Module 5: Site investigation and soil exploration:
Site investigation and soil exploration: objectives - planning - reconnaissance - Guidelines for
choosing spacing and depth of borings [I.S. guidelines only]- Methods of subsurface exploration -
test pits - Auger borings – Wash Boring - Rotary drilling – Standard Penetration Test – procedure
and correlations - Corrections for SPT value – Numerical Problems – Sampling - disturbed
samples, undisturbed samples and chunk samples - types of samplers - Sampler parameters -
Boring log – Soil profile- Location of Water table - Geophysical methods : Seismic Refraction
method and Electrical Resistivity method (in brief).
Site investigation
• Site investigation is the process of obtaining information about the site of proposed
construction.
• It includes the determination of soil profile, determination of engineering properties of soil
and hydraulic characteristics of the site.
• These information are obtained by conducting preliminary survey, drilling holes, collecting
samples and determining engineering properties.
The objectives of a soil investigation program:
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems (for example, expansive soil, collapsible
soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining walls, sheet pile bulkheads,
and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of suitable construction methods
8. Analysis of safety of existing structures and suggest remedial measures
Site investigation or sub-soil exploration is carried out stage-wise as given below.
• Site Reconnaissance
• Preliminary site exploration
• Detailed exploration
• Preparation of soil investigation report
Site reconnaissance
Site reconnaissance is the first stage of site investigation. In this stage, visual inspection of the site
is done and information about topographical and geological features of the site are collected.
The general observations made in site reconnaissance are as follows:
1. Presence of drainage ditches and dumping yards etc.
2. Location of groundwater table by observing well in that site.
3. Presence of springs, swamps, etc.
4. High flood level marks on the bridges, high rise buildings, etc. are observed.
5. Presence of vegetation and nature of the soil.
6. Past records of landslides, floods, shrinkage cracks, etc. of that region.
7. Study of aerial photographs of the site, blueprints of present buildings, geological maps,
etc.
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8. Observation of deep cuts to know about the stratification of soils.
9. Observation of Settlement cracks of existing structures.
Guidelines for choosing spacing and depth of borings [I.S. guidelines only]
LATERAL EXTENT/Spacing OF EXPLORATION
• Lateral extent and spacing of exploration and boring hole depend on the variation of soil
strata in the horizontal direction.
• For small and less important Building: One bore hole in the center is enough
• For compact Building covering an area of about 4 hectares: 5 bore holes, one at the center
and 4 at the corners
• For large multi-story building: Bore hole at all corners and also at important locations.
• The spacing between the bore holes are generally kept between 10 to 30 m
• For Highways: Bore holes are drilled along the center line of the road. The spacing between
the bore holes are kept between 150 to 300 m.
• For concrete dams: The spacing of bore holes varies between 40 to 80 m.
DEPTH OF EXPLORATION
• Depth of exploration depends on soil profile, influence zone, type of structure and intensity
of loading.
• Depth of exploration for square footing = 1.5 times the width of the footing
• Depth of exploration for Strip footing = 3 times the width of the footing
• Depth of exploration for Closely spaced footing = 1.5 times the width of the entire loaded
area
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• Depth of exploration for Pile foundation
For Bearing piles
• Depth of exploration = 1.5 times the width of the pile group
For Friction piles
• Depth of exploration = 1.5 times the width of the pile group measured from lower third
point
• For multi Storey buildings
Depth of exploration D=CS0.7
Where D equal to depth of exploration in metre
C = Constant=3 for light steel building
=6 for heavy steel building
S= number of storeys
• Four road field depth of exploration = two metre below the ground surface
• Four gravity dam minimum depth of boring = 2 times the height of the dam
A trial pit (or test pit)
• A trial pit (or test pit) is an excavation of ground in order to study or sample the
composition and structure of the subsurface, usually dug during a site investigation, a soil
survey or a geological survey.
• Trial pits are dug before the construction.
• They are dug to determine the geology and the water table of that site.
Methods of subsurface exploration
Excavation Methods are
1. Open excavation:
• Open Excavation is made to inspect the soil.
• Open pits and trenches are made for investigation
• Depth of exploration is small
2. Boring Excavation
• Depth of Exploration is large
• Deeper bore hole is excavated and soil samples are collected and tested in
laboratory.
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Depending upon the type of soil and purpose of boring, the following methods are used for
boring
1. Auger Boring
2. Wash Boring
3. Rotary Drilling
Auger Boring
➢ It consists of a shank with a handle for turning and having central tapered feed screw
➢ It can be operated manually or mechanically
➢ Augers are used in clays, silts, and saturated sands
➢ Used for exploration of highways, railways and air fields, where depth of exploration is
small
➢ Advantages: Exploration can be done rapidly and economically
➢ Disadvantages: Soil samples will be disturbed
➢ Manual / Hand Augers
o 15 – 20 cm diameter
o Used for drilling in soft soil up to a depth of 3 – 6 m
o The hole is advances by turning the handle and applying thrust in the downward
direction
➢ Mechanical Auger
o Driven by power
o Used for drilling up to a depth of 6 – 12 m
Wash Boring
• First drive a casing into the soil
• Insert a hollow drill rod with a chisel shaped chopping which at its end
• Water is pumped down the hole
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• Hole is advanced by a combination of chopping action of bit and jetting action of
water
• Water and chopped soil rise upward through the annular space between drill rod and
casing
• The return water with soil cutting is collected in a tub through a T shaped pipe
Rotary drilling
➢ Rotary drilling is used to form a deep observation borehole
or for obtaining representative samples of rock.
➢ The drilling method involves a powered rotary
cutting head on the end of a shaft, driven into the
ground as it rotates.
➢ The system requires lubrication (air, water or drilling mud)
to keep the cutting head cool.
Soil sampling
o Soil sampling is the process of collection of samples of soil in order to determine the
engineering properties of soil required for the proper design of foundation
o Assessment of water table is also considered to be a part of soil exploration.
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Disturbed Sample
• The samples in which the natural structure of the soil got disturbed either partly or fully
during sampling are called disturbed samples
• They are further classified as
a. Non-Representative Sample
b. Representative Sample
Non -representative Sample
• Non-representative samples consist of mixture of materials from various soil or rock strata
or are samples from which some mineral constituents have been lost or got mixed up.
• These are suitable only for providing qualitative information such as major changes in
subsurface strata.
• Example: Soil sample from Auger and wash boring
Representative samples
• Representative samples are those in which all the constituent minerals are retained
but only the structure of the soil got disturbed
• There are changes in water content also
• These samples are used in the determination of physical properties like atterberg
limits and specific gravity
Undisturbed sample/Chunk sample
• Undisturbed samples are those which are subjected to minimum disturbances.
• Purely undisturbed sample is an ideal condition because all the samples will get
disturbed to some extent even though precise equipment are used
• These samples are used in strength and consolidation test
• Example: Tube sample and Chunk sample
Preservation and transportation of samples (IS 1892 -1979)
Disturbed Samples of Soil
• Immediately after being taken from the bore hole or trial pit, the sample should be
placed in a cloth bag or tin preferably in a glass jar of at least 0.5 kg capacity, and
it should fill this container with a minimum of air space.
• The container should have an air-tight cover. In this way the natural water content
of the sample can be maintained for one or two weeks without appreciable
change.
• The containers should be numbered and a label should be placed immediately
under the cover in a container.
• The containers should be carefully packed in a wooden box with saw dust or other
suitable material, to prevent damage during transit.
• They should be stored if possible, in a cool room
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Undisturbed Samples of Soil
• Immediately after being taken from the boring or trial pit, the ends of the sample
should be cut and removed to a depth of about 2.5 cm ( or more in the top to
cover any obviously disturbed soil).
• Several layers of molten wax should then be applied to each end to give a plug
about 2.5 cm thick.
• If the sample is very porous, a layer of waxed paper should first be placed over
the ends of the sample.
• Any space left between the end of the liner or tube and the top of the wax should
be tightly packed with saw dust or other suitable material; and a close-fitting lid
or screwed cap be placed on each end of the tube or liner.
• The lids should, if necessary, be held in position by adhesive tape.
• If the longitudinal joint of the liner is not air- tight, this should be waxed and
protected by adhesive tape in the same way as the lid.
• Samples which are not retained in a tube should be wholly covered with several
layers of molten paraffin wax immediately after being removed from the sampling
tool, and then placed in a suitable metal container, being tightly packed in the
container with saw dust or other suitable material.
Types of samplers
• Split spoon sampler
• scraper bucket sampler
• Shelby tubes and thin-walled samplers
• Piston sampler
• Denison sampler
Standard Split-Spoon or Split-Barrel Sampler
• It is the most commonly used sampler for obtaining undisturbed soil samples.
• A split-spoon sampler is also used to conduct SPT in the borehole. When the SPT is
conducted, the soil sample simultaneously enters the sampler by the end of the test, which is
then withdrawn and taken to the laboratory.
• The standard split-spoon sampler
consists of the following
i. A driving shoe made of 7.5-cm-
long tool steel at the bottom.
ii. A 45-cm-long steel tube, split
into two halves longitudinally
iii. A coupling or sampler head at the
top of the tube, about 15 cm long.
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Following is the procedure for the collection of soil samples using standard split-spoon
sampler:
3. After the borehole has been made, the sampler is attached to the bottom of the drill rod
and lowered to the bottom of the hole.
4. The sampler is forced into the soil by repeated blows of a drop hammer.
5. The sampler is driven to the required length, taking care not to overstress the sample, and
is then withdrawn.
6. The split tube is separated after removing the shoe and the coupling, and the sampling
tube with sample is taken out.
7. The sampling tube containing sample is then placed in a container, sealed, and
transported to the laboratory.
8. In the samplers with separate a 3.8-cm-diameter tube inside the split barrel, the tube is
taken out, waxed on both ends, and transported to the laboratory.
9. If the soil encountered in the borehole is fine sand below the water table, the sample
recovery becomes difficult. For such soils, a spring core catcher device is used to aid
recovery. As the sampler is lifted, the springs close and form a dome to retain the sample.
10. While taking samples, the water level in the borehole should be always maintained higher
than the GWT to prevent quick conditions.
Scraper Bucket Sampler:
• Sampling with a standard split-spoon sampler becomes difficult if the soil contains pebbles.
• A scraper bucket sampler may be helpful for the collection of undisturbed samples in such
soil deposits.
• However, it is possible to collect only disturbed samples using a scraper bucket sampler.
The sampler is also useful to obtain samples of cohesionless soil below GWT.
• Following is the procedure for the collection of soil samples using standard split-spoon
sampler:
• After the borehole has been made, the sampler is attached to the bottom of the drill rod and
lowered to the bottom of the hole.
• The sampler is forced into the soil by repeated blows of a drop hammer.
• The sampler is driven to the required length, taking care not to overstress the sample, and is
then withdrawn.
• The split tube is separated after removing the shoe and the coupling, and the sampling tube
with sample is taken out.
• The sampling tube containing sample is then placed in a container, sealed, and transported to
the laboratory.
• In the samplers with separate a 3.8-cm-diameter tube inside the split barrel, the tube is taken
out, waxed on both ends, and transported to the laboratory.
• If the soil encountered in the borehole is fine sand below the water table, the sample
recovery becomes difficult. For such soils, a spring core catcher device is used to aid
recovery. As the sampler is lifted, the springs close and form a dome to retain the sample.
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• While taking samples, the water level in the borehole should be always maintained higher
than the GWT to prevent quick conditions.
Open-Tube Sampler/Shelby tube samplers
• The open-tube samplers are the simplest type of samplers for collection of undisturbed samples.
• They are thin-wall tube samplers made of stainless steel and are also known as thin-wall Shelby
tube samplers.
• The bottom of the tube is sharpened and beveled, which acts as a cutting edge.
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• The upper portion of the sampler has threads on the inside surface to enable the sampler to be
attached to the bottom of the drill rod.
• Shelby tube samplers are commonly used for collection of samples in fine-grained soft soils. The
presence of obstructions to the sampler during driving, in the form of gravel or stones, cramps
the beveled bottom edge and causes disturbance to the sample collected. The Shelby tube
samplers are, therefore, unsuitable for hard or dense gravelly soils.
Method of Sampling:
• The procedure for collection of soil samples from a bore hole using open-tube sampler is
as follows:
• The sampler is attached to the bottom of the drill rod and is lowered to the bottom of the
bore, where the undis-turbed sample is to be collected.
• It is then driven into the soil, with fast and smooth strokes of careful hammering. Erratic
pressure, if applied during hammering, becomes a source of sample disturbance.
• After driving the sampler up to the required length (equal to the sampler length minus
provision for waxing), the sampler is rotated twice completely to shear off the sample from
its intact bottom and is then withdrawn.
• The tube is removed from the sampler head and its ends are sealed with molten wax before
transportation.
• The sampler head is provided with vents at top to permit water to escape when sampling
under water.
• It is also provided with a check valve to help retain the sample when withdrawing the
sampler.
Piston Sampler:
• A piston sampler consists of two parts – a sampler cylinder and a piston system.
• The piston rod is 30 cm (12 in.) in diameter at the bottom end and fits easily inside the hollow
drill rod.
• Piston samplers are thin-walled tube samplers that collect undisturbed samples in soft soil.
Piston Sampler: Method of Sampling:
• For obtaining a sample, the bottom of the piston is brought flush with the cutting edge of the
sampler and the sampler is lowered into the borehole.
• When the sampler reaches the bottom of the hole, the piston rod is held fixed relative to the
ground surface and the thin-wall tube is pushed into the soil by hydraulic pressure or
mechanical jacking.
• The sampler is never driven. The sampling tube is pushed to the required depth and then the
drill rod along with the whole sampler is withdrawn.
Denison sampler
• A large-size, swivel-type double-tube core barrel designed for soil-testing work to obtain
relatively undisturbed core like samples of soft rock and/or soil formations.
• The inner tube is provided with a thin wall liner and a finger- or basket-type core lifter or
core-retaining device.
• samples collected are truly undisturbed
• The Denison sampler is used primarily in stiff to hard cohesive soils and in sands, which
are not easily sampled with thin-wall samplers owing to the large jacking force required for
penetration.
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Sampler Parameters/Sampler characteristics
The following design features of the sampling tool control the degree of disturbance:
1. Cutting edge.
I. Inside Clearance
II. Outside Clearance
III. Area Ratio
2. Inside-wall friction.
3. Non-return valve.
4. Recovery ratio.
Cutting Edge:
• Cutting edge is the sloping(beveled) and sharp edge at the bottom of
the soil sampler.
• It may be an integral part of the soil sampler or a separate cutting bit
may be screwed to the bottom of the sampler.
• It mainly facilitates driving of the soil sampler through the soil.
• Design features of cutting edge
• Inside Clearance
• Outside Clearance
• Area Ratio
i)Inside Clearance
• The internal diameter of the cutting edge (Dci) should be slightly less than the internal diameter of the
sampling tube (Dsi) to give inside clearance (Ci)
•
• The inside clearance does the following:
a) Allows for elastic expansion of the soil as it enters the sampler.
b) Reduces the frictional drag on the soil sample from the wall of the sampler, which otherwise
causes disturbance to the sample.
c) Helps to retain the soil sample.
• For good sampling process, the inside clearance ratio should be within 0.5 to 3 %. For sands silts and
clays, the ratio should be 0.5 % and for stiff and hard clays (below water table), it should be 1.5 %. For
stiff expansive type of clays, it should be 3.0 %.
ii. Outside Clearance:
• Outside clearance (Co) is the gap between the outer surface of the cutting edge and the
outside surface of the sampling tube.
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• Outside clearance prevents frictional drag between the outside surface of the sampling
tube and the walls of the borehole or and hence facilitates easy driving and withdrawal of
the sampler and also prevents damage of the sampler.
• The outside diameter of the cutting edge should be slightly more than that of the sampling
tube to get the outside clearance.
Dco is the outside diameter of the cutting edge
Dso is the outside diameter of the sampling tube.
The outside clearance should not be much greater than the inside clearance
• For good sampling process, the outside clearance ratio should be within 0-2 %.
iii. Area Ratio:
• The outside clearance, the wall thickness of the sampler, and the inside clearance together
influence the displace-ment caused to the natural soil during collection of the soil sample.
• The more the sum of these three, the greater will be the soil displacement and the more
will be the degree of disturbance caused to the soil sample.
• This is expressed in the form of area ratio (Ar) and is defined as
•
• The area ratio should be kept as low as possible
• Its value should not be greater than 20% for stiff forma-tions and 10% for soft sensitive
clays
• For good sampling process, the area ratio should be preferably be less than 10 %
2. Inside-Wall Friction:
The inside-wall friction should be minimized for minimizing the disturbance of the sample
by the following actions:
i. Provide suitable inside clearance.
ii. Provide a smooth finish to the sampling tube.
iii. Oil the inside surface of the sampling tube properly.
3. Non-Return Valve:
The valve should have a large orifice to allow air and water to escape quickly and easily
when driving the sampler.
4. Recovery Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of length of the sample within the sampling tube to the depth of
penetration of the sampler during sampling.
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For satisfactory undisturbed sampling, when excess soil is prevented from entering the tube,
the recovery ratio should be between 96% and 98%.
Boring log
Subsoil investigation report/Boring log
• A subsoil investigation report should contain the data obtained from bore holes, site
observations and laboratory results.
• It should also give the recommendations about the suitable type of foundation, allowable
soil pressure and expected settlements.
•
• Each bore hole should be identified by a code number
• The location of each bore log should be fixed by measurement of its distance from
permanent features
• A boring log gives the description or classification of various strata encountered at
different depths.
• Any additional information that is obtained in the field, such as soil consistency,
unconfined compression test, cone penetration test is also indicated on the boring log.
• It should also show the water table.
• If the laboratory test has been conducted, the information about index properties,
compressibility, shear strength, permeability should be provided.
A soil exploration report generally consists of the following
a. Introduction, which gives the scope of the investigation
b. Description of the proposed structure, the location and geological conditions at the site.
c. Details of the field exploration program indicating the number of borings, their location
and depth.
d. Details of the methods of exploration.
e. Details of field test such as standard penetration test and cone test.
f. Details of lab tests conducted on the sample and the results.
g. Depth of groundwater table.
h. Discussion of the results.
i. Recommendation about the allowable bearing pressure and type of foundation or
structure.
j. Main findings of investigations
Geophysical Methods of Soil Exploration
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• Seismic Refraction method
• Electrical Resistivity method
i. Electrical profiling method.
ii. Electrical sounding method.
Seismic-Refraction Method:
➢ The seismic-refraction method is based on the principle that elastic shock waves travel
at different velocities in different materials.
➢ Shock waves are generated at a point on the ground surface, using a sledge hammer.
➢ These waves travel deep into the ground and get refracted at the interface of two
different materials and to the ground surface.
➢ The time of arrival of these waves at different locations on the ground surface are
recorded by geophones, which pick up the refracted waves.
➢ The geophones convert the ground vibrations into electrical impulses and trans-mit
them to a recording apparatus.
➢ When the distance between the vibration source and the geophone is short, the arrival
time will be that of a direct wave.
➢ When the distance exceeds a certain value (depending on the thickness of the stratum),
the refracted wave will be the first to be detected by the geophone.
➢ This is because the refracted wave, although longer than the direct wave, passes
through a stratum of higher density (and hence higher seismic velocity).
➢ A plot is made between distance on the x-axis and time on the y-axis.
➢ Points B and C in Fig. represent the distance at which the refracted wave from the
second and third strata arrive at the geophone, marked by a change in the slope of the
graph.
➢ The slope of line AB gives the reciprocal of seismic velocity in the top layer (1/v1) that
of BC gives (1/v2), and that of CD gives (1/v3), etc.
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➢ The thickness (H1) of the top stratum of the soil is given by –
➢
➢ where D1 is the distance corresponding to point B, where the seismic velocity changes
from v1 to v2.
➢ The seismic-refraction method is based on the following assumptions:
a. The density, and hence the seismic velocity, of successive layers of soil
increases with depth.
b. Each stratum of soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
c. The boundaries between strata are distinct horizontal or inclined planes.
➢ Limitations of the seismic method are the following:
• The method cannot be used if ahard layer is above the soft layer.
• Methods cannot be used if areas are covered by concrete or asphalt
pavements.
• Services of an expert in the field are needed.
• The equipment is very costly.
Electrical Resistivity Method:
• The electrical resistivity method consists of measuring the resistivity of the soil strata
and correlating the resis-tivity to the properties of the soil.
• The principal application of the electrical resistivity method is in investigating
foundations of dams and other large structures, particularly in exploring granular river
channel deposits or bed-rock surfaces.
• The method is also used for locating fresh or salt water boundaries.
• The electrical resistivity method is of the following two types:
a. Electrical profiling method
b. Electrical sounding method
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a. Electrical profiling method
• In this method, four electrodes, usually in the form of metal spikes, are driven into
the ground at the same spacing.
• The two outer electrodes are known as current electrodes, and the two inner
electrodes are known as potential electrodes.
• A direct current (DC) of 50-100 milliamperes (mA) is applied between the outer
electrodes, and the voltage drop or the potential difference between the inner
electrodes is measured using a poten-tiometer.
• The mean resistivity of the soil up to a depth of D cm below ground surface is obtained
from
D is the distance between electrodes in centimeters (cm),
V the voltage drop between inner electrodes in volts (V),
I the current flowing between outer electrodes in amperes (A).
• The electrodes are moved as a group, at the same spacing between them and different
profile lines are run across the area.
ii. Electrical Sounding Method:
• In this method, the electrode system consisting of four electrodes is expanded about a
fixed location, say P.
• The spacing in the first settings is a1 one which is increased to a2 in the second setting and
a3 in the third setting.
• The spacing is gradually increased to a distance equal to the depth of exploration.
• As the depth of the current penetration is equal to the electrode spacing the changes in the
main resistivity is correlated to the changes in the strata at that location.
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•
Limitations of the electrical resistivity method are the following:
1. The method is capable of detecting only the strata having different electrical
resistivities.
2. The results are considerably influenced by surface irregularities, wetness of
the soil, and electrolyte concentra-tion of groundwater.
3. As the resistivity of different strata at the interface changes gradually and not
abruptly, the interpretation becomes difficult.
4. Services of an expert in the field are needed.
5. The equipment is very costly.
Standard Penetration Test
• It is the most important and most commonly used field test.
• This test is used for determining
➢ Relative density
➢ Angle of internal resistant
➢ Unconfined compressive strength
➢ Bearing capacity of soil
• SPT is conducted in a bore hole using a split spoon sampler
• Typical equipment: drill rig, split spoon sampler, hammering equipment, casing pipe.
Procedure:
1. The sampler is lowered to the bottom of the hole
2. Drive the sampler by dropping a hammer of 63.5kg weight through a height of 750
mm
3. The number of blows required to penetrate 150 mm is counted.
4. The number of blows for further two successive 150 mm penetration is also counted
5. The first 150 mm drive is considered as seating load and is ignored. The total number
of blows required to penetrate the remaining 300 mm is called the Standard
penetration number N.
CORRECTIONS TO ‘N’ VALUE
The value of N may be subjected to some errors, the corrections are as follows
➢ Overburden Correction
➢ Dilatancy Correction
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➢ The overburden correction is applied first and then the dilatancy correction
Correlations of SPT N Value
➢ The value of the standard penetration number N depends upon the relative density of
the cohesionless soil and the unconfined compressive strength of the cohesive soil.
➢ If the soil is combat or stiff, the penetration number is high.
➢ The angle of sharing assistance of the cohesionless soil depends upon the number N.
➢ The greater the N value, the greater is the angle of shearing resistance.
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