Motivation

Conative aspect of behaviour is the push and pull factors that operate behind all our activities.
Motive is what one intends while displaying a particular kind of behaviour. It is a Latin
word- movere (moves); meaning force that impels to perform an action. It is synonymous
with wants. This driving force may be either positive or negative. Positive force impels a
person towards certain object/condition- i.e., behaviour is of approach type. Negative force
repels a person away from a certain object. Approach object is the positive goal; avoidant
object is the negative goal.
Motivation is a set of one or more conditions which activate a behaviour, direct the
behaviour towards some goal and maintain the behaviour until the goal is reached. In other
words, it refers to the dynamics of behaviour — the ways in which our actions are initiated,
sustained, directed, and terminated (Franken, 2007). It can also be defined as an internal state
of the organism which starts with physiological or psychological feeling of wantedness or
deficiency (need) that activates behaviour (drives) which is directed towards attainment of a
goal (incentive).
Characteristics
• State/condition of the organism
• State is aroused out of need/want/drive
• In motivational state- organism is in a state of restlessness and tends to act
• Motivational state is selective in nature, directed towards and persists
attainment of a goal
• Intensity of action and state of restlessness decrease in degree towards
fulfilment of goal
• Halted activity is reinitiated only when motivating condition reappears

A Model of Motivation: Motivational cycle

Many motivated activities begin with a need, or internal deficiency. Needs cause a
drive (an energized motivational state) to develop. Need is a lack/deficit of some necessity
and is a state of physiological imbalance. Eg: food/water, Need for companionship, Need to
excel.
Drive is a state of tension or arousal produced by need. It energises random activity.
When an activity leads to goal, drive reduces, organism stops being active and returns to a
state of balance/ homeostasis. So, drives activate a response (an action or series of actions)
designed to attain a goal (the “target” of motivated behaviour). Reaching a goal that satisfies
the need will end the chain of events. Thus, a simple model of motivation called the
motivational cycle can be shown in this way:
Thus the motivational cycle includes;
• Driving state – set in motion by bodily
needs or environmental stimuli (need)
• Goal directed behavior/ instrumental
behavior(drive)
• Goal attainment – relief

Classification of motives
A. Types of Motives: motives can be divided into three major categories:
1. Biological motives
They are based on biological needs that must be met for survival. The most important
biological motives are hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, and needs for air, sleep, elimination of
wastes, and regulation of body temperature. Biological motives are innate. Biological drives
are essential because they maintain homeostasis or bodily equilibrium. Optimal levels exist
for body temperature, for chemicals in the blood, for blood pressure, and so forth (Levin,
2006). When the body deviates from these “ideal” levels, automatic reactions begin to restore
equilibrium (Deckers, 2005).
i. Hunger: Hunger is influenced by both internal physiological factors and external
cues.
a) Internal Regulation
The digestive system sends signals to the
hypothalamus, which plays a central role
in controlling hunger and satiety. The
lateral hypothalamus, also known as the
feeding system, initiates eating. It is
activated by the hormone ghrelin,
produced by the stomach lining when a
person is hungry. The ventromedial
hypothalamus, or satiety system, works
as a stop mechanism for eating, and
damage to this area results in overeating.
The paraventricular nucleus of the
hypothalamus helps regulate blood sugar
and is sensitive to neuropeptide Y (NPY). High levels of NPY trigger excessive eating.
Another important signal is glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), released by the intestines after
meals. It travels through the bloodstream to the brain and reduces the desire to eat. Since it
takes about ten minutes for GLP-1 to have an effect, eating slowly helps prevent overeating.
GLP-1 has shown promise in the treatment of obesity. Hunger is also signaled through
stomach contractions and changes in blood chemicals. Substances such as amphetamines can
suppress appetite by acting on hunger control centers.
There are also specific hungers. For example, rats that have their adrenal glands removed
develop a strong craving for salt, while patients with diabetes often experience persistent
hunger due to imbalances in blood sugar regulation.
b) External and Sensory Influences
Hunger and eating behavior are also shaped by external cues. The taste and availability of a
wide variety of foods can encourage overeating and obesity. The hormone leptin reduces the
tongue’s sensitivity to sweet tastes when a person is well-fed. In addition, individuals can
develop a taste aversion, which is an active dislike for a particular food, or bait shyness,
where animals or humans hesitate to eat a food after a negative experience with it.
Finally, body weight is regulated over time through a set point, which is the proportion of
body fat that the body tends to maintain through adjustments in hunger and eating.
Substances found in marijuana can also stimulate the hypothalamus, producing intense
hunger, commonly referred to as the “munchies.”
ii. Thirst
Thirst is generated when the body loses water or when the balance of water and salts in the
body is disturbed. Water is normally lost through the kidneys and skin, as well as through
processes such as sweating, vomiting, and diarrhea.
a) Double Depletion Hypothesis
Thirst arises from two sources:
• Cellular Dehydration (Intracellular Thirst):
Loss of water from within cells causes them to shrink. Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
detect this shrinkage. They send nerve impulses that create the sensation of thirst and
motivate drinking. This occurs after eating salty foods, when excess salt draws water out of
cells. Plain water is the best way to quench this type of thirst.
• Reduction in Blood Volume (Extracellular Thirst):
Also called hypovolemia, it occurs when water is lost from the fluids surrounding body cells.
Causes include bleeding, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, or alcohol consumption. Loss of both
water and minerals (especially salt) makes slightly salty liquids more satisfying than plain
water. The kidneys release renin, which triggers the conversion of angiotensinogen to
angiotensin II. Angiotensin II circulates in the blood and acts on the hypothalamus,
stimulating water intake.
b) External and Cultural Influences
After salt loss, animals and humans show a preference for salty liquids. For example, lab
animals prefer saltwater when body salt levels are low, and nomadic groups in the Sahara
consume blood for its salt content.
Commercial sports drinks (like Gatorade) work on the same principle of replacing water and
salts.
iii. Pain
The drive to avoid pain is different from hunger, thirst, and sleepiness. Unlike those drives,
which occur in regular daily cycles, pain avoidance is an episodic drive. It appears only when
bodily damage has occurred or is about to occur.
a) Nature of the Drive
Most biological drives push us to actively seek something (e.g., food, water, warmth). Pain,
by contrast, motivates us to avoid or eliminate sources of discomfort.
b) Individual Differences
High pain tolerance: Some people believe in being “tough” and not showing distress.
Low pain tolerance: Others react strongly to even minor discomfort.
These attitudes influence how much pain a person can endure.
c) Learned Component
The drive to avoid pain is partly learned. Cultural practices such as cutting, burning,
whipping, tattooing, and piercing are endured in some societies, even though they would
cause severe distress to others. People often learn how to react to pain by observing family
members, friends, and role models.
iv. The Sex Drive and Human Sexual Behaviour
a) Nature of the Sex Drive
Unlike hunger or thirst, the sex drive is not essential for individual survival but is necessary
for species survival. In animals, sex drive is strongly controlled by hormones.
Females: Mating interest occurs during estrus, triggered by estrogen.
Males: Sex drive depends on testosterone; castration abolishes it.
In humans, hormones influence sexual motivation but less directly.
Men: Sex drive linked to testosterone (peaks at puberty, declines with age).
Women: Estrogen and androgens both affect drive; increased androgens heighten desire.
Human sex drive is non-homeostatic. It can be aroused at any time, not strictly tied to bodily
need or deprivation.
b) Human Sexual Behavior – Basic Findings
Early information came from surveys (Kinsey), which revealed huge individual differences in
sexual interest and activity. Later, Masters and Johnson (1960s) studied sexual response
directly and identified four phases:
• Excitement: Physiological arousal begins (e.g., penile/clitoral enlargement, vaginal
lubrication).
• Plateau: Arousal intensifies; respiration, heart rate, and BP rise.
• Orgasm: Rhythmic genital contractions with intense pleasure; similar in both sexes.
• Resolution: Arousal subsides.
Males: Enter a refractory period (no immediate re-arousal).
Females: May quickly re-arouse and have multiple orgasms.
c) Cultural and Social Variability
Sexual behavior varies greatly across cultures in terms of: Age of initiation, frequency,
attractiveness standards, acceptable practices and positions, timing and setting, appropriate
partners, and number of partners. Variability is the central theme of human sexuality.

2. Stimulus motives express our needs for stimulation and information. Examples include
activity, curiosity, exploration, manipulation, and physical contact. Although such motives
also appear to be innate, they are not strictly necessary for survival.
3. Learned motives (sociogenic motives) are based on learned needs, drives, and goals.
Learned motives help explain many human activities, such as standing for election, blogging,
or auditioning for American Idol. Many learned motives are related to learned needs for
power, affiliation (the need to be with others), approval, status, security, and achievement.
Fear and aggression also appear to be greatly affected by learning.
i. Achievement motivation (nAch)
It refers to the desire to meet internal standards of excellence (McClelland, 1961). It is not
limited to business or wealth but is also seen in academics, arts, music, science, and sports,
where individuals enjoy challenges and testing their abilities. It is commonly measured using
the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Research shows that high nAch individuals tend to
achieve better grades, receive faster promotions, and succeed in business, with effects
observed across cultures. Such individuals prefer moderately difficult tasks—avoiding very
easy ones for lack of challenge and very difficult ones due to risk of failure. They also have a
strong desire for feedback, prefer merit-based rewards, and excel in situations involving
competition or difficult goals.
ii. The need for power (nPow)
First emphasized by Adler and later studied by McClelland (1975), refers to the desire to have
an impact, control, or influence over others. People high in power motivation often seek
visibility and status by acquiring prestigious possessions, wearing notable clothes, or using
relationships to display importance. At its core, nPow reflects the ability—conscious or
unconscious—to affect the behavior or emotions of others. In its acute form, it may lead to
autocratic behaviors, driven by the desire to be in charge, gain prestige, and influence people.
Unlike achievement motivation, which seeks personal excellence, power motivation is
oriented toward dominance and control. It is commonly assessed using the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT).
iii. The need for affiliation (nAff)
It is the motive for gregariousness and forming close relationships, making it an integral part
of human social life. It is considered universal, as the warmth and comfort of social contact
begin in infancy and are characteristic of all living beings. This motive reflects the drive to
relate with others, seek companionship, and maintain social bonds. Several factors underlie
affiliation needs, including biological attachment, reduction of fear, assistance, stimulation,
information exchange, and self-evaluation. Thus, nAff plays a vital role in emotional well-
being, social adjustment, and maintaining supportive interpersonal connections.
iv. Aggressive Motivation
Aggressive motivation is the desire to harm or injure others. Aggression refers to behavior
directed at harming another living being who wishes to avoid such treatment.
Innate vs. Learned Debate:
Freud and Lorenz suggested aggression is innate. Most psychologists today argue it is largely
learned and influenced by external factors, not an unavoidable human tendency.
Evidence: Huge cultural variations in violent crime rates suggest social and cultural
influences outweigh biological tendencies.
Social Factors Influencing Aggression:
• Frustration – Once thought to be the primary cause (frustration–aggression
hypothesis). Now seen as one of many factors. Frustration combined with perceived
injustice or unfair treatment can strongly trigger aggression (e.g., workplace
violence).
• Direct Provocation – Insults or physical threats can escalate into aggression–counter
aggression spirals.
• Media Violence – Extensive evidence shows exposure to violent TV, movies, and
games increases aggression.
Mechanisms:
o Learning that aggression is an acceptable or successful response.
o Acquisition of new aggressive techniques.
o Reduced restraints against aggression.
o Desensitization – repeated exposure makes viewers emotionally numb to
violence.
o Violence combined with sexual imagery can contribute to sexually aggressive
behavior.

B. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

• Intrinsic motivation is called the effectance motivation. Intrinsic means a push from
within. It refers to the need to know and to be effective with the environment. It
 persists throughout lifetime. It involves a person’s need for feeling competent and
self-determining in dealing with the environment meaning the individual is a powerful
agent who deals with environment as effectively as he can.
• Extrinsic motives are forces in the environment that induce and channel our behaviour
towards the goals or incentives. It pulls the organism towards the goal which are not
within the individual but in the environment like rewards.
Theories of motivation
1. Instinct Theory:
Instincts are innate patterns of behavior that are universal in a species, independent of
experience, and elicited by specific stimuli or conditions. This theory of motivation suggests
that many forms of behavior stem from innate urges or tendencies.
In psychology, before there was the concept of motivation, there was instinct theory. In other
words, before psychologists attempted to explain behavior in terms of motivation, they
attempted to do so through reference to various instincts—innate patterns of behavior that are
universal in a species, independent of experience, and elicited by specific stimuli or
conditions. For a time, this approach was quite popular. William James (1890), one of the
founders of American psychology, included on his list of basic instincts pugnacity,
acquisitiveness (greed), sympathy, and curiosity. And Sigmund Freud suggested that many
complex forms of behavior—everything from aggression to love—stem from inherited,
biologically determined instincts.
Do instincts really play a major role in human behavior? Most psychologists today doubt that
they do. Moreover, most believe that instincts are not very useful from the point of view of
understanding motivation. The basic problem is this: In many cases, the existence of an
instinct was inferred from the very behavior it was supposed to explain. For example, take the
case of aggression. Why do human beings frequently attack others? The answer provided by
James, Freud, and many others was simple: Because human beings possess a powerful
aggressive instinct. This is a circular process in which the existence of an instinct is inferred
from observations of behavior that presumably stem from it.
2. Drive theory
Clark Hull (1884–1952)
A theory of motivation suggesting that behavior is “pushed” from within by drives stemming
from basic biological needs.
Biological needs arising within our
bodies create unpleasant states of
arousal—the feelings we describe
as hunger, thirst, fatigue, and so on.
In order to eliminate such feelings
and restore a balanced
physiological state known as
homeostasis, we engage in certain
activities (Winn, 1995). Thus,
according to drive theory,
motivation is basically a process in which various biological needs push (drive) us to actions
designed to satisfy these needs. Behaviors that work—ones that help reduce the appropriate
drive—are strengthened and tend to be repeated. Those that fail to produce the desired effects
are weakened and will not be repeated when the drive is present once again.
In its original form, drive theory focused primarily on biological needs and the drives
they produce. Later, extended this model to other forms of behavior not so clearly linked to
basic needs, such as drives for stimulation, status, achievement, power, and stable social
relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Drive theory persisted in psychology for several
decades; indeed, it has not been totally discarded even today.
This approach suffers from several major drawbacks. Drive theory, by itself, does not
provide a comprehensive framework for understanding human motivation. Contrary to what
drive theory seems to suggest, human beings often engage in actions that increase rather than
reduce various drives. For example, people sometimes skip snacks when hungry to lose
weight or to maximize their enjoyment of a special dinner. Similarly, many people watch or
read erotic materials to increase their sexual excitement, even when they don’t anticipate
immediate sexual gratification (e.g., Kelley & Byrne, 1992).
3. Incentive theories:
These are the pull theories of motivation. Goal objects that motivate behaviour are known
as incentives. They alleviate the need and reduce the drive. According to this theory, due to
the presence of certain characteristics, they have goal objects pull towards them. An
important part of many incentive theories is that individual expect pleasure from attainment
of what are called positive incentives and avoidance from what are called negative incentives.
4. Arousal Theory
A theory of motivation suggests that human beings seek an optimal level of arousal, not
minimal levels of arousal.
This theory focuses on arousal, our general level of activation. Arousal varies
throughout the day from low levels during
sleep to much higher ones when we are
performing strenuous tasks or activities, which
we find exciting. Arousal theory suggests that
what we seek is not minimal levels of arousal,
but rather optimal levels of arousal that is best
suited to our personal characteristics and
whatever activity in which we are currently
engaged. So, for example, if you are reading, a
low level of arousal will be optimal and will be
preferred. If you are competing in a sports
event, a much higher one will be best.
Yerkes–Dodson Law: The suggestion
that the level of arousal beyond which
performance begins to decline is a function of task difficulty.
 Many studies offer at least indirect support for arousal theory. For exam ple, there is
often a close link between arousal and performance (Weiner, 1989). For many tasks, in fact,
performance increases as arousal rises, up to some point; beyond that level, further increases
in arousal actually reduce performance (see Figure 10.3). But it is often difficult to determine
in advance just what level of arousal will be optimal for a given task or situation. In general,
it has been suggested, the more difficult the task, the lower the level of arousal beyond which
reductions in performance begin to occur. This suggestion is known as the Yerkes–Dodson
law. However, other factors aside from task difficulty also seem to play a role. For instance,
large individual differences exist with respect to optimal arousal level. At one extreme are
people who prefer and seek high levels of activation (e.g.: sky divers) (Zuckerman, 1990). At
the other extreme are persons who prefer much lower levels of arousal. Thus, while arousal
theory does provide useful insights into the nature of motivation, it has important limitations,
too.
5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory- Relations Among Motives.
According to Maslow (1970), needs exist in a hierarchy. Only when lower-order needs are
satisfied can higher-order needs be activated. Some needs are more basic or powerful than
others. Human motives may exist in a hierarchy and may be represented in the form of a
pyramid.
Physiological needs are at the base of the pyramid. Maslow describes physiological needs
such as those for
food, water,
oxygen, and sleep.
So that we must
satisfy those that
are more basic
before moving on
to ones that are
less linked to
biological needs.
This point is
central to a theory
of motivation
proposed by
Abraham Maslow
(1970). Because
these needs must
be met if we are to
survive, they tend to be prepotent, or dominant over the higher needs. Maslow believed that
higher, more fragile needs are expressed only after we satisfy our physiological needs.
One step above these are safety needs: needs for feeling safe and secure in one’s life.
Above the safety needs are social needs, including needs to have friends, to be loved and
appreciated, and to belong—to fit into a network of social relationships (e.g., Baumeister &
Leary, 1995). Above it is the needs for esteem and self-esteem (recognition and self-respect).
 Maslow described the first four levels of the hierarchy as basic needs. All the basic needs
are deficiency motives. That is, they are activated by a lack of food, water, security, love,
esteem, or other basic needs.
At the top of the hierarchy, we find growth needs, which are expressed as a need for self-
actualization. The need for self-actualization is not based on deficiencies. Rather, it is a
positive, life-enhancing force for personal growth (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). Like other
humanistic psychologists, Maslow believed that people are basically good. If our basic needs
are met, he said, we will tend to move on to actualizing our potential. Maslow called the less
powerful but humanly important actualization motives meta needs (Maslow, 1970). Meta-
needs are an expression of tendencies to fully develop your personal potentials.
The meta-needs are:
1. Wholeness (unity)
2. Perfection (balance and harmony)
3. Completion (ending)
4. Justice (fairness)
5. Richness (complexity)
6. Simplicity (essence)
7. Aliveness (spontaneity)
8. Beauty (rightness of form)
9. Goodness (benevolence)
10. Uniqueness (individuality)
11. Playfulness (ease)
12. Truth (reality)
13. Autonomy (self-sufficiency)
14. Meaningfulness (values)
Maslow’s theory is intuitively appealing, but research designed to test it has yielded
mixed results. Some results suggest that growth needs do come into play only after people
have satisfied lower-level needs (e.g., Betz, 1982). But other findings indicate that people
sometimes seek to satisfy higher-order needs even when needs lower in the hierarchy have
not been met (e.g., Williams & Page, 1989). So the idea that needs arise and are satisfied in a
particular order has not been confirmed. For this reason, Maslow’s theory should be viewed
mainly as an interesting but unverified framework for understanding motivation.
 6. Goal setting theory
Proposed by Locke and Latham
GST is a theory of motivation that explains the relationship between conscious goals
and task performance (Locke & Latham, 2002). GST was formulated based on an inductive
approach examining numerous empirical studies across various domains including business,
medicine, sport, and exercise (Locke & Latham, 2013). In GST, goals are conceptualized as
an end-state which ‘an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action’
(Locke et al.,1981).
It is proposed that the effect occurs through four mechanisms (Locke &
Latham, 2002).
a. goal setting directs individuals to focus their efforts towards goal-related actions
and ignore irrelevant activities.
b. goal setting energizes individuals, allowing them to invest effort in goal pursuit.
c. goals impact persistence, whereby more difficult goals result in a higher effort
being invested.
d. pursuing goals facilitates the discovery and development of task-relevant
strategies.
The fundamental posit of GST is that five goal characteristics directly impact the effect of
goal setting, including
a. goal difficulty: more difficult (but achievable) goals lead to higher
performance
 b. goal specificity: specific goals (e.g. ‘complete x number of pushups’)
predict higher performance than vague goals (e.g. ‘do your best’). Recent
reviews (e.g. Locke & Latham, Citation2019) suggest that goal difficulty
and specificity likely work collaboratively and employing one alone would
not necessarily result in an effective outcome
c. goal proximity: setting both proximal (i.e. short-term) and distal (i.e. long-
term) goals helps facilitate goal attainment, as short-term goals can be a
useful indicator of progress towards an ultimate long-term goal
d. goal source : goal source refers to whether a goal is self-set, participatively
set, or assigned. Self-set goals are set by the goal pursuer himself or
herself (e.g. an athlete who sets her own goals for a season);
participatively-set goals are set together by the goal pursuer and other
people related to the goal process (e.g. an athlete creates a goal
collaboratively with his coach); assigned goals are goals made by the
others and assigned to the goal pursuer (e.g. an athlete’s coach sets a goal
for the athlete).
e. goal types : regarding two types of goals, performance goals are focused
on the attainment of desired performance outcomes, whereas learning
goals are focused on developing task-relevant strategies – the latter type of
goal is suggested to be particularly relevant when learning a new task,
particularly a complex one.
Another important consideration of GST pertains to the moderators that influence the
relationship between goal setting and performance, which include
a) ability: individuals higher in ability (e.g. technical abilities in one’s sport
to execute a task) will be more likely to achieve their goals compared to
those lower in ability
b) goal commitment: the effectiveness of goal setting is said to increase as
people are more committed to their goals, with two key factors – self-
efficacy and goal importance – influencing one’s goal commitment
c) Feedback: receiving feedback on one’s progression to goal attainment
impacts the goal setting–performance effect, as it guides future direction
and allocation of available resources towards a goal
d) task complexity: task complexity was initially proposed as a moderator for
goal effect because when a task is above one’s capability, goal setting
would be less effective.
e) task knowledge and resources: goals are more likely to translate into
performance when individuals have the necessary resources that are
needed to complete the task.
7. Evolutionary theories of motivation
Argues that human motives and those of other species are products of natural selection, just
as anatomical structures are. Natural selection favours behaviours that maximise reproductive
success- i.e, passing on genes to the next generation. They explain motives such as
achievement, affiliation, dominance, aggression and sex drive in terms of their adaptive
value. Eg: if dominance is a crucial motive for a species, its because dominance provide
reproductive/ survival advantage.
Evolutionary analyses of behaviour are based on the premise that motives can be best
understood in terms of adaptive problems they solved for our hunter gather ancestors
For e.g., 1. need for dominance is thought to be greater in men than in women because it
could facilitate males’ reproductive success in a variety of ways:
• Females may prefer mating with dominant males
• Dominant males may poach females from subordinate males
• Dominant males may intimidate males rivals in competition for sexual access
and
• Dominant males may acquire more material resources, which may increase
mating opportunities
Example 2. Affiliation motive or need for belongingness. Adaptive benefits of this motive for
our ancestors probably included :
• Help with rearing offsprings
• Collaboration in hunting or defense
• Opportunities for sexual interaction etc
8. Cognitive theories of motivation

8.1. Balance theories

Balance theory was developed by social psychologist Fritz Heider in 1946. The theory was
originally developed to explain patterns of interpersonal relations. It proposes that people
strive for cognitive consistency in their attitudes and perceptions, particularly in triadic
interpersonal relationships. This theory suggests that when there’s an imbalance, there’s a
motivational drive to restore balance, either by changing attitudes or perceptions.
Heider explained how balance theory works by developing a model which examines
interpersonal [Link] reactions of each individual are framed within a triangle that
Heider called the P-O-X model.
• P = the person to analyze
• O = Other, or the comparison person
• X = the third element for comparisons such as a
third person, a physical object, an idea, or an
event.
Relation patterns between 3 individuals or objects are often referred to as ‘triadic’ relations.
There are two types of relationship dynamics taking place in a triadic relationship:
• Unit relationships – this is how much the different elements of the triangle belong
together – the more similarities that exist, the more likely the psychological balance
will occur.
• Sentiment relationships – how one feels about something – are categorized as either
‘liking’ or ‘disliking.’
In most cases, if a positive unit relationship exists, a positive sentiment relationship will also
exist. Likewise, a negative unit and negative sentiment relationship also tend to go together.
Through the P-O-X model, it can be possible to deduce the positive and negative
relationships between what each person perceives with another or with a certain object. The
relations between the individuals or objects on the P-O-X model can be either positive (+) or
negative (-) and this is what can determine if a relationship is balanced. A triadic relationship
is thought to be balanced when it includes either no or an even number of negative relations.
For instance, three positive relations are balanced, as well as two negative relations with one
positive relationship. This would be a situation that is psychologically comfortable. In
contrast, a triad is imbalanced when it includes an odd number of negative relations, such as
having one negative relation and two positives. This is a situation that would be
psychologically uncomfortable, according to balance theory.
Heider explained that a balance must exist between interpersonal relationships or for
something specific between two or more individuals so that psychological harmony can be
achieved. If two or more people share similar ideas about something, there is not likely to be
any tension or complication surrounding this idea in the relationship. Imbalanced structures
are associated with uncomfortable feelings, and this is what leads people to seek to achieve
balance. Heider suggested that ‘likes’ and ‘dislikes’ are related to balance and imbalance.
Humans search for consistency between their attitudes and relations with others to make the
balance neutral. However, if there is an inconsistency between relations and a perceived
imbalance, humans tend to seek modifications to reach consistency and thus cognitive
harmony of the situation again.
Balance theory does not only examine interpersonal relationships between three
individuals. It can explore relationships between individuals and an object, activity, idea, or
event. Balance theory supports the view that we are more likely to have similar attitudes and
interests to people we like since it is uncomfortable to have conflicting attitudes to our friends
and loved ones. We are also likely to have dissimilar attitudes toward people we do not like.
Similarly, we are thought to be more likely to change our attitudes towards someone or
something based on a liked or disliked person’s attitude towards that thing.
[Link] dissonance theory
It is one of the most popular cognitive approaches to the study of motivation. It was first
systematically studied by the American psychologist Leon Festinger. This theory proposed
that people attempt to maintain consistency among their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours.
According to this theory, a motivational state termed cognitive dissonance is produced
whenever beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours are inconsistent. Cognitive dissonance is
considered to be an aversive state that triggers mechanisms to bring cognitions back into a
consistent relationship with one another. Much of the research on cognitive dissonance has
centred around what happens when attitudes and behaviours are inconsistent. This research
suggests that behaviour inconsistent with one’s beliefs—if there is insufficient justification
for the behaviour—will often bring about modification of those beliefs.
Suppose, for example, that a person is required to undergo a stressful initiation in order to
join a select group. After undergoing this initiation the person discovers that becoming a
member of the group does not provide the satisfaction originally expected. Such an outcome
should produce cognitive dissonance because the behaviours required and the current belief
about the group are inconsistent. As a result, the theory suggests that motivation will be
triggered to bring the dissonant elements back into a consistent relationship. The behaviour
cannot be changed because it has already occurred; the belief, on the other hand can be
changed. Under these conditions dissonance theory predicts that the person’s attitude will
change and that he will actually come to believe that he likes the group more.
8.3. Expectancy theory
A cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that workers are motivated when
they expect their efforts and job performance to result in desired outcomes. In other words,
people will engage in work they find attractive (leading to favorable consequences) and
achievable.
Expectancy theory emphasizes three components:
a. Expectancy : refers to the perceived likelihood that a worker’s efforts will result in
a certain level of performance.
b. Instrumentality: refers to the perception that performance will lead to certain
outcomes, such as rewards.
c. Valence : refers to the perceived attractiveness of particular outcomes.
With respect to a particular work situation, you can imagine different probabilities for
these three components. You might, for example, have a job in which there is a high
likelihood of reward if performance is successful (high instrumentality) but a low likelihood
that performance will be successful (low expectancy) or a low likelihood that the reward will
be worthwhile (low valence). According to expectancy theory, workers assess the
probabilities of these three components and combine them by multiplying their individual
values. The highest levels of motivation, therefore, result when all three components have
high probabilities, whereas the lowest levels result when any single component is zero.