UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR

PARACENTRAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY FACULTY

THEORIES OF EDUCATION
Ms. Patricia Alvarado
Exequiel Yonatan Garcia Garcia
Education Reforms (40, 68 and 95) in El Salvador

[Link]

The reform of 1940

In his Contemporary History of Formal Education in El Salvador, M. L. Escamilla argues that the 1940 reform was
the first modern transformation of national education and the first educational reform in the strict sense, between
other reasons are that their main creators were trained by the so-called German pedagogical mission of
1924, which, according to him, marked the beginning of the modern era of education in El Salvador, as it introduced a series of
of modern pedagogical currents. Manuel Luis Escamilla, who was part of the so-called reform commission
from 1940, tries to provide a detailed description of the process in his different works, clarifying that this initially
lacked adequate planning, a diagnosis of the country's economic and social reality, and that its scope was
limited to primary education. According to Escamilla, among the main contributions of the forty reform there can be
mention the creation of the first Ministry of Education, the development of new study plans for both
rural education as for urban, as well as the application of new didactic and pedagogical principles in the
programs of study (continuity, correlation, flexibility, and leveling), which allowed to overcome the "framework
traditional simple listings of knowledge in increasing complexity, to become teaching guides for the
master." These measures were accompanied by administrative and institutional reform and, of course, by an intense
teacher training work. According to Escamilla, the reform was designed and promoted by a commission made up of
by professors Carlos Monterrosa, Celestino Castro, Luis Samuel Cáceres, and Manuel Luis Escamilla. This commission began
their work analyzing the research carried out by the Psychopedagogical Cabinet, which allowed them to determine
the intellectual level of the Salvadoran child, providing the psychological foundations of the Salvadoran student, which allowed
to base the new programs. Perhaps the aspect that has been most highlighted in this reform is the approach
pedagogical that supports the new programs; Escamilla argues that these introduced a didactic form and a
logical way of organizing instructional material that revolutionized pedagogy, since it has a composed structure
by four levels: the labor organization, the purpose, the observation center, and the leveling of content. The programs are
they divided into large thematic doses called journalizations, each of which began with a purpose that
make them stop being simple clusters of content to become nascent guides for training. The
The third structure was the observation centers that were established as a starting point to develop a
psychological sequence of intellectual levels. From the observation center, the development of the content was done
 supporting itself on sensory perception first, to continue with teaching resources that involve ideation and conclude
with the handling of judgments, practical expressions or reasoning. Obviously, and this is not hidden by Escamilla, the greatest
the influence in this approach comes from Decroly's pedagogy, which barely allows us to glimpse the discussion that
preceded the first steps of the reform; however, and despite being a relevant element, this does not remain of the
Everything is clear in the work that has been done on the period. Unfortunately, Escamilla's testimony is insufficient.
and in light of the empirical evidence, imprecise, as it does not account for the complex array of proposals that
they justified the educational reform, as well as the variety of actors involved and their connection to the long process
of the modernization of national education. Despite being a good starting point, Escamilla does not show to what extent
The educational reform was based on an intellectual infrastructure that provided the resources for justification.
and validation of educational policy.

Starting from the reform of 1940, the purposes and objectives of national education were conceived, and the Ministry of Education was created.
who was responsible for developing the reform of the education system and allocated a larger budget to education.

In accordance with the current Political Constitution (1939), education was declared to be free based on the following principles:

• Primary education is mandatory for all citizens.

• The State and the municipalities are specially obligated to increase it by funding the necessary schools.
regarding. Education should be free in them.
• In state or municipally funded or subsidized establishments, education must be secular.
• The education provided by public or private schools shall be subject to the supervision and control of the State.

The aims of teaching:

• The training of Salvadorans, their civic education, and their personal and professional development.
• It is also the duty of the State to promote secondary and vocational education, the arts, crafts, and all cultural activities.
• The establishments that are established or subsidized for such purposes will be organized and controlled by the Executive Power.
• Only the State, in accordance with the law, can issue or authorize academic degrees for the exercise of the
liberal professions of the Republic.

On the other hand, it was recommended to plan the program contents that are shown in the following example.
FEBRERO: PROPÓSITO: desprender de la contemplación de la naturaleza, el respeto y el amor a Dios. CENTRO DE
OBSERVATION: nature

a) Take the students to contemplate beautiful manifestations of nature in the natural and plant world.

b) Try to lead them to admiration and, if possible, to rapture (rainbows, skies, clouds, etc.)

c) Teach them that God is in every manifestation.

d) That students feel the need to respect plants and animals as manifestations of God.

e) That the students discover what state of mind they are in after performing good actions with the
sick and forgive the injuries.

f) May they always feel that desire for spiritual satisfaction (read and discuss the psalms)

g) Teach them that in a tranquil and satisfied conscience lies a breath of the divine. These points must lack
of all militant religious tendencies.

AUGUST THEME: Strengthening the spirit in adversity.

Teach that death is only a change of form, that civilized peoples show respect for this change, that this
transformation causes pain in the family members and in our duty:

1. Respect these transformation laws.

2. Help those who suffer.
3. To render our fellow beings the ultimate manifestation of love, and to teach them that these duties are fulfilled
burying the dead and comforting the mourners.

The excessive control and the conditions that allowed the ideological hegemony of the regime are reflected in the example.
presented.

As is usual in any dictatorial regime, during President Martínez's administration, freedom was not respected.
expression, for example: 'Student Opinion' informative body of students of the University of El Salvador
glued together in AGEUS - disappeared, just like the Student weekly which had Don Alirio among its editors
García Flamenco.

The emerging industrialization processes in El Salvador that sought to reduce production costs of the
agro-exportation did not allow the country to make a leap to change the model, on the contrary, it clung to it. 'The general
Martínez even banned the importation of certain machines, whose production would compete with handmade products.
The stagnation in the production model did not allow for the leaps in the formation of skilled labor.

The development of World War II put the country in crisis, but the support from the United States maintained the
economics. Bulmer Thomas (1993:374) states that "The Inter-American Coffee Agreement, signed in 1940 and executed
After 1941, it granted quotas in the United States market for the export of coffee from each republic.

The agreement did not lead to a boom in exports, but at least the annual volume of exports was maintained.

Hernández Martínez's government, in 1940, invested 66% more in education than what was allocated for 1935; but also
It increased the budgets for the navy and war in the same year.

Social discontent led to a failed coup d'état (1944) followed by subsequent repression. It began the
protest of university students supported by various sectors of the country that ended Hernández's dictatorship
Martínez. Subsequently, Andrés Ignacio Menéndez takes power, promising democratic elections, but the elite
The coffee company supports Colonel Osmín Aguirre y Salinas, who suppresses the reformist movement, and calls for elections in 1945.
those that were won by General Salvador Castaneda Castro.

In that scenario, the democratic forces of the country do not find the required support to face the situation and they
establishes the domain of the armed forces that for many years ruled the country to faithfully serve the class
dominant.

During that period, the agro-export production is emphasized in regard to the three export categories.
diversifying it to the production of cotton and sugarcane in addition to coffee.

STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN THE 1940 REFORM. Primary EducationSecondary Education

Diversified Careers 1st grade 1st

course Professor 2nd grade 2nd
course Accountant 3rd grade 3rd
course Nursing 4th grade Baccalaureate in Sciences and Letters.
Agronomist 5th grade Commercial Secretariat.
Nursing Art Fork 6th grade
By the 1950s, the model enters into crisis and the industrial model, in full development, begins to emerge.
European countries, which are gradually replacing the export-oriented agriculture model with the import substitution model.

Improvements in 1950: in the Constitution of that year, changes were made to the education system; the Ministry of Education
It was led by Dr. Reynaldo Galindo Pohl, a prominent lawyer and a member of Colonel Oscar Osorio's cabinet.
President of the Republic who introduced valuable contributions such as: innovation of the school structure, foundation of
the experimental schools, foundation of the Superior Normal School (to train teachers for the Basic Plan and
High School), the School of Social Work, the Rural Normal Schools of Izalco and Suchitoto, creates the programs of
adult literacy and promotes strong teacher training for in-service teachers.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM OF 1968.

Background: in the early 1950s, the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC), a technical body of the Organization
from the United Nations, had proposed the strategy of unifying the small Central American market and forming the
called "integration industries," based on the economic principle of producing for a broader market that had
greater production, lower costs, and better competitiveness. This is how Central American governments signed treaties
bilateral agreements to facilitate trade between their respective countries. However, the decisive step is taken until
the year sixty with the signing of the General Treaty of Economic Integration.

Since 1950, El Salvador becomes a champion of industrialization, although the economic and social conditions
they were not ready for its implementation.

The industrial model aimed to achieve the following objectives: increase in employment, productive diversification,
import substitution and replacement of artisanal production, among others.

Industrialization was promoted through various laws such as: Law for the creation of the General Directorate of
Commerce, Industry and Mining (1950); income tax and road tax law (1951-1953), Promotion Law
of Transformation Industries (1952), which became the main means to promote industrial policy. It
the Central American States Organization (ODECA) was created, an organization responsible for strengthening ties
economic and political relationships among Central American countries.

In the order of improvements to the population, the Urban Housing Institute (IVU) and the Salvadoran Social Security Institute were created.
Social (ISSS), the Regulatory Institute of Supply (IRA), the Institute of Rural Colonization (ICR) while life is given to
Economic Cooperation Committee for Latin America (ECLAC) and six years later the treaty on the Regime was signed
of the Integration Industry whose mandate was to direct the industrialization between Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador,
Subsequently, Costa Rica and Nicaragua would join. The signing of that treaty allowed for the creation of a geographic space in the
that the five countries could exchange products without any restrictions while the goods from other latitudes
they should pay the corresponding taxes.

In the Central American Common Market, attempts were also made to develop projects of common interest, including the
desired Political Union. On the other hand, in support of Economic Integration, the Bank of Economic Integration was founded.
based in Tegucigalpa as the official capital of the five countries.

By the end of the 1960s, it was already evident that the integration suffered from significant gaps, although the
unification intentions were favorable for the development of the area. One of the reasons that hindered the
integration was the concentration of products in the hands of entrepreneurs from some countries in the region and in
foreign companies.

In that same effort for regional unification, a movement for renewal in education emerges in Costa Rica that with
support from the United States and ODECA proposed regional actions to revitalize education in the region,
subscribing to an agreement on Basic Education among the Ministers of the region and a curriculum model was developed
common for Central America and Panama. A series of texts were produced for the subjects of the basic subjects of the
the first six grades of primary school whose costs were financed by the Technical Cooperation Agency called Office
Central America and Panama (ROCAP).
 Starting in 1960, El Salvador experienced the highest economic growth in its history, largely due to the
economic integration. By the mid-decade, the country dominated more than 30% of the total trade in the region and
had taken over some industrial sectors of neighboring countries. On the other hand, Honduras began to worry
because with their purchases they were financing the development of other countries and selling very little. Later, they acquired
debts with some countries in the region which were difficult to pay and was another factor that affected the development of
the region.

These causes and other differences between El Salvador and Honduras unleashed the war between both countries in July 1969 and
what led to the persecution of fellow countrymen in that brother country. That was the end of the Central American Common Market.

Another of the events that had an impact on the region was the triumph of the Cuban revolution in 1959, as the government
from the United States considered that it would extend to the Central American region and the rest of the Latin American countries and
he promoted a prevention strategy called 'Alliance for Progress' which was planned in the State Department
for Latin American Affairs and was held in Punta del Este, Uruguay. There, the presidents attended with their
Education ministers, and it was precisely in that meeting that President Kennedy laid out the lines of understanding in
the political, economic, social, and educational aspects between Latin American countries and the United States.

In El Salvador, the educational system had remained largely unchanged, maintaining its structure, although some changes had been made.
incorporated some innovations; but starting in 1968 and with the demands of the industrial model and those of Punta del Este,
the second reform of the system is initiated, known as the reform driven by Minister Walter Béneke in the
administration of President Fidel Sánchez Hernández

The reform is based on the industrial economic model that required skilled labor for development of
all industrial production, inward, and substitute for imports. In this context, the educational system is
rethought from early childhood education to higher education.

This reform was comprehensive as it modified the approach to education, the curricula and study programs, and the administration.
educational, the methods of teaching and learning, the organization of education, the forms of evaluation and the
organization in Schools. Introduced educational technology in education and modified the contents
curricular.

The structure of the system was conceived in four levels: Early Childhood, Basic, Secondary, and Higher; the latter in: Higher not
University (Technological) and Higher University.

The components of the reform are:

• Structural change in general studies

• Expansion of basic education
• Diversification and structural change of secondary education
• Curricular reform
• Educational television
• School infrastructure
• Student Welfare
• Teacher well-being
• Administrative reform
• Creation of the Normal City 'Alberto Masferrer'
• Foundation of the School of Physical Education
• Foundation of the Central American Technological Institute (ITCA)
• Incorporation of educational television, channels 8 and 10
With that proposal, the national educational system would align with the demands of the industrial economic model.
that found serious problems of illiteracy to incorporate into the labor sector in the handling of machinery
industrial.

Regarding the educational approach proposed by the economic agencies of the time, it was pointed out that it turns out
beneficial for countries to have an organized educational system to discover human talents that can
develop the productive structure, as well as ensure that with eight years of schooling, it was easy to integrate into
productive system compared to those that only cover four years. This is how the educational reform went from six
years of primary education to nine years of basic education. High school changed from two years to three, and it was increased the
budget for secondary and higher education.

Basic Education:

First cycle Second cycle Third cycle

1st grade 4th grade 7th grade

2nd grade 5th grade 8th grade
3rd grade 6th grade 9th grade

Secondary Education:

1- Academic: Mathematics and Physics, Biology and Chemistry, Humanities.

2- Industrial: General Mechanics, Electronics, Electricity, Automobiles.
3- Commerce and Administration: Accounting, Secretarial.
4- Vocational: Decoration, Beauty Cultivator, Haute Couture.
5- Hospitality and Tourism: Hospitality, Tourism.
6- Health: Sanitation, Basic Nursing Practices.
7- Navigation and Fishing: Technique and Art of Fishing, Navigation and Naval Mechanics, Food Processing, Construction
of boats.
Pedagogical
9- Arts: Theater, Plastic Arts, Music.
10- Agricultural.

This diversification aimed at the training of qualified personnel for the development of the economic model.
industrial capitalist.

The educational model was modernized with the so-called communication sciences as educational television was introduced.
(channels 8 and 10) and many Educational Centers were equipped with the necessary equipment for teleclasses. Only the schools
those lacking electric service were not benefited. That innovation was not properly exploited because the
teachers were not trained for proper use.

Educational television is a valuable resource as long as it is equipped with all the physical resources and human resources.
trained to provide a quality service; in those years there was a lack of those resources so programs were improvised
in the early years of operation.

Currently, there is only channel 10 and it is precisely the only cultural channel that has a presence in the country.
property of the Ministry of Education.

The previous innovation allowed for human communication to be introduced through a transmitter, a message.
and a receiver. The message is a signal that has meaning for the transmitter and for the receiver, the meaning is what
what can read or interpret.

In education, this factor is important because it allows for the selection of the contents of the study programs.
it strengthens the presence of the prevailing economic, political, and social system, as it allows for the visualization of images and messages
 with much more precision than lecture classes; hence the need for excellent preparation of the teacher to
do not be surprised by theories that distort the national reality.

The entire planning of this reform is based on Positivist philosophical theory, a current that prescribes that only is
True is that knowledge which arises from the positive affirmation of theories proven through the scientific method.
With that conception, the reform is developed that takes Behaviorism as the psychological theory of learning.
This theory is based on the control of human behavior.

Within the doctrinal foundations of the reform are found:

• The general objectives of the National Educational System

• The goals of the system
• System structure
• General Education (from 1st to 9th grade)
• Specialized Education (all baccalaureates)

1995 Educational Reform

Starting in 1980, the country was governed by three juntas (civilian and military); from the last one, was elected as
constitutional government, by free elections, engineer José Napoleón Duarte who undertook three measures that
were repudiated by the dominant class, including: agrarian reform, nationalization of banking and foreign trade.
Those measures became the trigger for many conflicts where many compatriots perished and there was no
many advances in the development of the economy and especially in education.

In 1989, the crisis hit the weak family economies which, with the increase of armed conflict, security
Familiar was the first option to take care of. However, the Ministry of Education had proposed from 1983 to 2000 the
National Plan for Culture and Education proposing the following national policies:

• Culture and Education for the promotion and evaluation of the quality of life level.
• Valuation, internalization, and development of national identity.
• Education, work towards a new productive structure.
• Dignification of the worker in culture and education
• Respect and recognition of the family as the primary educational agent.
• Democratization of culture and education.
• Concentration of state and community cultural educational administration.

To this end, the first step was taken to achieve the objectives and goals, which was the promulgation of the General Law of
Education in 1989 from which the following purposes emerged:

• Achieve the integral development of personality in its personal, moral, and social dimensions
• Contribute to the construction of a more just and humane society.
• Instill respect for human rights and the observance of the corresponding duties
• Combat all spirit of intolerance and hatred.
• Know the national reality and identify with the values of Salvadoran nationality.
• Promote the unity of the Central American people.
 General Objectives of National Education.

• Achieve the integral fullness of the person.

• Balance the study plans and programs based on the unity of science, in order to achieve an image of man.
and of nature, without prejudice to the specialization required for the economic and social development of the country.
• Establish the teaching sequence in such a way that any cognitive information promotes the development of a
mental function and believes in desirable habits and feelings.
• Cultivating the creative image, the habits of thinking and planning, the persistence in achieving goals, the determination of
priorities and the development of critical power.
• Systematize the mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities, habits, and attitudes of the learners in
function of effectiveness for work. As a basis for improving the quality of life of Salvadorans.
• Foster individual relationships in equitable balance between human rights and duties, cultivating the
civic loyalties, from the natural relationship of family between the citizen and the homeland and of man with culture.
• Improve the relationship between man and his environment, using educational forms and modalities that explain the
implicit processes in that relationship, within the standards of rationality and consciousness; and
• Cultivating relationships that develop feelings of mutual solidarity, freedom, and peace; in the context of order.
democratic, which recognizes the human person as the origin and the end of the activity of the State.

In 1990, the law was amended pointing out the following administrative failures:

• Lack of planning and budgeting capacity at the local level.

• Excessive centralization in decision-making.
• Lack of school supervision.
• Deficient logistic system in the equipment and maintenance of the facilities, in addition to the distribution of
materials.

Subsequently, after the signing of the peace agreements, there were adjustments in the educational system such as: the overcoming of the
pointed faults, the districts were created by region and subregion in addition to the educational nuclei.

Given the high rates of illiteracy and the efforts that the Farabundo Martí Front had made in this area
educational such as popular schools in areas with their presence, the Ministry recognized the
popular teachers trained in the regions and at the University of El Salvador, certified them and later were
incorporated to work in programs like SABE (Solidification of Scope in Basic Education) and EDUCO (Education)
with community participation) exclusive program to address early childhood education and the first cycle and where
parents intervene by forming the Community Associations for Basic Education (ACE)

The international incidence through the Peace Culture Program in El Salvador and its different activities attempted
guarantee that the Educational Reform that was being developed between 1993 and 1995 would result in a model of
education based on the values of a culture of peace. But the reality was different. The political discourse appropriated
concepts that encompass a culture of peace, but in practice, these did not materialize. With the funding
international for the national reconstruction process, in the field of education, in 1993 and 1994, a
diagnosis led by Harvard University, the Central American University (UCA) and the Educational Foundation for
the Development (FEPADE). This encompassed the areas of early childhood education, basic, middle, higher, technical, non-formal,
human resources training and education financing. All its contributions can be summarized in two concepts
basics: equity and quality in education. Both equity and educational quality are proposed as the axes of the
Educational reform in El Salvador was aimed at laying the necessary foundations for the construction of a culture
of peace through education. In this sense, the Ministry of Education resumed, to some extent, the lines of
strategic actions proposed by the Harvard/UCA/FEPADE diagnosis in the Guidelines of the Decennial Plan 1995-2005.
 One of the first aspects that stands out is the approach reflected in the Ten-Year Coverage and Quality Plan.
education. Educational coverage replaced educational equity. But as has been demonstrated to date, coverage
education is not necessarily synonymous with educational equity, as high-income sectors have better
educational opportunities for rural or marginalized urban areas.

The Educational Reform prioritized basic education (Ministry of Education, 1995), with the vision that: 'The best
job training is a quality basic education with general, flexible, and versatile characteristics that
allow for a subsequent specialization according to the constant changes in the labor market.
In other words, there was a need for training skilled labor that could be integrated into textile companies.
international (maquilas), which were in the process of establishing themselves in the country at that time. In this sense, the Educational Reform
from 1995.

In 1995, the Higher Education Law was approved, paving the way for the University Rating and Evaluation System.
Higher Education Institutes, which must be completed with Accreditation. In 1996, the law of the career was approved.
teacher.

Strategic Lines:

• Focusing and transparent allocation of resources based on attention to communities with high density
child and youth population, low school attendance rates, high levels of illiteracy, prioritizing the most disadvantaged sectors
poor.
• Strengthening the participation of the educational community so that it shares the government's efforts and addresses the
local needs of the educational service.
• Promotion of the participation of other institutions, both public and private, as well as voluntary organizations in various
educational programs.

Coverage programs:

• Initial and Preschool Education

• Accelerated Education
• Alternative Classes
• Healthy School
• Attention to the population with special needs
• Education of Young People and Adults

• Scholarship program for Secondary and Higher Education.

• EDUCO

Preschool Education
Preschool education is free and not compulsory. This level was incorporated into basic education in the
1983 Constitution. It lasts for three years and serves children from four to six years of age. Its objective is
exercise the psychomotor apparatus, language, carry out manual and playful activities and prepare them for the continuation in
the basic educational system and in life in general. This level is not divided by grades but into 3 groups according to the
age (from 4 to 6 years). According to the assessments of the Salvadoran Foundation for Economic and Social Development
In (FUSADES), early childhood education becomes important as children's attendance could help reduce the
repetition that occurs in the first level of basic education. Despite this appreciation, coverage continues to be
below the basic requirements; the few kindergartens are concentrated mostly in cities and
large towns. Attendance is low. It is estimated that in the period 1981-84 only 5% of the child population visited these
centers. The poor distribution of kindergartens exacerbates exclusion. Taking into account the data that
provides FUSADES24, until 1989 there were 887 infant schools, of which 692 (78%) are located in the urban area
and only 195 (22%) in rural areas. Of this total, 539 centers belong to the public sector (16 are closed) and 348 to
private. It must be taken into account that in many cantons the schools are far away and the lack of paved roads and
transport means making a long journey on foot. That is why children from poor families do not have access to the
school. A common problem that arises is that not all preschool centers reach three groups so that the
teachers are forced to work with children from different classes at the same time and are not able to
differentiated attention according to age. Teachers hardly receive professional training or updating courses
and they continue to use methods for their stimulation that are not very educational, such as punishments and blows as a way to solve
disobedience in the classroom and retain their attention in this way. Women suffer the consequences as many
jobs do not have daycare facilities where to leave their children and are hindered from integrating into the labor market,
So in the informal sector, it is very common to see women accompanied by their young children (at the stalls of
market, in domestic work, etc.) those who sometimes, at that age, have a responsibility in the family income.

Basic education
Basic education caters to the population between seven and fourteen years of age. It is mandatory and free when provided.
the State. The 1968 reform merged basic education with secondary education, expanding the study base from six
at nine years divided into three cycles. The 1st and 2nd are attended by one teacher while the third is attended by two.
one in the area of Humanities and another in the area of Sciences. The goal is to contribute to the "harmonious development of the
personality in their vital spaces: family, school, local, national and international community
of 'a discipline of work, order, study, persistence, self-esteem, and at the same time habits for the preservation of health
in all its fields.

Not all schools offer all three levels. Generally, it is in urban areas where all three can be found.
rural areas commonly only offer the first, which is why more than 40% of the rural population "is without any
level of education and only 14% have more than six grades approved."30 Exclusion becomes less over time.
reversible because the population is becoming adult. The Ministry of Education has prepared programs for
integrate the school-aged population by teaching classes in double shifts with the 3-3-6 system, (three classrooms, three
teachers, six grades) in communities with more than 2,000 inhabitants, 31+32. It also developed the EDUCO Program for
cover the demand and reduce dropout and repetition rates in preschool and basic education. However, the
The problem remains intact. Public spending on education has been reduced, the allocation to the basic education program
decreased from 54.9% in 1981 to 10.0% in 1983. During the war, a large percentage of children were excluded and increased
the unemployment of teachers. It is estimated that in 1980 nearly 877 schools were closed. "3,285 classrooms were closed which
It meant that approximately 1,542 teachers and 107,000 students were affected. The closure of classrooms continued in
rise and in 1987, 198 schools closed, covering 733 classrooms, which include 24,756 students. "In 1989, it was recorded
4,126 educational centers, of which 656 were closed, the majority of the latter are located in rural areas.

Bibliografía

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El Salvador

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