The Life-Span Perspective Some abilities improve while others decline.

- Each of us develops partly like all other Example: Learning languages is easier in
individuals, partly like some other individuals, childhood, but older adults may gain wisdom
and partly like no other individual. even if their processing speed slows down.

- This is the general course of our 4. Development is Plastic (Changeable)

development, the pattern of movement or
change that begins at conception and People can change at any age, though the
continues through the human life span. ability to change may lessen as we grow older.

THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LIFE! Example: Older adults can still improve
SPAN DEVELOPMENT memory and thinking skills with practice.
- Most development involves growth, but it
5. Development is Multidisciplinary
also includes decline (as in dying).

Development - The pattern of change that Many fields (psychology, medicine, sociology,
begins at conception and continues through etc.) study human development from different
the life span. Most development involves angles.
growth, although it also includes decline
brought on by aging and dying. 6. Development is Contextual

Life-span perspective- The perspective that Development happens within settings like
development is lifelong, multidimensional, family, school, culture, and society. Contexts
multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and change over time and influence people in three
contextual; involves growth, maintenance, ways:
and regulation; and is constructed through
biological, sociocultural, and individual factors Normative age-graded influences
working together. (common changes at certain ages, like
puberty).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIFE!SPAN
PERSPECTIVE Normative history-graded
influences (big events like wars or
- extensive change from birth to adolescence pandemics).
(especially during infancy), little or no change
in adulthood, and decline in old age. Nonnormative life events (unique
- The life-span approach emphasizes experiences, like winning the lottery or losing a
developmental change throughout adulthood parent young).
as well as childhood

The Life-Span Perspective

According to life-span development expert
Paul Baltes (1939–2006), the life-span Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of
perspective views development as lifelong, Loss
multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic,
multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a Life development has three main goals:
process that involves growth, maintenance,
and regulation of loss Growth: improving skills and capacities.

Principles of Development (Life-Span Maintenance: keeping abilities you already

Perspective) have.

1. Development is Lifelong- Growth and Regulation of Loss: adjusting when abilities

change happen at all ages, not just in decline (like focusing on independence instead
childhood or early adulthood. of improvement in old age).
2. Development is Multidimensional - It
includes biological (body/health), cognitive Development as Co-Construction
(thinking/learning), and socioemotional
(relationships/emotions) aspects. These areas Development is shaped by three forces
affect each other. working together:
3. Development is Multidirectional
Biology (genes, body, brain),
Culture (traditions, education, technology), transgender, a broad term that refers to
individuals who adopt a gender identity that
Individual Choices (what we decide to do differs from the one assigned to them at birth
with our lives).
Key Issues in Development and
SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS Technology

Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity Babies and Screens – Watching too much
TV/videos may affect language
development.
Health, parenting, and education are all
influenced by the social and cultural Children – Too much screen time = less
environment people live in. physical activity → higher risk of obesity and
heart problems.
Four key ideas to understand this are:
Adolescents – Many spend more time on
Culture – Shared beliefs, traditions, and devices than in school → raises questions
behaviors passed down through generations. about learning and whether multitasking is
helpful or harmful.
Example: American culture vs. a small town’s
traditions. Older Adults – They did not grow up with
modern technology, so they face challenges in
Ethnicity – Shared heritage, language, or adapting, but it’s becoming increasingly
ancestry. important in their lives.

Socioeconomic Status (SES) – A person’s BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND

social and economic position (income, SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
education, job).
biological processes Changes in an
Gender – Social roles and expectations for individual’s physical nature.
men, women, or other gender identities.
cognitive processes Changes in an
culture The behavior patterns, beliefs, and all individual’s thought, intelligence, and
other products of a group that are passed on language.
from generation to generation.
socioemotional processes Changes in an
cross-cultural studies Comparison of one individual’s interpersonal relationships,
culture with one or more other cultures. These emotions, and personality
provide information about the degree to which
development is similar, or universal, across New Research Fields
cultures, and the degree to which it is culture-
specific. Developmental cognitive neuroscience →
studies how brain and thinking (cognition)
ethnicity A characteristic based on cultural work together.
heritage, nationality characteristics, race,
religion, and language. Developmental social neuroscience →
studies how the brain and
socioeconomic status (SES) Refers to the emotions/relationships are connected.
grouping of people with similar occupational,
educational, and economic characteristics. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

gender The characteristics of people as males Prenatal (conception → birth, ~9 months)

or females.
Growth from a single cell to a full human with
social policy A national government’s course brain and behavior abilities.
of action designed to promote the welfare of
its citizens Infancy (birth → 18–24 months)
Extreme dependence on adults. Early Four Ages Life-span developmentalists who
development of language, thinking, focus on adult development and aging
coordination, and social learning. increasingly describe life-span development in
terms of four “ages”
Toddler (1½ → 3 years)
First age: Childhood and adolescence
Transitional stage between infancy and early
childhood. Second age: Prime adulthood, ages 20
through 59
Early Childhood (3 → 5 years, “preschool
years”) Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of
age
Become more independent. Learn school
readiness skills (letters, following instructions). Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and
Lots of play with peers. older

Middle & Late Childhood (6 → 10/11 years, Three Developmental Patterns of Aging K.
elementary years) Warner Schaie

Master reading, writing, math. Achievement · Normal aging = gradual, average decline.
and self-control become important. Greater
exposure to culture and society. · Pathological aging = faster, disease-
related decline.
Adolescence (10–12 → 18–21 years)
· Successful aging = slower decline, good
Transition from childhood to adulthood. Rapid health, and strong functioning into late life
physical changes (height, weight, puberty).
Independence and identity development. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AGE
Thinking becomes logical, abstract, and
idealistic. Conceptions of Age:

Emerging Adulthood (18 → 25 years, new Chronological age – years since birth; simple
stage) but limited.

Exploration and experimentation. Choosing Biological age – health and functioning of the
careers, lifestyles, and identity. body’s organs; younger biological age means
longer life.
Early Adulthood (20s → 30s)
Psychological age – adaptability, motivation,
Establish independence and career. Form emotional control, and learning ability; positive
intimate relationships, marriage, and family. traits keep people mentally younger.

Middle Adulthood (40 → 60 years) Social age – social roles and relationships;
strong connections improve happiness and
Focus on responsibility and helping the next longevity.
generation. Career satisfaction and social
involvement grow. DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

Late Adulthood (60s/70s → death) Nature-Nurture issue Debate about whether

development is primarily influenced by nature
Time for life review, retirement, and adapting or nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s
to health changes. biological inheritance, nurture to its
environmental experiences.
Young-old (65–84): still active, capable of
adapting. stability-change issue Debate about whether
we become older renditions of our early
Oldest-old (85+): more fragile, with decline experience (stability) or whether we develop
in physical and mental abilities. into someone dFFErent from who we were at

an earlier point in development (change).

continuity-discontinuity issue Debate about · Freud believed many adult problems come
the extent to which development involves from early childhood experiences.
gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or
distinct stages (discontinuity). · As children grow, their pleasure and
sexual impulses move through different body
3 Theories of Development areas, leading to five psychosexual stages:

· Scientific Method – A structured way of Oral (pleasure from mouth)

gaining accurate knowledge. It involves:
Anal (pleasure from bowel/bladder control)
1. Conceptualize the problem (identify what
you want to study), Phallic (focus on genitals, family dynamics)

2. Collect data (gather information through Latency (sexual feelings hidden, focus on
observation, tests, or experiments), learning/social skills)
3. Draw conclusions (analyze results to see
what they mean), Genital (sexual reawakening in
4. Revise (update theories or ideas based on adolescence/adulthood)
findings).
Adult personality develops based on how
Theory – A connected set of ideas that conflicts between pleasure and reality are
explains why something happens and helps resolved at each stage.
predict future events or behaviors. Example:
Piaget’s theory explains how children’s
thinking develops in stages.

Hypotheses – Testable statements or

predictions that come from a theory. Example:
“Children who read daily will have better
vocabulary than those who don’t.”

Psychoanalytic Theories – Focus on Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

unconscious processes and emotions in
development. They emphasize that: Behavior Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:
is just the “tip of the iceberg,”
Difference from Freud:
The unconscious mind and symbols shape
actions, Early childhood experiences, Freud said development is mainly about
especially with parents, strongly influence later sexual instincts (psychosexual stages).
behavior.
Erikson said it is about social relationships
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES (psychosocial stages).

· Development is mainly unconscious and Freud emphasized the first 5 years; Erikson
strongly influenced by emotions. believed development continues throughout
life.
· Behavior is just the surface; true
understanding comes from analyzing Core idea:
symbolic meanings and the inner mind.
Human development unfolds in 8 stages, each
· Early parent–child experiences play a with a crisis (challenge) to resolve.
major role in shaping later development.
A crisis is not a disaster but a turning point
· Sigmund Freud’s theory is the most that can lead to growth or difficulties.
influential example of this perspective.
Successfully resolving each stage leads to
healthier development.

Freud’s Theory
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Reflecting on life: Was it meaningful?
Development
Success = integrity; Failure = despair.
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0–1 year)
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Babies learn whether the world is safe and Three important cognitive theories are
reliable. 1. Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental
theory,
Success = trust; Failure = mistrust. 2. Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive
theory, and the
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 3. informationprocessing theory.
(Toddlerhood, 1–3 years)
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory:
Children discover independence (“I can do it
myself”).

Support = autonomy; Harsh control = Core Ideas

shame/doubt.
Children are active thinkers, not passive
Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3–5 years) learners. They build knowledge through two
key processes:
Kids take initiative in activities and social
interactions. Organization – Sorting and connecting ideas
to make sense of the world.
Encouragement = initiative; Over-criticism = Adaptation – Adjusting thinking when facing
guilt. new experiences or challenges.

Industry vs. Inferiority (School age, 6–11 Cognition develops in four stages, each with
years) a unique way of understanding the world.
Thinking changes qualitatively (different
kinds of thinking, not just more of the same).
Focus on learning, skills, and achievement.
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive
Success = competence; Failure = inferiority.
Development
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years)
(Adolescence, 12–18 years)
Infants understand the world through senses
Teens explore who they are and their future
and actions (looking, touching, grasping).
roles.
Example: A baby shakes a rattle to hear the
Success = strong identity; Failure = confusion.
sound.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood,
Key milestone: Object permanence –
20s–30s)
realizing objects exist even when out of sight.
Focus on forming close, loving relationships.
Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)
Success = intimacy; Failure = isolation.
Children use symbols (words, drawings,
images) to represent the world.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle
adulthood, 40s–50s)
Thinking is still egocentric (difficulty seeing
others’ perspectives).
Helping the next generation (parenting,
mentoring, contributing to society).
Limitation: Cannot perform operations
(mental actions like mentally combining or
Success = generativity; Failure = stagnation. reversing steps).

Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood, 60s Example: Believing that pouring water into a
onward) taller glass means there’s “more” water.
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years) strategies, depending on what tools their
culture provides.
Children can now perform logical operations
but only on concrete objects/events. Learning Through Social Interaction

They understand concepts like conservation Development happens through interaction with
(amount of liquid stays the same even if its more-skilled adults and peers.
shape changes).
Children don’t learn in isolation—they are
Example: Knowing that 8 + 4 = 12, and also guided and supported by others.
that 12 – 4 = 8.
Use of Cultural Tools
Limitation: Struggle with abstract or
hypothetical thinking. Children learn to use the “inventions of
society” such as:
Formal Operational Stage (11 years–
adulthood) Language (primary tool for thought and
communication)
Thinking becomes abstract, logical, and
systematic. Mathematical systems

Adolescents can reason about hypotheticals Memory strategies

and imagine future possibilities.
These tools help children adapt and succeed in
Example: Designing an experiment, forming a their environment.
hypothesis, and testing it logically.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) The
They also think about ideals (e.g., what a difference between what a child can do alone
perfect society might look like). and what they can do with help.

Example: A child may not solve a puzzle alone,

but with guidance, they can complete it—
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive showing potential for growth.
Theory:

Information-Processing Theory:
Core Idea
Focus: Thinking is like information processing
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), like Piaget, (similar to a computer).
believed children actively construct
knowledge. Development: Continuous and gradual, not
stage-like.
However, Vygotsky emphasized that social
interaction and culture play a central role in Key Process: Children improve by learning
cognitive development. better strategies (e.g., monitoring when
reading).

Microgenetic Method: Studies learning

Key Points of the Theory moment by moment to see how knowledge
changes.
Cognitive Development is Sociocultural
Computer Analogy: Brain = hardware,
A child’s learning is shaped by culture cognition = software (input → process → store
(language, traditions, tools, beliefs) and social → output).
interaction (family, teachers, peers).
Strengths: Positive view of development,
Example: Children in different cultures may explains how learning happens, useful for
learn math using computers, beads, or mental education.
Limits: Overlooks individual differences and Example: Confidence (person factor) + peer
emotions; human thinking is richer than influence (environment) affect whether
computers. someone tries a new skill (behavior).

BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE

THEORIES
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY

Main difference: What is Ethological Theory?

Skinner = learning is shaped directly by Ethology is the study of how biology and
consequences (behaviorist, external focus). evolution influence behavior.

Bandura = learning also involves thinking It emphasizes that some behaviors are innate
and observing others (adds cognition and (built-in) and appear during critical or
social context). sensitive periods—specific time frames when
experiences (or lack of them) have long-lasting
1. Behaviorism (Skinner’s Operant effects
Conditioning)

Focus: Only observable behavior can be Key Research: Konrad Lorenz

studied scientifically.
Lorenz studied greylag geese:
Development = learned behaviors shaped by
environment. Eggs hatched naturally → goslings followed
their mother.
Operant Conditioning:
Eggs hatched in an incubator → goslings
Behavior followed by reward → more likely to followed Lorenz (the first moving object they
repeat. saw).

Behavior followed by punishment → less likely This process was called imprinting: rapid,
to repeat. innate learning that forms attachment to the
first seen caregiver.
Example: A child praised for sharing is more
likely to share again. Imprinting only happens during a critical
period (a narrow, early time window).
Limitation: Focuses only on behavior, ignores
thoughts and feelings.

2. Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) 👶Application to Humans: John Bowlby

Goes beyond Skinner by including Bowlby applied ethological ideas to

cognition (thinking, memory, human attachment:
expectations).
Babies form attachments in the first year of
Development = interaction of behavior, life.
environment, and cognition.
Secure, positive attachment → healthy
Observational Learning (Modeling): development later.

People learn by watching others and imitating Insecure, negative attachment →

them. Example: A child who sees an difficulties in relationships and development.
aggressive parent may also act aggressively.
He introduced the idea of a sensitive period
Bandura’s model: Behavior ↔ —broader than a critical period when
Person/Cognition ↔ Environment (all attachment should develop for best outcomes.
influence each other).
 Example: A parent’s stressful workplace may
affect family interactions even though the child
🧬 Core Concepts is not directly involved at work.

Biology & Evolution shape behavior. 4. Macrosystem

Critical Period = very limited time when The broader culture (values, customs, laws,
certain behaviors must develop (e.g., traditions). Example: Cultural beliefs about
imprinting in animals). education or gender roles influence how a child
grows up.
Sensitive Period = optimal but not rigid time
for experiences (e.g., human attachment in 5. Chronosystem
infancy).
The dimension of time. Considers life
transitions (e.g., divorce, moving to a new city)
and sociohistorical events (e.g., effects of
ECOLOGICAL THEORY war, technology, women’s career opportunitie

Ecological Theory (Bronfenbrenner) AN ECLECTIC THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

Focus: Environmental factors shaping 🌎 Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

development (not just biological).
Meaning: Instead of relying on one single
Core idea: Development happens within theory to explain development, it combines
multiple layers of environmental systems the strengths of different theories.
that interact with each other.
Reason: Human development is too complex
These systems are nested like circles around to be fully explained by just one perspective.
the individual.
Why Eclectic?

Each theory contributes something

🏛 The Five Systems unique:

1. Microsystem Psychoanalytic theory → explains the

unconscious mind.
Immediate environment where the person lives
and interacts. Erikson’s theory → best at describing adult
development and psychosocial stages.
Includes family, peers, school,
neighborhood, teachers. Development is Piaget, Vygotsky, and Information-
shaped through direct interactions (e.g., Processing → explain cognitive
parent–child, teacher–student). development.

The child is active, not just passive. Behavioral & Social Cognitive theories →
focus on environmental influences.
2. Mesosystem
Ecological theory → shows the impact of
Connections between microsystems. multiple environmental systems.

Example: Relationship between home and Ethological theory → emphasizes biology

school → a child with supportive parents may and sensitive periods.
do better in class.
✅ Contribution of an Eclectic Approach
3. Exosystem
Provides a more complete picture of
Social settings that affect the person development.
indirectly.
Encourages flexibility in using the best parts
of each theory.
Reflects real-life practice, where multiple
factors (biological, cognitive, social,
environmental) work together.

In short: An eclectic theoretical

orientation means picking the best ideas
from different theories to understand
human development more fully, instead
of following only one school of thought.