TMME 4107: Industrial Automation & Robotics

Dr. Eng. Kangwagye Samuel

skangwagye@[Link]
+256-700-102068

September 2025
 Course Content
1. Introduction to Automation

2. Industrial Control Systems

3. Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

4. Computer Numerical Control

5. Industrial Robotics

6. Discrete Control and Programmable Logic Controllers

Textbook: Mikell P. Groover; Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 4th Edition.

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 Hardware Components for Automation and
Process Control

Introduction Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data

Sensors • Contact Input/Output Interfaces
Actuators • Pulse Counters and Generators
• Electric Motors
• Other Types of Actuators

Analog–Digital Conversions
• Analog-to-Digital Converters
• Digital-to-Analog Converters

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 Introduction to Hardware Components for Automation and
Process Control

• To implement automation and process control, the control computer must collect data from and
transmit signals to the process.
• In chapter 1, process variables and parameters were classified as continuous or discrete, with
several subcategories in the discrete class.
• The digital computer operates on digital (binary) data, whereas at least some of the data from the
physical process are continuous and analog.
• Accommodations for this difference must be made in the computer–process interface. The
components required to implement this interface are the following:
1. Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process variables.
2. Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process parameters.
3. Devices to convert continuous analog signals into digital data and digital data into analog
signals.
4. Input/output devices for discrete data.

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 Introduction to Hardware Components for Automation and
Process Control
• Figure shows the overall configuration of the process control system and how these four
categories are used to interface the process with the computer.
• This model represents the general arrangement of the control systems in CNC machine tools,
industrial robots, and PLC systems, as well as most of the material handling systems and
manufacturing systems.

The computer process control system, showing the various types

of components required to interface the process with the computer.
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 Sensors
• A sensor is a transducer, which is a device that converts a physical variable of one form into another
form that is more useful for the given application.
• In particular, a sensor is a device that converts a physical stimulus or variable of interest (such as
temperature, force, pressure, or displacement) into a more convenient form (usually an electrical quantity
such as voltage) for the purpose of measuring the stimulus. The conversion process quantifies the
variable, so that it can be interpreted as a numerical value.
• Sensors can be classified in various ways, the most relevant of which for this discussion is by the
category of stimulus or physical variable measured, as presented in the Table below.
• For each category, there may be multiple variables that can be measured, as indicated in the right-hand
column. These variables are typical of those found in industrial processes.

Stimulus Categories and

Associated Physical
Variables

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 Sensors
• In addition to the type of stimulus, sensors are also classified as analog or discrete.
• An analog sensor produces a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage, whose value varies in
an analogous manner with the variable being measured. Examples are thermocouples, strain gages, and
potentiometers. The output signal from an analog measuring device must be converted to digital data by
an analog-to-digital converter in order to be used by a digital computer.
• A discrete sensor produces an output that can have only certain values. Discrete sensors are often
divided into two categories: binary and digital. A binary sensor produces an on/off signal. The most
common devices operate by closing an electrical contact from a normally open position. Limit switches
operate in this manner. Other binary sensors include photoelectric sensors and proximity switches. A
digital sensor produces a digital output signal, either in the form of a set of parallel status bits (e.g., a
photoelectric sensor array) or as a series of pulses that can be counted (e.g., an optical encoder). In either
case, the digital signal represents the quantity that is measured. Digital transducers are becoming
increasingly common because they are easy to read when used as standalone measuring instruments and
because they are compatible with digital computer systems.
• A significant trend in sensor technology has been the development of very small sensors. The term
microsensor refers to measuring devices whose physical features have dimensions in the micron range,
where 1 micron (1 µm) = 10-6 m. Microsensors are usually fabricated out of silicon using processing
techniques associated with integrated circuit manufacture.
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 Sensors

Common Measuring
Devices Used in
Automation

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 Sensors

Common Measuring
Devices Used in
Automation

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 Sensors

Common Measuring
Devices Used in
Automation

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 Sensors
• Sensors are distinguished as active or passive.
• An active sensor responds to the stimulus without the need for any external power. An example is a
thermocouple, which responds to an increase in temperature by generating a small voltage (millivolt
range) that is functionally related to temperature (in the ideal, its voltage is directly proportional to
temperature).
• A passive sensor requires an external source of power in order to operate. A thermistor illustrates this
case. It also measures temperature, but its operation requires an electric current to be passed through it.
As the temperature increases, the thermistor’s electrical resistance is altered. The resistance can be
measured and related back to temperature.
• For each sensor, there is a transfer function, which is the relationship between the value of the physical
stimulus and the value of the signal produced by the sensor in response to the stimulus. The transfer
function is the input/output relationship. The stimulus is the input, and the signal generated by the device
is the output. The transfer function can be expressed simply as: 𝑆 = 𝑓 𝑠 where S = the output signal,
usually voltage; s = the stimulus; and 𝑓(𝑠) is the functional relationship between them.
• Limit switches and other binary sensors have functional relationships that are binary, defined by the
following expressions: 𝑆 = 1 if 𝑠 > 0 and 𝑆 = 0 if 𝑠 ≤ 0

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 Sensors
• The ideal functional form for an analog measuring device is a simple proportional relationship, such as
𝑆 = 𝐶 + 𝑚𝑠
• where 𝐶 is the output value at a stimulus value of zero, and 𝑚 is the constant of proportionality between
𝑠 and 𝑆. The constant 𝑚 can be thought of as the sensitivity of the sensor. It is a measure of how much
the output or response of the sensor is affected by the stimulus. For example, the sensitivity of a standard
chromel/alumel thermocouple generates 40.6 microvolts (µV) per degree Celsius (°C).
• Other transfer functions have more complex mathematical forms, including differential equations that
include time dynamics, which means that there is a time delay between when the stimulus occurs and
when the output signal accurately indicates the value of the stimulus.
• Before using any measuring device, the operator must calibrate it to determine the transfer function, or
the inverse of the transfer function, which converts the output 𝑆 into the value of the stimulus or
measured variable 𝑠. The ease with which the calibration procedure can be accomplished is one criterion
by which a measuring device can be evaluated. A list of desirable features of sensors for process control
is presented in the Table below. Few sensors achieve perfect scores in all of these criteria, and the control
system engineer must decide which features are the most important in selecting among the variety of
available sensors and transducers for a given application.

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 Sensors
• Desirable Features for Selecting Sensors Used in Automated Systems

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 Actuators
• Electric Motors
• Other Types of Actuators
• In industrial control systems, an actuator is a hardware device that converts a controller command signal into a change
in a physical parameter. The change in the physical parameter is usually mechanical, such as a position or velocity
change.
• An actuator is a transducer, because it changes one type of physical quantity, such as electric current, into another type
of physical quantity, such as rotational speed of an electric motor. The controller command signal is usually low level,
and so an actuator may also require an amplifier to strengthen the signal sufficiently to drive the actuator.
• Most actuators can be classified into one of three categories, according to the type of amplifier: (1) electric, (2)
hydraulic, and (3) pneumatic. Electric actuators are most common; they include electric motors of various kinds,
solenoids, and electromechanical relays. Electric actuators can be either linear (output is linear displacement) or
rotational (output is angular displacement). Hydraulic actuators use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command
signal. The available devices provide either linear or rotational motion.
• Hydraulic actuators are often specified when large forces are required. Pneumatic actuators use compressed air
(typically “shop air” in the factory) as the driving power.
• Again, both linear and rotational pneumatic actuators are available. Because of the relatively low air pressures involved,
these actuators are usually limited to relatively low force applications compared with hydraulic actuators.
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 Electric Motors

A rotary electric motor: (a) typical configuration

and (b) diagram showing its operation.
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 Electric Motors

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 Electric Motors

Torque–speed curve of a DC servomotor (idealized),

and typical load torque relationship. The intersection
of the two plots is the operating point.

The preceding model of DC servomotor operation neglects certain losses and inefficiencies that occur in these motors (similar losses
occur in all electric motors). These losses include brush contact losses at the commutator, armature losses, windage (air drag losses at high
rotational speeds of the rotor), and mechanical friction losses at the bearings. The model also neglects the dynamics of motor operation. In
fact, the inertial characteristics of the motor itself and the load that is driven by it, as well as any transmission mechanisms (e.g., gearbox),
would play an important role in determining how the motor operates as a function of time. Despite their limitations, the equations do
illustrate one of the significant advantages of a DC servomotor: its ability to deliver a very high torque at a starting velocity of zero. In
addition, it is a variable-speed motor, and its direction of rotation can be readily reversed. These are important considerations in many
automation applications where the motor is called upon to frequently start and stop its rotation or to reverse direction.
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 Electric Motors

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 Electric Motors
AC Motors. Although DC motors have several attractive features, they have two important disadvantages:
(1) the commutator and brushes used to conduct current from the stator assembly to the rotor result in
maintenance problems with these motors, and (2) the most common electrical power source in industry is
alternating current, not direct current. In order to use AC power to drive a DC motor, a rectifier must be
added to convert the alternating current to direct current. For these reasons, AC motors are widely used in
many industrial applications. They do not use brushes, and they are compatible with the predominant type
of electrical power. Alternating current motors operate by generating a rotating magnetic field in the stator,
and the rotational speed of the rotor depends on the frequency of the input electrical power. The rotor is
forced to turn at a speed that depends on the rotating magnetic field. AC motors can be classified into two
broad categories: synchronous motors and induction motors.
Synchronous motors operate by energizing the rotor with alternating current, which generates a magnetic
field in the gap separating the rotor and the stator. This magnetic field creates a torque that turns the rotor
at the same rotational speed as the magnetic forces in the stator. The term synchronous derives from the
fact that the rotor rotation is synchronized with the AC frequency in steady-state operation. Synchronous
motors cannot start by themselves from zero speed; they require a device, sometimes called an exciter, to
initiate rotation of the rotor when power is first supplied to the motor. The exciter, which may be an
electric motor itself, accelerates the rotational speed of the rotor so that it can be synchronized with that of
the stator’s rotating magnetic field.
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 Electric Motors
Induction motors are probably the most widely used motors in the world, due to their relatively simple
construction and low manufacturing cost. In the operation of this motor type, a magnetic field is induced
(hence the term induction) in the rotor from the stator. Because of this feature, the rotor in most induction
motors does not need electrical current from an external power supply. Thus, no brushes or other means of
connection are required for the rotating component of an induction motor. Unlike synchronous motors,
induction motors operate at speeds that are slower than the synchronous speed. The steady-state rotational
speed depends on the load that the motor is driving. In fact, if the rotor speed were equal to the
synchronous speed of the stator magnetic field, then no induced voltage and no torque would be generated
in the rotor. By the same reasoning, when AC power is first applied to an induction motor, the induced
magnetic field and torque are maximum, so no exciter is needed to start the motor turning.
Both synchronous motors and induction motors operate at constant speeds. Most of their applications are
those in which running at a fixed speed is required. This is a disadvantage in many automation applications
because frequent speed changes are often necessary with much starting and stopping. The speed issue is
sometimes addressed by using adjustable-frequency drives (called inverters) that control the cycle rate of
the AC power to the motor. Motor speed is proportional to frequency, so changing the frequency changes
the motor speed. Advances in solid-state electronics have also improved speed control for AC motors, and
they are now competitive in some applications traditionally reserved for DC motors.

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 Electric Motors

Typical torque–speed curve of a stepper motor.

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 Electric Motors

Mechanisms to convert rotary motion into

linear motion: (a) leadscrew or ball screw, (b)
pulley system, and (c) rack and pinion

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 Electric Motors

Three styles of linear motor: (a) flat,

(b) U-channel, and (c) cylindrical.

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 Other Types of Actuators
There are other types of electrical actuators in addition to motors. These include solenoids and relays, which
are electromagnetic devices like electric motors, but they operate differently. There are also actuators that
operate using hydraulic and pneumatic power.
Electrical Actuators Other Than Motors
• A solenoid consists of a movable plunger inside a stationary wire coil, as
pictured in the Figure.
• When a current is applied to the coil, it acts as a magnet, drawing the plunger
into the coil. When current is switched off, a spring returns the plunger to its
previous position.
• Linear solenoids of the type described here are often used to open and close
valves in fluid flow systems, such as chemical processing equipment. In these
applications, the solenoid provides a linear push or pull action.
• Rotary solenoids are also available to provide rotary motion, usually over a
limited angular range (e.g., neutral position to between 25° and 90°).
An electromechanical relay is an on–off electrical switch consisting of two main components, a stationary coil and a
movable arm that can be made to open or close an electrical contact by means of a magnetic field that is generated
when current is passed through the coil. The reason for using a relay is that it can be operated with relatively low
current levels, but it opens and closes circuits that carry high currents and/or voltages. Thus, relays are a safe way to
remotely switch on and off equipment that requires high electrical power.
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 Other Types of Actuators
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
• These two categories of actuators are powered by pressurized fluids. Oil is used in hydraulic systems, and
compressed air is used in pneumatic systems. The devices in both categories are similar in operation but different in
construction due to the differences in fluid properties between oil and air.
• Some of the differences in properties, and their effects on the characteristics and applications of the two types of
actuators, are listed in the Table below.

Comparison of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

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 Other Types of Actuators
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators that provide either linear or rotary motion are
available. The cylinder, illustrated in the Figure, is a common linear-motion device.
The cylinder is basically a tube, and a piston is forced to slide inside the cylinder
due to fluid pressure.

Two types are shown in the figure: (a) single acting with spring return and (b)
double acting. Although these cylinders operate in a similar way for both types of
fluid power, it is more difficult to predict the speed and force characteristics of
pneumatic cylinders because of the compressibility of air in these devices. For
hydraulic cylinders, the fluid is incompressible, and the speed and force of the
piston depend on the fluid flow rate and pressure inside the cylinder, respectively, as
given by the expressions Cylinder and piston: (a) single acting with
spring return and (b) double acting.

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 Analog–Digital Conversions
• Analog-to-Digital Converters
• Digital-to-Analog Converters

Continuous analog signals from a process must be converted into digital

values to be used by the computer, and digital data generated by the
computer must be converted to analog signals to be used by analog
actuators. The two conversion procedures are discussed in this section.

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 Analog-to-Digital Converters
The procedure for converting an analog signal from the process into digital form typically consists of the following
steps and hardware devices, as illustrated in the Figure:
1. Sensor and transducer. This is the measuring device that generates the
analog signal
2. Signal conditioning. The continuous analog signal from the transducer
may require conditioning to render it into more suitable form. Common
signal conditioning steps include (1) filtering to remove random noise
and (2) conversion from one signal form to another, for example,
converting a current into a voltage.
3. Multiplexer. The multiplexer is a switching device connected in series
with each input channel from the process; it is used to time-share the
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) among the input channels. The
alternative is to have a separate ADC for each input channel, which Steps in analog-to-digital conversion of
would be costly for a large application with many input channels. continuous analog signals from process
Because the process variables need only be sampled periodically, using
a multiplexer provides a cost-effective alternative to dedicated ADCs
for each channel.
4. Amplifier. Amplifiers are used to scale the incoming signal up or down to be compatible with the range of the ADC.
5. Analog-to-digital converter. As its name indicates, the function of the ADC is to convert the incoming analog signal into its digital
counterpart

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 Analog-to-Digital Converters
Consider the operation of the ADC, which is the heart of the conversion process. Analog-to-digital conversion occurs in
three steps: (1) sampling, (2) quantization, and (3) encoding. Sampling consists of converting the continuous signal into a
series of discrete analog signals at periodic intervals, as shown in Figure 6.10. In quantization, each discrete analog signal
is assigned to one of a finite number of previously defined amplitude levels. The amplitude levels are discrete values of
voltage ranging over the full scale of the ADC.

Analog signal converted into series of discrete

sampled data by analog-to-digital converter

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 Analog-to-Digital Converters
Various conversion methods are available by
which to encode an analog signal into its
digital equivalent. The most commonly used
technique, called the successive approximation
method, is discussed here. In this method, a
series of known trial voltages are successively
compared to the input signal whose value is
unknown. The number of trial voltages
corresponds to the number of bits used to
encode the signal. The first trial voltage
is half the full-scale range of the ADC, and
each successive trial voltage is half the
preceding value. Comparing the remainder of
the input voltage with each trial voltage yields
a bit value of “1” if the input exceeds the trial
value and “0” if the input is less than the trial
voltage. The successive bit values, multiplied
by their corresponding trial voltage values,
provide the encoded value of the input signal.

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 Analog-to-Digital Converters
EXAMPLE: Successive Approximation Method
Suppose the input signal is 6.8 V. Use the successive
approximation method to encode the signal for a 6-bit
register for an ADC with a full-scale range of 10 V.

Solution
• The encoding procedure for the input of 6.8 V is illustrated in
the figure.
• In the first trial, 6.8 V is compared with 5.0 V. Because 6.8 >
5.0, the first bit value is 1.
• Comparing the remainder 16.8 - 5.02 = 1.8 V with the second
trial voltage of 2.5 V yields a 0, because 1.8 < 2.5.
• The third trial voltage = 1.25 V.
• Because 1.8 > 1.25, the third bit value is 1. Successive approximation method
• The rest of the 6 bits are evaluated in the figure to yield an applied to the Example
encoded value = 6.718 V.

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 Digital-to-Analog Converters

Data holding step using (a) zero-

order hold and (b) first-order hold.

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 Digital-to-Analog Converters

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 Digital-to-Analog Converters

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 Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data
• Contact Input/Output Interfaces
• Pulse Counters and Generators

Discrete data can be processed by a digital computer without the kinds of

conversion procedures required for continuous analog signals. As indicated
earlier, discrete data divide into three categories:
(a) binary data,
(b) discrete data other than binary, and
(c) pulse data.

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 Contact Input/Output Interfaces
• Contact interfaces are of two types, input and output. These interfaces read binary data from the process
into the computer and send binary signals from the computer to the process, respectively. The terms input
and output are relative to the computer.

• A contact input interface is a device by which binary data are read into the computer from some external
source (e.g., a process).
• It consists of a series of simple contacts that can be either closed or open (on or off) to indicate the status of
binary devices connected to the process such as limit switches (contact or no contact), valves (open or
closed), or motor pushbuttons (on or off). The computer periodically scans the actual status of the contacts
to update the values stored in memory.
• The contact input interface can also be used to enter discrete data other than binary. This type of data is
generated by devices such as a photoelectric sensor array and can be stored in a binary register consisting
of multiple bits.
• The individual bit values (0 or 1) can be entered through the contact input interface. In effect, a certain
number of contacts in the input interface are assigned to the binary register, the number of contacts being
equal to the number of bits in the register. The binary number can be converted to a conventional base 10
number as needed in the application.
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 Contact Input/Output Interfaces
• Contact interfaces are of two types, input and output. These interfaces read binary data from the process
into the computer and send binary signals from the computer to the process, respectively. The terms input
and output are relative to the computer.

• The contact output interface is a device that communicates on/off signals from the computer to the process.
The contact positions are set either on or off. These positions are maintained until changed by the computer,
perhaps in response to events in the process.
• In computer process-control applications, hardware controlled by the contact output interface include
alarms, indicator lights (on control panels), solenoids, and constant-speed motors. The computer controls
the sequence of on/off activities in a work cycle through this contact output interface.
• The contact output interface can be used to transmit a discrete data value other than binary by assigning an
array of contacts in the interface for that purpose.
• The 0 and 1 values of the contacts in the array are evaluated as a group to determine the corresponding
discrete number. In effect, this procedure is the reverse of that used by the contact input interface for
discrete data other than binary.

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 Pulse Counters and Generators
• Discrete data can also exist in the form of a series of pulses. Such data is generated by digital transducers such as
optical encoders. Pulse data are also used to control certain devices such as stepper motors.
• A pulse counter is a device that converts a series of pulses (pulse train) into a digital value. The value is then
entered into the computer through its input channel. The most common type of pulse counter is one that counts
electrical pulses. It is constructed using sequential logic gates, called flip-flops, which are electronic devices that
possess memory capability and that can be used to store the results of the counting procedure.
• Pulse counters can be used for both counting and measurement applications. A typical counting application might
add up the number of packages moving past a photoelectric sensor along a conveyor in a distribution center. A
typical measurement application might indicate the rotational speed of a shaft. One possible method to accomplish
the measurement is to connect the shaft to a rotary encoder, which generates a certain number of electrical pulses for
each rotation. To determine rotational speed, the pulse counter measures the number of pulses received during a
certain time period and divides this by the duration of the time period and by the number of pulses in each
revolution of the encoder.
• A pulse generator is a device that produces a series of electrical pulses whose total number and frequency are
determined and sent by the control computer. The total number of pulses might be used to drive a stepper motor in a
positioning system. The frequency of the pulse train, or pulse rate, could be used to control the rotational speed of a
stepper motor. A pulse generator operates by repeatedly closing and opening an electrical contact, thus producing a
sequence of discrete electrical pulses. The amplitude (voltage level) and frequency are designed to be compatible
with the device being controlled.
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