Module 3-Settlement analysis: Introduction- causes of settlement – estimation of immediate settlement

– Numerical problems - Allowable Settlement-Maximum and differential settlements as per Indian

standard - Field test - Plate load test – Procedure, uses and limitations
Footings: Principles of design of footings – strip/continuous and individual footings - Numerical Problems
- Combined footings- Rectangular and Trapezoidal combined footings - Numerical problems - Footings
subjected to eccentric loading
Raft foundations: Types – Principles of design of raft foundation- Bearing capacity equations for raft on
sand (Teng’s equation based on SPT value) and for raft on clay (Skempton’s formula) - Floating
foundations - conventional design procedure for rigid mat.

Settlement analysis
Soils consolidate under the application of loads from buildings. All foundations settle as the soil around
and beneath the foundation adjust to the loading. Buildings with light loads or built on rock may
experience negligible settlement.
Causes of Settlement
The causes of foundation settlement are rarely due to the design (or under-design) of the structure
itself. More commonly, damage is caused as changes occur within the foundation soils that surround
and support the structure.
The following briefly describes a few of the more common causes of foundation settlement:
1. Weak Bearing Soils
• Some soils are simply not capable of supporting the weight or bearing pressure exerted by a
building's foundation. As a result, the footings press or sink into the soft soils, similar in theory to
how a person standing in the mud sinks into soft, wet clay.
• In such cases, footings may be designed to spread the load over the weak soils, thereby reducing
potential foundation settlement. However, the majority of settlement problems caused by weak
bearing soils occur in residential construction, where the footings are designed based upon
general guidelines and not site-specific soil information.
2. Poor Compaction
• Placement of fill soils is common practice in the development of both commercial and residential
subdivisions.
• In general, before a foundation can be constructed on a plot, hilltops are cut down and valleys are
filled in order to create buildable lots. Properly placed and compacted fill soils can provide
adequate support for foundations, and are sometimes brought in from off-site locations.
• When fill soils are not adequately compacted, they can compress under a foundation load
resulting in settlement of the structure.
3. Changes in Moisture Content
• Extreme changes in moisture content within foundation soils can result in damaging settlement.
• Soils with high clay contents also have a tendency to shrink with loss of moisture. As clay soils dry
out, they shrink or contract, resulting in a general decrease in soil volume.
• Therefore, settlement damage is often observed in a structure supported on dried-out soil.
4. Maturing Trees and Vegetation
• Maturing trees, bushes and other vegetation in close proximity to a home or building are a
common cause of settlement. As trees and other vegetation mature, their demand for water also
grows.
• The root systems continually expand and can draw moisture from the soil beneath the
foundation. Again, clay-rich soils shrink as they lose moisture, resulting in settlement of overlying
structures. Many homes and building owners often state that they did not have a settlement
problem until decades after the structure was built.
• This time frame coincides with the maturation and growth of the trees and vegetation.

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 • Foundations closer to the surface are more often affected by soil dehydration due to tree roots
than are deep, basement level foundations. As a general rule, the diameter of a tree's root system
is at least as large as the tree's canopy.
5. Soil Consolidation
• Consolidation occurs when the weight of a structure or newly-placed fill soils compress lower,
weak clayey soils. The applied load forces water out of the clay soils, allowing the individual soil
particles to become more densely spaced.
• Consolidation results in downward movement or settlement of overlying structures. Settlement
caused by consolidation of foundation soils may take weeks, months, or years to be considered
"complete."
• As this occurs, the foundation will experience downward movement -- sometimes at an uneven
rate. This leads to cracks and structural damage.
Immediate Settlement | Calculation of Immediate Settlement
Immediate settlement takes place in a short time (about a week) after application of load and is
due to elastic distortion of the soil. As the settlement is experienced in a short time, there will not be
enough time for soil mass for change in its water content. Hence, Settlement takes place under constant
Volume or under un-drained conditions. Immediate settlement is computed by elastic theory. Compared
to consolidation settlement, particularly in saturated clay, immediate settlement is very small and often
neglected unless the structure is very important.

SIGNIFICANCE OF INFLUENCE FACTOR

We have to calculate Influence Factor for different shapes of footing, i.e., square, circular,
rectangular and for different types of foundation. Such as-
1. Flexible type foundation. Ex: Isolated Footing
2. Rigid Type Foundation. Ex: Raft or Matt Foundation
Settlement of Footing in Clay
The total settlement is given by:

𝑺 = 𝑺𝒊 + 𝑺𝒄 + 𝑺𝒔

Where s is the total settlement, si is the immediate settlement, sc is the consolidation settlement and ss is
the secondary settlement,
Computation of Immediate settlement
There are various methods of computing the immediate settlement. The most widely used are the
Schleicher’s method and Jambu, Bjerrum and Kjaernsli’s method.
Schleicher’s Method – In this method the settlement at the corner of rectangular loaded area at the
surface of a semi-infinite medium of a homogeneous and isotropic soil mass is given by:
𝑰𝒔
𝑺𝒊 = 𝒒𝑩(𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝑬

Where, si = Immediate settlement = Poisson’s Ratio

q = Load on foundation Is = Influence coefficient
B = Smaller dimension of the loaded area E = Modulus of elasticity
To the settlement at the centre, the principal of superposition is used.
For a rectangular area the settlement at the centre is equal to two times the settlement at the corner.
𝑰
Alternatively, the value of (𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 ) 𝑬𝒔 is determined from the plate load test
Rigidity Correction – The rigidity correction is done by multiplying the flexible settlement obtained
from equation above by a factor, 0.8 called Rigidity Factor.

Alternatively, we can write: 𝑺𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝑺𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆

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Janbu, Bjerrum and Kjaernsli’s Method
Janbu, Bjerrum and Kjaernsli (1956) have suggested the equation to compute average
immediate settlement under a flexible compressible foundation in saturated undrained clays.
The equation is given below:
𝒒𝑩
𝑺𝒊 = 𝝁 𝟎 𝝁 𝟏 ×
𝑬𝒖
Where, si = Average immediate settlement for flexible footing
µ0 µ1 = Shape factors obtained from the charts
Eu = Undrained modulus of elasticity of the soil
q = Load on foundation
B = Smaller dimension of the loaded area
Allowable settlement and Maximum settlement
• The allowable settlement is defined as the acceptable amount of settlement of the structure.
• The settlement of a foundation that is acceptable both structural and aesthetic point of view
is called allowable settlement which generally includes a factor of safety.
• The allowable maximum settlement depends upon
1. The type of soil
2. Type of foundation
3. The structural framing system
4. Type of construction
5. Use of construction
• The maximum settlement ranging from 20mm to 300 mm is generally permitted to various
structures.
• Theoretically no damage is done to the superstructure if the soil settles uniformly.
• However, settlements exceeding 150 mm may cause trouble in utilities such as water
pipeline, severs, telephone lines and also in access from street.
• Eve sufficient precautions are taken while designing such utilities the maximum settlement
of even up to 2m may be permitted in special cases provided the structure settles uniformly.
• IS Code permits
Foundation Maximum settlement
40mm on sand
Isolated foundations
60mm on clay
40mm-65mm on sand
Raft foundations
65mm-100mm on clay
Differential settlements
• Uneven settlement of the soil beneath the foundation of a structure that may lead to
“sinking” of different parts of the structure which causes cracks and other structural problems
• Differential settlement limited to–
• 20mm in sandy soil
• 40mm in clayey soil
• Maximum and differential settlements as per IS 1904-1978

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Field Load Test/Plate load test
• The plate load test is a field test, which is performed to determine the ultimate bearing capacity
of the soil and the probable settlement under a given load.
• This test is very popular for the selection and design of the shallow foundation.
• For performing this test, the plate is placed at the desired depth, then the load is applied
gradually and the settlement for each increment of the load is recorded. At one point a
settlement occurs at a rapid rate, the total load up to that point is calculated and divided by the
area of the plate to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil at that depth. The ultimate
bearing capacity is then divided by a safety factor (typically 2.5~3) to determine the safe bearing
capacity.
Procedure
1. Excavate test pit up to the desired depth. The pit size should be at least 5 times the size of the
test plate (Bp).
2. At the centre of the pit, a small hole or depression is created. The size of the hole is the same as
the size of the steel plate. The bottom level of the hole should correspond to the level of the
actual foundation. The depth of the hole is created such that the ratio of the depth to width of
the hole is equal to the ratio of the actual depth to the actual width of the foundation.
3. A mild steel plate is used as a load-bearing plate whose thickness should be at least 25 mm
thickness and size may vary from 300 mm to 750 mm. The plate can be square or circular.
Generally, a square plate is used for square footing and a circular plate is used for circular
footing.
4. A column is placed at the centre of the plate. The load is transferred to the plate through the
centrally placed column.
5. The load can be transferred to the column either by gravity loading method or by truss method.
6. For gravity loading method a platform is constructed over the column and load is applied to the
platform by means of sandbags or any other dead loads. The hydraulic jack is placed in between
column and loading platform for the application of gradual loading. This type of loading is called
reaction loading.
7. At least two dial gauges should be placed at diagonal corners of the plate to record the
settlement. The gauges are placed on a platform so that it does not settle with the plate.
8. Apply seating load of .7 T/m2 and release before the actual loading starts.
9. The initial readings are noted.
10. The load is then applied through the hydraulic jack and increased gradually. The increment is
generally one-fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity or one-tenth of the ultimate bearing
capacity or any other smaller value. The applied load is noted from the pressure gauge.

Figure: Test Setup for Plate Load Test

11. The settlement is observed for each increment and from dial gauge. After increasing the load-
settlement should be observed after 1, 4, 10, 20, 40, and 60 minutes and then at hourly
intervals until the rate of settlement is less than .02 mm per hour. The readings are noted in
tabular form.
12. After completing the collection of data for a particular loading, the next load increment is
applied and readings are noted under new load. This increment and data collection is repeated
until the maximum load is applied. The maximum load is generally 1.5 times the expected
ultimate load or 3 times of the expected allowable bearing pressure.
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Calculation of Bearing Capacity from Plate Load Test

After the collection of field data, the load-settlement curve is drawn. It is a logarithmic graph where the
load applied is plotted on X-axis and settlement on Y-axis. From the graph, the ultimate load for the plate
is obtained which is the corresponding load for settlement of one-fifth of the plate width.

Figure: Load-settlement graph

When the points are plotted on the graph, the curve is broken at one point. The corresponding load to
that breakpoint is considered to be the ultimate load on the plate. The ultimate bearing capacity can be
calculated from the ultimate load from the plate. The ultimate bearing capacity is then divided by a
suitable factor of safety to determine the safe bearing capacity of soil from the foundation.
1) Equations for Calculation of Bearing Capacity of Soil
Soil Bearing Capacity Calculation for Clayey Soil

Following is the equation to determine soil bearing capacity for clay from the plate load test.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity = Ultimate Load for the Plate.
Soil Bearing Capacity Calculation for Sandy Soil

The followings are the equation to determine soil bearing capacity for sand from the plate load test.

Typically, the range for the factor of safety varies from 2 to 3.

2) Equations for Foundation Settlement Calculation from Plate Load Test

The following equations can be used for foundation settlement calculation.
Foundation Settlement Calculation for Clayey Soil

Foundation Settlement Calculation for Sandy Soil

Advantages of Plate Load Test

• Being able to understand the foundation behaviour under loading conditions.

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 • Evaluation of bearing capacity of soil at a certain depth and prediction of settlement for
a certain load.
• Shallow foundation can be calculated considering the allowable bearing capacity, which
can be predicted from the plate load test.
• Time and cost-efficient.
• Easy to perform.
• Reliable.

Limitations of Plate Load Test

• The test predicts the behaviour of soil located at a depth less than twice the depth of the width
of the bearing plate. But in practical condition, the influence zone of a foundation is up to a
much greater depth.
• The plate load test is performed for a short time period, so it cannot predict the settlement for
a longer period, especially for cohesive soil.
• The bearing capacity for clayey soil is almost similar to the bearing capacity obtained from the
plate load test, but in the case of dense sandy soil, the plate load test provides a conservative
value. The actual capacity obtained for dense sandy soil is higher than the results from the plate
load test.
• The settlement for losing sandy soil is usually greater than the settlement indicated by the plate
bearing test.

Design of strip/continuous footing

Strip footing is also called continuous footing or wall footing.
Procedure

1. Determine the width of footing.

𝐖+𝐖′ 𝑸
𝐁= =
𝐪𝐧𝐚 𝒒𝒏𝒂
Where W=load transferred by the wall to footing per m
W’= self-weight of footing per m
qna = Allowable soil pressure
Q= load per m run
2. If the actual width is different from the theoretical width, then the actual pressure is
𝑸
𝒒𝒐 =
𝑩
Q=load per m run
3. Determine the maximum BM and SF values at the critical section
a) In case of masonry wall, the BM will be maximum at this section midway between the
edge of the wall and the centre of the wall.

𝟐
𝒒𝟎 (𝑩 − 𝒃) 𝒃
𝑀= [ + ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
b) In case of concrete wall, the max bending moment will occur at the face of the concrete
wall

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 𝟐
𝒒𝟎 (𝑩 − 𝒃)
𝑴= [ ]
𝟐 𝟐
4. Using bending moment values, the effective depth is checked and the area of steel is provided.
0.15% of x-sectional area for mild steel bars
5. Check for shear is done for one way shear
Critical section is at a distance of d from the face of the wall

(𝑩 − 𝒃)
𝒗𝒖 = 𝒒𝟎 [ − 𝒅]
𝟐
Design of Combined footing
• Combined footings are constructed for two or more columns when they are close to each other
and their foundations overlap.
• Whenever two or more columns in a straight line are carried on a single spread footing, it is called
a combined footing. Isolated footings for each column are generally the economical.
• Combined footings are provided only when it is absolutely necessary, as
➢ When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
➢ Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings
➢ Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building column.

Types of Combined footing

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 • The combined footing may be rectangular, trapezoidal or Tee-shaped in plan.
• The geometric proportions and shape are so fixed that the centroid of the footing area
coincides with the resultant of the column loads. This results in uniform pressure below the
entire area of footing.
• Trapezoidal footing is provided when one column load is much more than the other. As a result,
the both projections of footing beyond the faces of the columns will be restricted.
• Rectangular footing is provided when one of the projections of the footing is restricted or the
width of the footing is restricted.
Steps for Design of Rectangular Combined Footing
The design of a combined loading consists of selecting the length and width of the footing such
that the centroid of the footing and the resultant of the column loads coincide. With the
dimensions of footing established, the SFD and BMD are drawn. Thickness of the footing is
selected from the BM and SF. The footing is designed as a continuous beam supported by 2
columns in the longitudinal direction. The reinforcement is provided as in a continuous beam.
Procedure
1. Determine the total column load
𝐐 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝐐𝟐
Where 𝑄1 and Q 2 are the exterior and interior column especially
2. Find the base area of the footing
𝑸
𝑨=
𝒒𝒏𝒂
Where 𝑞𝑛𝑎 is the allowable soil pressure
3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads measures from one of the columns,
say exterior column.

𝒙𝟐
Where x̄= 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸
where x2 is the distance between columns
4. Determine the total length of the footing
𝒃
𝑳 = 𝟐(𝐱̄+ 𝟐𝟏)
where b1 is the width of exterior column
5. Find the width of the footing.
𝑨
𝑩=
𝑳
6. As the actual length and width that are provided may be slightly more due to rounding off, the
actual pressure is given by
𝑸
𝒒𝒐 =
𝑨𝑶
7. Draw the SFD and BMD along the length of the footing, considering the pressure q0.
For convenience, the column loads are taken as concentric loads acting at the centre.
8. Determine the BM at the face of the columns and the BMmax at the point of zero shear.

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 9. Find the thickness of footing for the BMmax
Check the diagonal shear and punching shear, as in the case of an isolated footings. Check for
bond at the point of contraflexure.
10. Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for the BMmax
For transverse reinforcement, assume a width of (b+d) to take all the BM in the short
direction, where b is the column side and d, are the effective depth.

Steps for Design of Rectangular Combined Footing

Trapezoidal combined footings are provided to avoid eccentricity loading with respect to the base.
Trapezoidal footings are required when the space outside the exterior column is limited and exterior
column carries the heavier load.
Procedure
1. Determine the total column load
𝐐 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝐐𝟐
Where 𝑄1 and Q 2 are the exterior and interior column especially
2. Find the base area of the footing
𝑸
𝑨=
𝒒𝒏𝒂
Where 𝑞𝑛𝑎 is the allowable soil pressure
3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads measures from one of the columns,
say exterior column.
𝒙
Where x̄= 𝑸𝟐 + 𝟐 where x2 is the distance between columns
𝑸

4. Determine the xl of the resultant from the outer face of the exterior column
𝒃
xl= x̄+ 𝟐𝟏
𝑳 𝑳
A trapezoid footing is required if 𝟑
< 𝐱̄′ < 𝟐
Where L is the length of the trapezoidal footing, determined from
𝒃
𝑳 = 𝟐(𝐱̄+ 𝟐𝟏)
❖ 𝑳
If x’=𝟐, a rectangular footing is provided. However,
𝑳
If x’=𝟑, a combined footing cannot be provided. In such cases, a strap footing is
suitable
5. Determine widths B1 and B2 from the following relations

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 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
( )𝐿 = 𝐴 (1)
2

𝐿 𝐵1 + 2𝐵2
( ) = 𝑥′ (2)
3 𝐵1 + 𝐵2

Solving equations (1) and (2)

2𝐴 3𝑥 ′
𝐵2 = [ − 1] 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐿 𝐿

2𝐴
𝐵1 = − 𝐵2
𝐿
6. Once the dimensions B1 and B2 have been found, the rest of the design can be done as
in the case of rectangular combined footing.

Types of raft foundations

Following are different types of raft foundations,
1. Flat Plate Type Raft Foundation
2. Thickened Flat plate Type Raft Foundation
3. Beam and Slab Type Raft Foundation
4. Piled Raft Foundation
5. Box type raft foundation

1. Flat Plate Type Raft Foundation

• Flat plate type raft foundations consist a
reinforced concrete slab of uniform
thickness covering the whole bearing
area.
• This is suitable when the columns are
placed with uniform space between
them and carrying equal and small loads.

2. Thickened Flat plate Type Raft Foundation

• Flat plate type is not suitable when the
column loads are very heavy. To make it
suitable, slab thickness must be increased.
• The heavy loads from column introduces
negative bending moments and diagonal
shear in to the slab.
• So, to resist this, a portion of slab under the
column should be thickened.

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3. Beam and Slab Type Raft Foundation
• In case of Beam and slab type raft foundation,
beams are laid in perpendicular directions and
all of these beams connected by raft slab.
• Columns are situated exactly on intersections
of beams of raft foundation.
• This type raft foundation is suitable when the
columns are carrying unequal loads and there
is large space between them.

4. Piled Raft Foundation

• In case of piled raft foundation, raft slab is supported by piles in soil.
• This type of foundation is preferred for soils of high compressibility and high-water table.
• These are well suitable for high rise buildings.
• Provision of piles under the raft reduces the amount of settlement and increase the soil
load-bearing capacity.

5. Box type raft foundation

• Cellular raft foundation is also
known as box type raft foundation
or rigid frame raft foundation.
• In this type of foundations, boxes
like structures are formed where
the walls of each box acts as beams
and these are connected by slabs at
top and bottom.
• The beams and slabs are united in
such a way that their cross section
look like I-section.
• This type of foundations can resist
very high bending stresses and
suitable for loose soils where
settlement is uneven.

Principles of design of raft foundation

• Calculation methods for mat foundation design shall be based on the latest version of
applicable codes.
• The depth of mat foundation must satisfy shear requirements.

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 • A uniform thickness can be used for raft foundation if columns are equally spaced and
the loads are not very heavy.
• A minimum cover of 50 mm is required for mat foundation. The above reinforcement
cover may be increased based on harmful chemicals and minerals in the soil and
fluctuations of water table when it is very near to the foundation.
• Accurate estimations of all types of loads, moments, and forces are needed for the
present as well as for future expansion.
• Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces, and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
• The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within
the tolerable limits.
• Mat foundation should provide adequate safety for maintaining the stability of structure.
• The raft foundation should be economical.

Bearing capacity equations for raft on sand (Teng’s equation based on SPT value)
As per Teng (1962) the safe bearing capacity can be obtained from the results of SPT test.
From shear failure criteria, the net safe bearing capacity is given by:

qns = 0.02N2Bw1 + 0.06(100 + B2)Df w2

From settlement criteria of 25 mm the safe bearing pressure is,

qna = 1.75(N-3) w1

Where, B = smaller dimension of the footing

Df = Depth of foundation
N = corrected SPT Value
w1, w2 = water table correction factors
Where, qns and qna are in ton/m2
Bearing capacity equations for raft on clay (Skempton’s formula)
In cohesive soil the net ultimate beating capacity on the basis of shear failure criteria is
determined by Skempton’s equation, which is:

Where, Nc is the bearing capacity factor for a strip footing at surface and is taken as 5. C u is the
undrained shear strength, Df, B and L are depth, width and length of footing respectively. The
safe bearing capacity is given by:

Where, F is the factor of safety. The factor of safety should neither be less than 3 for normal
loading condition and 2 for extreme loading condition.

Floating Raft foundations

• A Floating Foundation, also known as Balancing Raft is a type of foundation where the
weight of the building is approximately equal to the full weight of the soil and water
removed from the site of the building prior to construction.

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Principle of Floating Foundation
The main principle of floating foundation is to balance the weight of removed soil by a structure
of same weight which causes zero settlement to the structure. So, this foundation is also called
as balancing raft foundation.

Suitability of Floating Foundations

Floating foundations are desirable for the following types of soils:
• Soils which are having good shear strength but having a problem of large settlements
and differential settlements under heavy loads. In which case, floating foundation can
reduce the settlement values to greater extent.
• Soils which are having low shear strength and there is no hard layer of soil at reasonable
depth. Here also, floating foundation helps to reduce the shear stresses to satisfactory
level and hence settlement is prevented.
Difficulties in Construction of Floating Foundation
During the construction of floating foundation some problems may arise which can be
prevented by taking proper care. The problems will arise during
• Excavation
• Dewatering
• Critical depth
• Bottom heave
Design Procedure for the Mat/Raft foundation
The procedure for design a mat foundation, using the conventional method, consists of
the following steps:
• Step 1. Determine the line of action of all the loads acting on the raft.
• Step 2. Determine the contact pressure distribution
a) If the resultant passes through the centre of the raft
𝑸
𝒒=
𝑨
b) If the resultant passes through the centre of the raft
𝑸 𝑸𝒆 𝑸𝒆𝒚
𝒒 = 𝑨 − 𝑰 𝒙.𝒙− 𝑰𝒙𝒙
.𝒚
𝒚𝒚

The maximum contact pressure is less than the allowable pressure.

:
• Step 3. Divide the slab into strips (bands: B1, B2, B3) in x and y directions. Each strip is
assumed to act as independent beam subjected to the contact pressure and column loads.

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 • Step 4. Determine the modified column loads.
1
𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2
1
𝑄𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = [(𝑄1 + 𝑄1 + 𝑄1 ) + (𝑞𝑎𝑣 𝐵 × 𝐵1 )]
2
• Step 5. Modified average soil pressure
𝑄
𝑞𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝐵 𝑎𝑣𝑔
×𝐵
1
B1= width of strip
• Step 6. The BMD and SF are drawn for the modified column loads and the modified avg soil
pressure.
• Step 7. The footing is designed for maximum SF and BM

Problems
7. A rectangular surface footing 2m x 3m carries a column load of 600 kN. The footing rests
on a c-φ soil strata 6 m thick having μ = 0.25 and E as 5000 kN/m2. Calculate the
immediate settlement of
a) Flexible footing assuming the influence factor If = 1.36.
b) Rigid footing

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