), in most cases,
unless it is a special, an extraordinary meeting or
impromptu meeting which requires a special
notice.
In the notice, there must be date, time and
place/venue of the meeting.
The notice enables one to prepare for the meeting
and it prevents members from considering the
meetings invalid.

HOW TO DRAFT A NOTICE.

AGENDA
It means “things proper to n acted upon” which
are scheduled in the order in which the meeting
will deal with them. It also means documents
that outline the content of the functioning
meeting. It means list of items to be discussed
sometimes they can be sent out with notice of the
meeting.
The agenda gives members an option to consider
in advance what they feel they should ask, say,
do. An agenda is very useful why because it is
circulated in advance and this helps the members
to prepare for the meeting since moist agendas
has set order.
It helps the chairman to conduct the meeting
smoothly and orderly. The agenda also ensures
that only relevant matters to the particular
meeting are discussed. It ensures that every point
is properly taken.
It facilitates preparation of minutes.
N/B: the Agenda generally defines the purpose of
the meeting. The simplest form of agenda will
consist of list of items, typed underneath each
other and numbered in order in which they will
be taken by the chairman more elaborate agenda
will Sinclude:-
1. Confirmation of previous meetings
2. Matters arising
3. Any other business (AOB).
Classification, Principles and Importance of
Minutes
Minutes are a tangible record of
the meeting for its participants and a
source of information for members who
were unable to attend. In some
cases, meeting minutes can act as a
reference point, for example: when
a meeting's outcomes impact other
collaborative activities or projects within the
organization.
A minute is prepared so that the motion and
resolutions taken at a meeting can be used
as a reference in the future. The importance
of minutes is the following:
Importance of minutes
1. It preserves a clear, concise, and
accurate record of the business transacted
at the meeting.
2. It serves as a permanent record of the
actions of the members and decisions
taken at the meeting.
3. It serves as a legal document when it is
confirmed by the next meeting and signed
by the chairman.
4. It helps as the guidelines of the
organizational activities of any concur.
5. It serves as a reminder of the subject
matter dealt with in the previous meetings.
6. It is the official records of the proceeding
and decision of the meeting.
Classification of Minutes
Minutes may be of two types viz.., Minutes
of Decision and Minutes of Narration.
Minutes of Decision: It means the
recording of the resolutions taken at the
meeting. In this method, only the final
decisions adopted at the meeting are
recorded in brief.

Minutes of Narration: It means the

recording of proceedings of the meeting in
detail for some of the discussions and
happenings. In this method, the minutes are
written in a narrative style about the
discussions and the resolutions adopted in
the discussions.

Principles of Writing Minutes

The following principles are followed for
writing Minutes
1. It should be clear,-concise and
accurate and free from ambiguity
2. It should be written by dividing the
matters into a suitable paragraph.
3. Each paragraph should be written
with a brief heading for quick reference.
4. It should include the correct and fair
summary of the proceedings of the
meeting.
5. It should state the name of the
meeting with date, time, and place.
6. It should mention the name of the
chairman and other important persons
attended the meeting.
7. It should state separately the
financial and other special terms
discussed in the meeting.
8. It should state the names of the
props, secondary method of voting,
voting results, and the resolutions of the
meeting.
9. It must be recorded in the Minutes
Book.
10. Explanatory notes should be given
for special issues in the footnote of the
minutes.
 11. The minutes must be signed by the
chairman with the date and confirmed at
the next meeting of the members.


LEADERSHIP OF CHAIRPERSON
This has alternative names for the chairperson
e.g. chair, chairman, chairperson, chairlady etc.
the effectiveness of the meeting depends on the
leadership of the chair and will relate to the
knowledge of his/her duties and like any good
leader he/she should think in advance about the
characteristic of the people he/she has to control
and the situation. The chair needs to prepare
himself/herself about the agenda and try to
forecast on any opposition/involvement of the
member and how to deal with them in the event
of controversy. The chair is also responsible for
ensuring that the meeting is conducted in
accordance with standing orders (set of rules).
Most meetings are formed and run according to
written set of rules known as standing orders. In
some cases they are laid by law and in others by
circumstances.
Duties of the chairman
1. Declaring the meeting open and welcoming
the members.
2. To call the secretary to read the notice of the
meeting if necessary.
3. Ensure that they require quorum is present.
Ask for apologies and the secretary records.
4. Ensure members have copies of the previous
minutes, read through them.
5. Indicate what the items of the agenda are to
begin/end (calling the meeting to order).
6. To ensures that each member has an
opportunity to speak and encourage the
members to speak.
7. Ensure members behave impartially.
8. Controlling the meeting how? Ruling the
irrelevant remarks disallowing items not in the
agenda.
9. Maintaining order (dealing with unruly
members and calm down disputes).
10. His/her authority is absolute and should insist
that all the remarks should be made
through the ‘chair’.
11. Clarify contributions by members so that
each is understood by all (can summarize
discussion for the benefit of all).
12. Needs to be conciliatory and
accommodating.
13. Ensure that the secretary has the
opportunities to take notes.
14. The date of the next meeting should be
arranged by mutual consent of the chair.
15. The chair is to declare the meeting
closed/ended and thank the people for
attendance.
DUTIES OF A SECRETARY
 Fulfills a very different role from that of the
office secretary.
 He is often in a senior position in an
organization.
 After the chair, the secretary is easily the next
most important member of a meeting. It has
responsibilities which are essential to the
efficient function of the committee and its
duties include,
1. To send out notice of the meeting in good
time to all members.
2. Requests ad receives items for discussion at
each meeting.
3. He draws up and agenda in conjunction with
the chair.
4. Circulate among the members any document
which may be necessary to enable to contribute
fully to discussion of matters listed on the
agenda.
5. Makes arrangement for accommodation of
members if necessary.
6. Ensures that a room is available for each
meeting pens, papers and their requisition
are available of members (water, glasses)
7. Draws up special agenda for the chair include
details that will help him/her conduct the
meeting satisfactory.
8. During meetings he sits by the chair to give
any assistance required.
9. Records details to what takes place during the
meetings.
10. After meeting, writes up the note into a
formal recording and circulates this among
members after gaining approval from the chair.
11. Deals with any correspondence recurred by
the community and secretary roles include;
considerable planning and organizational skills
and the ability to communicate well both
orally and on paper.
TREASURER
 Many committees have treasurers and their
main role is to take care of financial aspect of
the committee operation.
 Treasurer report includes such meetings.
 Financial statements given by the treasurer
details financial positions of the meeting or the
organizational represents (He provides balance
sheet, income and expenditure for a state
period).
 Has powers specified in standing orders.
Concerning funds belonging to the committee.
 He takes care of payments that have to be made.
 He takes part in meetings like other members.
Types of meetings
1. Formal
2. Committee
3. Command
4. Informal
Formal
 Follow set procedures either in public meetings
established by precedent or private (standing
order of public authority).
 Public meetings are held in public places and
private in private premises and limited to
members.
 They include meeting of registered bodies e.g.
Trade unions company clubs etc.
 Formal meetings include;
 Annual general meeting
 Extra ordinary
  Board of directors
 Departmental committee
 Command etc
 Their rules are laid down in the article of
association or constitution or standing orders
i.e. they are subject to body of law.
 Any one responsible for convening or
conducting meetings should acquit themselves
with both the general role and the particular
role and particular rules under which they
operate.
Convening meeting
Regulations prescribe the way in which meetings
are to be convened and who is entitled to attend
them.
 With the aim of being fair, reasonable and
open, notice should be given quorum and must
be present and accurate pictures of eh matters
to be discussed given (a formal record of each
meeting kept).
 It’s necessary to ensure that there is stick
adherence to any stipulated procedures.
 The chair should be familiar with the
regulations of the body over which he is
presiding to oversee the following;
(i) The meeting is properly convened.
(ii) Procedure laud down as follows.
(iii)The agenda is adhered to.
(iv) All members present to contribute or
participate.
(v) Proceedings are orderly.
(vi) Proper records of minutes are kept.
 A chair should therefore be a person of infinite,
trust patience possessive and of Judicial mind
and able to command the meeting.
 Rules should prescribe how officials are to be
appointed, period form of notice,
adjournment e.g. in case of quorum, state
orders of business define those items to be
considered as ordinary business or special.
 Meetings also proceed from motion,
amendments, resolutions, debate, voting
according to rules, regulations or body of laws.
Motions
May concern either the business before meeting
or procedure by which it’s translated.
 Rules should state if motion should be in
writing or purpose orally on meeting.
Language used should be simple, clear and
affirmative.
They are proposed by members who wish it’s
discussed and if rule so require it
should be seconded.
 If put to note and carried it becomes a solution.
 Resolutions are introduced with the word
“To……………………”
 A motion is merely a proposal which should be
clear, concise written and remains a motion
until it’s resolved.
 Amendments are attended whenever their
doubts in a motion and should be death within
logical order.
 Should not take meeting out of the agenda.
Amendments
 Change in wording in a proposed motion which
slightly alters its meaning after making it more
specific or precise e.g. engaging.
 The motion engaging with a communication
consultant to deal with press during current
take over crisis to be amended by inserting “for
the period of not longer than one calendar
month be inserted at the end of proposal.”
 Any member propose amendment and it must
be formally proposed and seconded in the same
way as any kind of motion to which they refer.
 The chair conducts a vote in the amendment
and if carried revised motions put to the vote in
the usual way.
 Amendment inserts words, phrases, sentences
into original emotions and deletes others.
 Purpose to clarify original motion so that it’s
adapted. Rider – Add fresh facts or
recommendations. Motion – continuation.
 Every motion, inform prescribed by the rules
and within eth scope of the meetings. Motion
should begin with the word e.g. that a
committee hire a communication.
PROCEDURES
1. It is necessary to ensure that there is strict
adherence to any stipulated procedures.
The chain should be familiar with the
regulation of the body over which he’s
presiding to oversee the following:-
(i) Meeting is properly convinced.
2. Procedures laid down are followed.
(i) The agenda is adhered to,
(ii) All members resent have to
contribute/participate,
(iii)Proceedings are orderly,
(iv) Proper records are kept.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
 Every firm is required to hold Annual general
meeting at least once in a year.
 Ordinary business transactions of general
meetings include reports of directors, auditors,
declaration of dividends, elections of director’s
appointment.
Statutory meeting by law
Every company is required to hold a meeting of
members of the company called statutory
meeting within a period of six months form date
on which it was entitled a commence business.
 21 days notice should be given with a statutory
report to members containing no of shares,
name, addresses, particulars of any contract
etc.
 The statutory meeting is held to give
stakeholders an opportunity to know
companies preparation discuss prospects etc.
Board meeting
 Held as offering of the undivided of an
organization as requires they are attended by
the directors and chaired by the chairman of the
board.
Informal
 Not restricted by some rules.
 They take the form of transforming discussion,
session with no strict agenda/minutes kept.
(Prepare meeting) record purpose.
 However it is a good practice to have an agenda
and keep minutes (prepare meeting) record
purpose.
Management meeting
Attended by a group of managers who may need
to discuss special matters, report on progress or
receive progress reports e.g. marketing,
managers, sales, production manger meet to
discuss levels of a new product being launched
soon.
Committee meeting
 A small body of people appointed by parent
body to meet to discuss certain matter with a
view of making group discussions on behalf of
group recommendations to the parent body.
 Such committee may have members of similar
interest on status mixed or joint by management
staff.
 His helps in improving communication in
forms. We have different types of committees.
(a) Executive
 Elected from the members at annual general
meetings.
 Power comes from parent’s body and
required to give account of the activities at
regular intervals.
(b) Advisory
 It consists of experts or people representing
different groups of interest. The function is
to advice and do not take of implement
 decisions nor do they enjoy any right to
vote.
(c) Standing Adhoc committee
 Standard committee is permanent
committee empowered to take or make
management decisions they undertake.
Example finance committee, salary and
academic etc.
 A committee that constitutes for a specific
purpose and dissolves when the purpose has
been achieved is known as adoc/temporary
committee.
(d) Formal committee/informal
  The above committees are formal, they are
formally constituted and
responsibilities/duties are specified.
 Informal committees are formed for
purpose of collective thinking.
 No fixed agenda, not formal authority.
 They just advice on discussed problems.
(e) Line/staff
 This is an advisory committee that appraises
the management on the views of the
employees.
 It has the power to take/make decisions with
regard to employees who are responsible to
it.
  A committee meeting requires a full range
of oral communication skills from it
members being part of the team and coming
up with best possible decisions a group
discussion on achieve.
Command meeting
 Within any form of public authority when
managers are aware of the importance of
communication.
 A large no. of formal meetings will take place
between managers and there subordinate such
meetings have various names in various
organizations e.g. stact meetings, managers
meetings, command etc.
 Command meeting are meant to declare policy
and issue instructions where meetings are called
to issue instructions, announce a policy, it will
take a different tone.
 It will flow in one direction followed by
questions and clarification by answers.
 The following however essential where
considering them.
1) Is the meeting the best means of issuing
instructions if they are complex or
controversial, the quiz may be too easily lead
to confusion.
2) Is there an assembly of mixed grades? Which
may despise the senior members?
3) The opportunity to handle instructions on
their own as they are meant to delegate work
for which they will be accountable.
4) Written confirmation of instruction may be
required for issue meeting may not be the best
mean to do it.
We have two types of command meeting
1) Extended command
2) Immediate command meeting
Extended command
It’s a meeting called by manager so that he can
communicate orally to all those under his control.
He may issue instructions announce
policy/policy changes and the meeting will be
that of choir taking while members listen.
One way of communication members only
communicate or participate by asking questions
or asking for obligation when unclear, large
meetings require good public speaking.
Immediate command meeting
These are meetings between the manger and
those directly responsible to him. They are called
whenever the manager feels the need to explain
to sound opinion or to exchange information
more rapidly than is possible by writing e.g.
department meetings.
Before calling an immediate command meeting,
a manager must be clear in mind what he wants
(purpose) to tell to discuss or to consult.
Informal meetings of this kind are often not
minutes and agenda may only be in the mind of
the convent.
It should however, make every effort however to
create/procedure a friendly atmosphere where
different rank between himself and the group is
not permitted to shift the free giving of views.
He should also ensure that the meeting doesn’t
move go outside the area of concern line which
he is the person to make decision e.g. assembly.
The higher the level of manager who is
convening the meeting the more formal it binds
to become e.g. executive meeting, departmental
managers, meting (HOD’s meeting). They will
have typed the agenda/minutes taken by
secretary.
These helps in preservation of records of
decisions reached and to show that such
decisions were reached by the groups.
It tends to have words such as “The ales manager
decided that……………unlike other types of
minutes.
Departmental meetings
They are called by the head of department or
manager of a certain section. All the staff
members are invited to attend so that information
can be passed on or reports received from some
members of staff regarding a specific project.
Purposes of a meeting
 To coordinates or to give
information to a group
arrange activities of people

MEETINGS
to report on some to
obtain assistance
activity or experience

to put forward ideas or to

create involvement
grievances for discussion and
interest
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
PUBLIC RELATION AND CUSTOMER
CARE

DefinitionS of public relation/department

Public relation can be defined as the deliberate,
planned and sustained effort to establish and
maintain mutual understanding between an
organization and public for the purpose of
achieving a specific objectives concerning
mutual understanding.
Public relation puts emphasis and needs of ways
of communication, promotes and improves the
communication between the organization and
any organization commercial and non
commercial that exist.
It has everything to do with organization
relationship therefore its reputation it works at
two levels
I. The general level of public perception
It defines the individual development ideas.
II. Direct experience f an organization
The experience needs to be careful
especially when dealing with media and they
need to remember that the public tend to
favor what they know than what is
unknown. Public relation therefore is about
creating understanding through knowledge
and includes everything directed towards
 improving communication between the
public and the organization.
Role of public relation
Establish and maintain correct image of an
organization its policies products services and
personnel
Types of images
 Mirror image- people in an organization
especially the leaders believed to be the
impression outsiders have of the
organization. This could be based on
thinking, illusion and fantasies.
 Current image – it’s the image held by
people outside the organization. This may be
based on experience of the organization or
on information and understanding of the
organization. Those outsiders could be
important public e.g. potential staff; they
could be customers, politicians and media.
 It’s only that their opinion are important. It
is also necessary that their impression of the
organization is correct.
 Wish image – it’s the desired image of the
organization which the management would
wish to achieve. Wish image often applies to
something new.
 Cooperate image – it’s the image of the
organization itself rather than the product.
The co-operate image gives the company’s
history, financial success and stability
reputation etc.
 Multiple image – this is where a number of
individuals can each create a particular
image (multiple image) which does not
confirm a uniform image of the total
organization.
I. Public relation image will be a true
impression and a good image has to be
earned.
 II. To monitor outside opinion and give
information judgment.
III. Advice management on communication
problems
IV. To inform the public about the
organization services so that to
maximum knowledge is won.
The public relation department
When a company is engaging in a lot of public
relation work, it may be preferred to handle it
through an Internal Public Relation Department.
Public relation department may be small or
large:
Depending on the size of the company
The public Relation requirements of an
organization
 The value place on Public Relation activities
 The Public Relation staff consist ot the
 Public Relation manager
  Secretary
 Specialist assistants e.g. photographer, print
design
Responsibilities of a Public Relation
manager.
I. To set target and objectives for Public
Relation activities.
II. To estimate working hours and other
resources needed be pasted.
III. Design policies that will control the choice
of the public media to reach them, timing of
the activities and best man power and
resources.
IV. Design the possibilities of carrying out their
objectives in terms of available funds,
existing staff and equipments