DIGGING METHODS

I.1- INTRODUCTION :
Before excavating the tunnel, it is essential to first understand the nature of the terrain, this latter is
detected using current laboratory tests, through these tests, it is possible to determine
the characteristics of the land, whether it is loose and aquifer or rocky, and the movements of
lands in all directions we take into account the site, therefore the determination of the nature
The field can help us understand the execution mode in order to choose the type of.
suitable excavation to start with the essential steps, it is the
digging of a tunnel.

I.2- OPENING AND ACCESS:

I.2.1- The wells:
Wells can be used as a means of access for the execution of a tunnel,
each well represents a special location for pipes and electrical cables, so
that the different installations help us to ensure the proper operation of
operations for the execution of tunnels. These shafts can also allow for sampling.
geotechnical samples. The well section depends on the quality of the spoil to be removed.

Note: Wells also play a service role as they allow one to descend inside.
Tunnel the equipment and the materials necessary for the execution of the work as well as to raise
the clearing.

I.2.2- The branches:

These are small galleries that will have been created after drilling the wells, these branches.
establish a link between the wells and the gallery to provide access to the gallery of
reconnaissance.

I.2.3 - Recognition Gallery:

Also called a pilot gallery, it generally helps to reduce uncertainties.
of the project as well as finding better solutions adapted to critical cases and
difficult to rethink about potential problems posed or prevented. This gallery
object driver for:
The visual observation of the terrain and the establishment of a detailed geological survey;
The observation of hydrogeological conditions, to know and determine the type of
water venues (point source or diffuse);
Sample collections for laboratory testing;
Specify and detect suitable excavation and execution methods.
support

Page 5
 METHODS OF EXCAVATION

I.3- Types of excavation:

Two types of excavation are distinguished:
Excavation of the explosive;
Mechanical digging; (is done using machines).
. If the ground is loose, we use shields.
. If the ground is hard or semi-hard, we resort to the use of digging.
the explosive or mechanical excavation using an attack machine
punctual or a machine for global attack.

I.4- Modes of tunnel excavation:

The ground is solely left with the choice to use one of the two types of excavations mentioned.
Depending on the quality of the land, two methods of execution are mentioned:
Excavation execution in soft soils and aquifers;
Execution of excavation in hard (rocky) ground.

I.4.1 - Excavation execution in loose soil:

The construction of tunnels in soft and aquifer soils was carried out since
about two decades, so it is not a novelty, moreover the development of
agglomerations, often located in the valleys leading to an increasingly realized
underground works in sites much less favorable for tunnel construction.
Excavation in loose soils or aquifers is done using shields.
temporarily hold the side walls and protect people during the period
of work, moreover they have the following functions:
Slaughter organ;
Of marination;
Stabilization of the working face and installation of the lining.
The excavation is done by global attack using a torque wheel at the front of
shields knowing that the choice is based on the stabilization of the waistline.
The types of shields are classified as follows:
Open shields (non-pressurized):
Leaving the front visible and accessible, they are preferably used in the soils
coherent without significant hydraulic gradient and which does not represent instability at the front of
size, or in soft rocks. [4]
Pressurized shields:
In loose and aquifer soils, where the stability of the working face is not assured, it
it must be supported by a pressure that can be applied:
Either by compressed air (compressed air shield);
Either by the wheel itself (under mechanical pressure);

Page 6
 DIGGING METHODS

Either by a dense liquid like bentonite mud (pressure shield with mud);
Finally, let it be by marinating (pressure of earth).

Figure I.1: Unpressurized shield Figure I.2: Pressurized Shield

I.4.2 - Excavation execution in hard soils:

The construction of tunnels has traditionally been carried out for a long time in the
rather mountainous places, and more often in rocky terrains, that they contain
good characteristics. (Consistent, hard). These are very favorable sites for the
tunnel construction. Excavation in rocky terrains is done using
the explosive of the technical and economic point or mechanically using
machines.

I.4.2.1- Mechanical Excavation:

Two main drilling machines are distinguished:
Tunnel boring machine (TBM):
Single-pass attack on the entire section, it is designed to excavate tunnels.
circles with a determined diameter.

Advantages of the tunnel digger:

The tunnel boring machine allows for quite high excavation speeds of 15 to 30 meters per day.
theoretically;
The support is easy and quick (prefabricated);
Possibility of use in hard terrains.

Disadvantages of the tunnel boring machine:

The effective working time of the machine does not exceed 30%;
The geometry of the tunnel must be circular, which is not our case;
- Very high cost, hence the difficulty or near impossibility of amortization on some
segments, whose length is less than 2 km;

Page 7
 DIGGING METHODS

Point Attack Machine (BTM):

Generally limited to excavating rocks of medium hardness, it allows for digging
any profile of variable dimension, it is equipped with a low milling head
dimension located at the end of a movable arm, the whole is supported on a chassis
Wheeled or tracked self-propelled vehicle.

The advantages:

Simultaneity of the operations of cutting, loading, and evacuating rocks;

High advancement speed (6 m/day at 'Oued-Ouchayah');
Adaptation with all types of profiles;
Particularly well suited for applying the new Austrian method (N.A.T.M).

The disadvantages:

A lot of dust;
Costs of disassembly, transport, and reassembly of underground equipment;
The attack heads wear out very quickly and their replacement is relatively expensive.
Do not use on high hardness grounds.

Figure I.3: Global attack machine Figure I.4: Spot attack machine
Note: Technically and economically, the point attack machine (BTM) is more
advantageous compared to the tunnel boring machine and well suited to apply the new method
Austrian (N.A.T.M) that we will see in detail in the support chapter.

I.4.2.2 - Excavation by explosives:

In civil engineering, it was in 1679 that the first application of explosives was made.
made in France for the excavation of the navigation tunnel of the Canal du Languedoc. It took
waiting for the steam machine so that in 1838 a first attempt at mechanizing drilling of
mines were tempted in the United States near Lake Michigan; but it is only from
1861 when the industrial application of compressed air and the invention of rock drills
mounted on a mobile chassis (which had not yet taken the name of JUMBO) and which has been used
for the excavation of the first railway tunnel of the FREJUS between France and Italy.

Page 8
 METHODS OF DIGGING

Before excavation:
Before digging, it is necessary to first check specific conditions and the ones
the conditions are as follows:
The site is suitable and far from sensitive areas (urban, military zones, seismic zones,
nuclear research laboratories…etc.) ;
The ground must be hard and consistent;
The terrain maneuverability to the explosive.

Note: The explosive excavation technique still remains in many situations.

more suitable underground but the specific conditions of the site, the work and
The environment can, however, lead to certain limitations on employment.

Working method:
To understand the principle of working with explosives well, we imagine that we want to
dig a front of size, the latter is gathered in a circle.
Using the full section excavation method because we want to engage in a way
complete the section in one go. Then detect the punctured points or the holes
they have been drilled perpendicular to the section. These holes are loaded with explosives.
Loading will be done as follows:
In the center or in the front size plug, it is necessary to use more explosives.
powerful (loading of central holes).
The intermediate holes must be loaded with less powerful explosives than the
previous.
The end holes of the drift should be loaded with low explosives.
powerful and less than the previous ones.
It is observed that the explosion power will decrease from the center to the edge.
circle according to the quality of the explosives used, we followed this loading method for
avoid creating a profile out of maximum and perform a neat cutting.

Note: In the case of creating an out-of-profile item, we need to use a larger quantity of
shotcrete during the shoring to repair the section and restore the geometry
circular shape knowing that the cost depends on the quantity of sprayed concrete used.

Explosives used:
We use explosives called 'shattering' for their effect on the rock, which is threefold:
1- The energy of the shock cracks the ground;
The energy of the gas opens these cracks and dislocates the material;
3- The surplus of this energy expelled the fractured blocks;

Page 9
 DIGGING METHODS

Explosives only detonate under the action of a shock or an increase in

Temperature generated by a detonator, delay donor models allow for making
detonate the charges to which they are connected with a time delay.
The most commonly used explosives in underground work are explosives
classics of the dynamite family:
Gomme A, the most powerful and water-resistant rubber often used in the
plug (center).
Rubber BAM, in the intermediate holes.
Sofranex and Tolamite in the crown holes, as well as the Dynalite R or the
rubber L in descending order of power.
In addition, we have the following explosives as shown in the table below:
Tableau I.1: Certain types of explosives

The explosive Power Field of employment

Nitrated (in the form of
Less powerful In the medium-hard rocks
depowder

Very powerful and very

The maid Enhanced ventilation of the construction site
brisant (analogue BAM)

The oxygenated Also powerful and

In the iron mines
liquid explosive
AN/FO In vertical or very
_____
nitrate fuel tilted and out of water
To understand clearly, we will explain the phases of excavation with explosives.

Work cycle:
The blasting excavation follows these phases:

A) Marking and perforation of the firing plan:

In this phase, it is first necessary to outline the shooting plan or the section to be carried out.
which resembles a circle, then detect and puncture the points of perpendicular line to the
section using tools that follow the dimensions of the section to be made.
The section of these points and the quantity of explosives to be used consist of respecting some
specific conditions according to the dimensions and quality of rocks encountered.
The drill tools that follow the dimensions of the section to be made. They are
mounted be:
On push buttons: hammer buttons;
On sliding arms: self-propelled drill jumbos, with 2 to 5 arms featuring a platform.

B) Loading holes with explosives:

The holes already defined, he must load with explosives, or set explosives in place.
in the holes for preparation for the explosion.

Page 10
 DIGGING METHODS

C) Shooting in flight:

By a classic initiation system (electric detonators with micro-delay or delay)

ordinary by exploder) or sequential ignition allowing to multiply the
staggering of the penalties by choosing a variable start-up period, the excavation
made by passing or flying which varies in length depending on the type of rock (1 to 5 m).

D) Ventilation :
Evacuation of smoke gases due to the explosive and dust caused by the destruction of
rocks.

E) Purging and bolting:

Careful (manual and possibly mechanical) and complete cleaning of the cladding of
routes cleaned during the rolling and the immediately previous rolling before bolting
may eventually take place at the end of the purge. [5]

F) Maritime
Evacuation of debris from the face or dredging, this operation goes through a cycle like
suit
Loading;
Debris evacuation;
Permanent transport to the storage location.
The essential point is to achieve the clearance as quickly as possible.
to clear away in order to continue the excavation cycle.

G) Gunitage:
Setting up the support (usually setting up the sprayed concrete) for
preserve and protect the work area and be able to advance the realization.

Note: These phases are successively repeated in a cycle and the digging of a
the tunnel will be completed after a designated number of cycles according to the length of the tunnel.

I.5 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TYPES OF RECESSION:

We understood the two types of excavation, now we will see the advantages and the
disadvantages of each type:

a- Mechanical excavation:
The advantages:

Reduce the construction teams and ensure people's safety.

Limited by the area of its work without influence from nearby constructions;

Page 11
 DIGGING METHODS

Possibility of use in multiple sites and with many categories of land

(furniture, soft, semi-hard) ;
Work without creating a profile outside of type.

The disadvantages:

Any mechanical accident (machine being out of order, fire, capacity has become
insufficient) Or geological (very harmful cracking, ground movements) surprised
leads to the machine being blocked;
The cost is very high compared to the explosive;
The completion time is long.

b-Excavation by explosives:
The advantages:

The completion time is short.

Well suited for hard terrain;
More economical.

The disadvantages:

Is not used in sensitive sites especially urban ones due to the vibrations emitted by
the explosives threaten the surroundings;
Often create a lot of deformation at the tunnel level, which leads to exceeding the
section detected (out of profile) sometimes.

Note: The use of explosives during excavation can lead to:

From seismic effects to explosives: these are vibrations caused by the shot.
propagating in the form of vibrations towards the surrounding structures;
Parasitic effects of the explosive: the creation of excavation off-profiles and/or an area
heavily disturbed mass around the excavation.

I.6- TUNNEL EXCAVATION METHODS:

The excavation methods depend on the following parameters:
The nature of the terrain;
The depth and dimensions of the work;
The staff;
The available equipment;
The execution time;
The environment.
There are three methods of digging:
1- Full section excavation method;

Page 12
 DIGGING METHODS

2- Half-section excavation method;

3- Method of excavation with a divided section.

I.6.1- Full section excavation method:

This method is well-suited for homogeneous terrains and it allows for acceleration of the
construction in large section tunnels of 40 to 50 m². With this type of excavation, one
can fully engage from the main section all at once. In this method
it is not necessary to use light support (in the case of rocks), but it is advisable to do so
put in place to obtain more security, especially in case of cracks due to use
successive explosive or cracks due to continued blasting by the mass of the
machine used.

I.6.2 - Method of excavating the half-section:

On the other hand, this method is usable if it is necessary and important to put the
support, in this type of excavation, one must first dig the upper half section
from the tunnel and then put the support (arch, shotcrete) as well as also take care of the
stability issues finally the lower half section (foundation) being excavated with an offset
in time.

I.6.3 - Method of excavation for the described section:

It is not recommended to use this method due to its cost, but it is chosen when
the soil characteristics and the stability of the face are insufficient or
in bad terrain, it takes longer because the entire section of the tunnel will be
executed in stages one after the other, at the end of each digging step it must
perfectly control and master the evolution of the terrain. This method is directed for the
tunnels that will be built in sensitive areas and strategies (urban, laboratory of
nuclear research, important hydraulic zone). This means in case of risk and if it is
impossible to use the two previous methods.

The following figures show the use of each excavation method:

Figure I.5: Full Section Excavation Figure I.6: Excavation of the half-section

Page 13
 DIGGING METHODS

Fig. 1.7 Half-section excavation method (execution technique)

Page 14
 DIGGING METHODS

Figure I.8: Excavation of the divided section

Note: Excavation using explosives is often carried out with the excavation method of
full section. Mechanical excavation is carried out either with the excavation method
full section using the global attack machine or with the method of
excavation in half-section using the point attack machine. The method of
Excavation with a divided section is often used by shields in cases where the ground is
bad.

Page 15