A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer—capable of carrying out a
complex series of actions automatically.[2] A robot can be guided by an external control device, or
the control may be embedded within. Robots may be constructed to evoke human form, but most
robots are task-performing machines, designed with an emphasis on stark functionality, rather than
expressive aesthetics.
Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from humanoids such
as Honda's Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility (ASIMO) and TOSY's TOSY Ping Pong Playing
Robot (TOPIO) to industrial robots, medical operating robots, patient assist robots, dog therapy
robots, collectively programmed swarm robots, UAV drones such as General Atomics MQ-1
Predator, and even microscopic nanorobots. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating
movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or thought of its own. Autonomous
things are expected to proliferate in the future, with home robotics and the autonomous car as
some of the main drivers.[3]
The branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of
robots,[4] as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information
processing is robotics. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of
humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in
appearance, behavior, or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to
the field of bio-inspired robotics. These robots have also created a newer branch of robotics: soft
robotics.
From the time of ancient civilization, there have been many accounts of user-configurable
automated devices and even automata, resembling humans and other animals, such
as animatronics, designed primarily as entertainment. As mechanical techniques developed through
the Industrial age, there appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote
control and wireless remote-control.
The term comes from a Slavic root, robot-, with meanings associated with labor. The word "robot"
was first used to denote a fictional humanoid in a 1920 Czech-language play R.U.R. (Rossumovi
Univerzální Roboti – Rossum's Universal Robots) by Karel Čapek, though it was Karel's brother Josef
Čapek who was the word's true inventor.[5][6][7] Electronics evolved into the driving force of
development with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey
Walter in Bristol, England, in 1948, as well as Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools in
the late 1940s by John T. Parsons and Frank L. Stulen.
The first commercial, digital and programmable robot was built by George Devol in 1954 and was
named the Unimate. It was sold to General Motors in 1961, where it was used to lift pieces of hot
metal from die casting machines at the Inland Fisher Guide Plant in the West Trenton section
of Ewing Township, New Jersey.[8]
Robots have replaced humans[9] in performing repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer
not to do, or are unable to do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme
environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea. There are concerns about the increasing
use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising technological unemployment as
they replace workers in increasing number of functions.[10] The use of robots in military combat
raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been
addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future.
Summary
iCub is physically anthropomorphic; it looks like a human.
There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but there is general agreement among
experts, and the public, that robots tend to possess some or all of the following abilities and
functions: accept electronic programming, process data or physical perceptions electronically,
operate autonomously to some degree, move around, operate physical parts of itself or physical
processes, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior, especially
behavior which mimics humans or other animals.[11][12]
The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are
usually referred to as bots.[13] Related to the concept of a robot is the field of synthetic biology,
which studies entities whose nature is more comparable to living things than to machines.
Simpler automated machines are called automatons, like animatronics, often made to resemble
humans or animals. Humanoid robots that resemble humans esthetically, possibly even organically,
are called androids, while android can be shortened to droid, referring to robots with a broader
likeness. On the other hand, a human that is augmented with artificial machines is called a cyborg,
which is a particular type of transhuman.
History
Main article: History of robots
A hypothetical reconstruction of Philo's automatic robot
servant (3rd century BCE) in the Kotsanas Museum of Ancient Greek Technology, Athens, Greece
Su Song's astronomical clock tower showing the mechanical figurines
which chimed the hours al-Jazari's musical toy, from the
13th century Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices
Model of Leonardo's robot with inner workings. Possibly constructed by Leonardo da Vinci around
1495.[14] The Brennan torpedo, one of the earliest 'guided
missiles' William H. Richards with "George", 1932
Early beginnings
Many ancient cultures described artificial people in their writings. Examples from Greek
mythology include Galatea (the mythical statue carved by Pygmalion that came to life), Talos (a man
of bronze who guarded Crete from pirates), and the mechanical servants built by the Greek
god Hephaestus.[15] Giants made of stone or clay are found in Jewish and Norse mythology.
During classical antiquity, Greek engineers contributed many innovations. For example, in the 4th
century BCE, Archytas described a steam-operated mechanical bird he called "The Pigeon",
[16]
while Ctesibius improved the clepsydra and produced the first hydraulus several decades later.[17]:
2 [18]
Philo of Byzantium described a washstand automaton. Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD) created
numerous user-configurable automated devices and described machines powered
by pneumatics, hydraulics, and steam, even including a "speaking" automaton.[19] Greek engineers
also built the Antikythera mechanism — the oldest known example of an analog computer — during
this period.[20][21]
Ancient Chinese texts described automata, some of which were capable of flight. For example,
the Han Feizi reports that 5th century BCE Mohist philosopher Mozi and his contemporary Lu
Ban built artificial wooden birds that could fly. The Liezi (attributed to Lie Yukou, a 4th-century BCE
Chinese philosopher) describes humanoid automata.[22] In 1066, Chinese inventor Su Song built
a water clock in the form of a tower which featured mechanical figurines that chimed the hours.[23][24]
[25]
His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs that bumped into little levers that
operated percussion instruments. The drummer could be programmed to play different drum
patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.[25]
11th century texts of Buddhist mythology also describe automata. Examples include
the Samarangana Sutradhara, a treatise by Bhoja (king of Malwa) which includes a chapter about
the construction of mechanical automata, including mechanical bees and birds, fountains shaped
like humans and animals, and male and female dolls that refilled oil lamps, danced, played
instruments, and re-enacted scenes from Hindu mythology.[26][27][28] The Lokapannatti is an 11th-12th
century Buddhist cosmological text that tells of how the Buddha's relics were protected by
mechanical robots (bhuta vahana yanta or "spirit movement machines") until they were disarmed
by King Ashoka.[29]
Ismail al-Jazari was a 13th-century polymath who built several automated devices driven
by hydropower, including peacocks,[30] automatic gates,[31] and water clocks.[32] Among his humanoid
automata was a waitress that could serve drinks. The drink was stored in a reservoir tank, from
where it would drip into a bucket and then a cup, after which the waitress would appear out of an
automatic door to serve the drink.[33] Al-Jazari also invented a hand washing automaton that
incorporated a flush mechanism similar to that used in modern flush toilets. The automaton stood
next to a basin filled with water. When the user pulled a lever, the water would drain and the
automaton would refill the basin.[17]
In 1377, the coronation of Richard II of England featured an automaton angel.[34] Around
1495, Leonardo da Vinci sketched plans for a mechanical humanoid robot that was able to sit up,
wave its arms and move its head and jaw.[35] The design was probably based on anatomical research
recorded in his Vitruvian Man. Da Vinci may have been influenced by the automata of al-Jazari.[30]
In Japan, complex automata were built between the 17th to 19th centuries, with many described in
the 1796 Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery). One such automaton was the karakuri ningyō.
[36]
Different variations of the karakuri existed: the butai karakuri, which were used in theatre,
the zashiki karakuri, which were small and used in homes, and the dashi karakuri which were used in
religious festivals, where the puppets were used to perform reenactments of traditional myths and
legends.
In France, between 1738 and 1739, Jacques de Vaucanson exhibited several automatons: a flute
player, a pipe player and a duck. The duck could flap its wings, crane its neck, swallow food from the
exhibitor's hand, and it gave the illusion of digesting its food by excreting matter stored in a hidden
compartment.[37] About 30 years later in Switzerland, Pierre Jaquet-Droz made several mechanical
figures that could write and play music. Several of these devices still exist and work.[38]
Remote-controlled systems
Remotely operated vehicles were demonstrated in the late 19th century in the form of several types
of remotely controlled torpedoes. The early 1870s saw remotely controlled torpedoes by John
Ericsson, John Louis Lay, and Victor von Scheliha.[39]
The Brennan torpedo, invented by Louis Brennan in 1877, was powered by two contra-rotating
propellers that were spun by rapidly pulling out wires from drums wound inside the torpedo.
Differential speed on the wires connected to the shore station allowed the torpedo to be guided to
its target, making it "the world's first practical guided missile".[40] In 1897 the British inventor Ernest
Wilson was granted a patent for a torpedo remotely controlled by "Hertzian" (radio) waves[41][42] and
in 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a wireless-controlled torpedo that he hoped to sell to
the US Navy.[43][44]
In 1903, the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo demonstrated a radio control system
called Telekino at the Paris Academy of Sciences,[45] which he wanted to use to control an airship of
his own design. He obtained several patents for the system in other countries.[46][47] Unlike previous
'on/off' techniques, Torres established a method for controlling any mechanical or electrical device
with different states of operation.[48] The Telekino remotely controlled a tricycle in 1904, considered
the first case of an unmanned ground vehicle, and an electric boat with a crew in 1906, which was
controlled at a distance over 2 km.[49]
Archibald Low, known as the "father of radio guidance systems" for his pioneering work on guided
rockets and planes during the First World War. In 1917, he demonstrated a remote controlled
aircraft to the Royal Flying Corps and in the same year built the first wire-guided rocket.
Early robots
In 1928, one of the first humanoid robots, Eric, was exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model
Engineers Society in London, where it delivered a speech. Invented by W. H. Richards, the robot's
frame consisted of an aluminium body of armour with eleven electromagnets and one motor
powered by a twelve-volt power source. The robot could move its hands and head and could be
controlled through remote control or voice control.[50] Both Eric and his "brother" George toured the
world.[51]
Westinghouse Electric Corporation built Televox in 1926; it was a cardboard cutout connected to
various devices which users could turn on and off. In 1939, the humanoid robot known
as Elektro was debuted at the 1939 New York World's Fair.[52][53] Seven feet tall (2.1 m) and weighing
265 pounds (120.2 kg), it could walk by voice command, speak about 700 words (using a 78-
rpm record player), smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and move its head and arms. The body
consisted of a steel gear, cam and motor skeleton covered by an aluminum skin. In 1928, Japan's
first robot, Gakutensoku, was designed and constructed by biologist Makoto Nishimura.
The German V-1 flying bomb was equipped with systems for automatic guidance and range control,
flying on a predetermined course (which could include a 90-degree turn) and entering a terminal
dive after a predetermined distance. It was reported as being a 'robot' in contemporary descriptions.
[54]
Modern autonomous robots
The first electronic autonomous robots with complex behaviour were created by William Grey
Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. He wanted to prove
that rich connections between a small number of brain cells could give rise to very
complex behaviors – essentially that the secret of how the brain worked lay in how it was wired up.
His first robots, named Elmer and Elsie, were constructed between 1948 and 1949 and were often
described as tortoises due to their shape and slow rate of movement. The three-wheeled tortoise
robots were capable of phototaxis, by which they could find their way to a recharging station when
they ran low on battery power.
Walter stressed the importance of using purely analogue electronics to simulate brain processes at a
time when his contemporaries such as Alan Turing and John von Neumann were all turning towards
a view of mental processes in terms of digital computation. His work inspired subsequent
generations of robotics researchers such as Rodney Brooks, Hans Moravec and Mark Tilden. Modern
incarnations of Walter's turtles may be found in the form of BEAM robotics.[55]
The first digitally operated and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was
ultimately called the Unimate. This ultimately laid the foundations of the modern robotics industry.
[56]
Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant
in Trenton, New Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them.[57]
The first palletizing robot was introduced in 1963 by the Fuji Yusoki Kogyo Company.[58] In 1973, a
robot with six electromechanically driven axes was patented[59][60][61] by KUKA robotics in Germany,
and the programmable universal manipulation arm was invented by Victor Scheinman in 1976, and
the design was sold to Unimation.
Commercial and industrial robots are now in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with
greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty,
dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and
packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass
production of consumer and industrial goods.[62]
Future development and trends
External videos
Atlas, The Next Generation
Further information: Robotics
Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of robotics and robots. One method
is evolutionary robotics, in which a number of differing robots are submitted to tests. Those which
perform best are used as a model to create a subsequent "generation" of robots. Another method
is developmental robotics, which tracks changes and development within a single robot in the areas
of problem-solving and other functions. Another new type of robot is just recently introduced which
acts both as a smartphone and robot and is named RoboHon.[63]
As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating
system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System (ROS) is an open-source software set of
programs being developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and
the Technical University of Munich, Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to program
a robot's navigation and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also provides high-
level commands for items like image recognition and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a
robot's computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of robots'
limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also developing a "Windows for
robots" system with its Robotics Developer Studio, which has been available since 2007.[64]
Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological
research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry.[65]
Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well beyond the
capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction.[66][67] As early as 1982 people were
confident that someday robots would:[68] 1. Clean parts by removing molding flash 2. Spray paint
automobiles with absolutely no human presence 3. Pack things in boxes—for example, orient and
nest chocolate candies in candy boxes 4. Make electrical cable harness 5. Load trucks with boxes—
a packing problem 6. Handle soft goods, such as garments and shoes 7. Shear sheep 8. Be used
as prostheses 9. Cook fast food and work in other service industries 10. Work as a household robot.
Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale.
New functionalities and prototypes
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect
recent events or newly available information. (August 2021)
In 2008, Caterpillar Inc. developed a dump truck which can drive itself without any human operator.
[69]
Many analysts believe that self-driving trucks may eventually revolutionize logistics.[70] By 2014,
Caterpillar had a self-driving dump truck which is expected to greatly change the process of mining.
In 2015, these Caterpillar trucks were actively used in mining operations in Australia by the mining
company Rio Tinto Coal Australia.[71][72][73][74] Some analysts believe that within the next few decades,
most trucks will be self-driving.[75]
A literate or 'reading robot' named Marge has intelligence that comes from software. She can read
newspapers, find and correct misspelled words, learn about banks like Barclays, and understand that
some restaurants are better places to eat than others.[76]
Baxter is a new robot introduced in 2012 which learns by guidance. A worker could teach Baxter how
to perform a task by moving its hands in the desired motion and having Baxter memorize them.
Extra dials, buttons, and controls are available on Baxter's arm for more precision and features. Any
regular worker could program Baxter and it only takes a matter of minutes, unlike usual industrial
robots that take extensive programs and coding to be used. This means Baxter needs no
programming to operate. No software engineers are needed. This also means Baxter can be taught
to perform multiple, more complicated tasks. Sawyer was added in 2015 for smaller, more precise
tasks.[77]
Prototype cooking robots have been developed and could be programmed for autonomous, dynamic
and adjustable preparation of discrete meals.[78][79]
Etymology
See also: Glossary of robotics
A scene from Karel Čapek's 1920 play R.U.R. (Rossum's
Universal Robots), showing three robots
The word robot was introduced to the public by the Czech interwar writer Karel Čapek in his
play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), published in 1920.[6] The play begins in a factory that uses a
chemical substitute for protoplasm to manufacture living, simplified people called robots. The play
does not focus in detail on the technology behind the creation of these living creatures, but in their
appearance they prefigure modern ideas of androids, creatures who can be mistaken for humans.
These mass-produced workers are depicted as efficient but emotionless, incapable of original
thinking and indifferent to self-preservation. At issue is whether the robots are being exploited and
the consequences of human dependence upon commodified labor (especially after a number of
specially-formulated robots achieve self-awareness and incite robots all around the world to rise up
against the humans).
Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in
the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother, the painter and writer Josef Čapek, as
its actual originator.[6]
In an article in the Czech journal Lidové noviny in 1933, he explained that he had originally wanted to
call the creatures laboři ('workers', from Latin labor). However, he did not like the word, and sought
advice from his brother Josef, who suggested roboti. The word robota means literally 'corvée, serf
labor', and figuratively 'drudgery, hard work' in Czech and also (more general) 'work, labor' in
many Slavic
languages (e.g.: Bulgarian, Russian, Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Slovak, Polish, Macedonian, Ukraini
an and archaic Czech) as well as robot in Hungarian. Traditionally the robota (Hungarian robot) was
the work period a serf (corvée) had to give for his lord, typically six months of the year. The origin of
the word is the Old Church Slavonic rabota 'servitude' ('work' in contemporary Bulgarian,
Macedonian and Russian), which in turn comes from the Proto-Indo-
European root *orbh-. Robot is cognate with the German Arbeit 'work'.[80][81]
English pronunciation of the word has evolved relatively quickly since its introduction. In the U.S.
during the late 1930s to early 1940s it was pronounced /ˈroʊboʊt/.[82][better source needed] By the late 1950s
to early 1960s, some were pronouncing it /ˈroʊbət/, while others used /ˈroʊbɒt/[83] By the 1970s, its
current pronunciation /ˈroʊbɒt/ had become predominant.
The word robotics, used to describe this field of study,[4] was coined by the science fiction
writer Isaac Asimov. Asimov created the Three Laws of Robotics which are a recurring theme in his
books. These have since been used by many others to define laws used in fiction. (The three laws are
pure fiction, and no technology yet created has the ability to understand or follow them, and in fact
most robots serve military purposes, which run quite contrary to the first law and often the third
law. "People think about Asimov's laws, but they were set up to point out how a simple ethical
system doesn't work. If you read the short stories, every single one is about a failure, and they are
totally impractical," said Dr. Joanna Bryson of the University of Bath.[84])