LYCEUM TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE

Lusacan, Tiaong, Quezon

Philippines 4325

A COMPREHENSIVE MODULE ON ETHICS

Br. Lenard L. Masakayan, OP

Disclaimer: This comprehensive module is prepared ad usum privatum (for private use
only). It is intended solely for the personal study and reference of the student-users. The
content herein is not an official or authoritative source of academic instruction, tenets
nor research reference and should not be relied upon as such. While every effort has been
made to ensure accuracy, the author assumes no responsibility for any errors, omissions,
or misinterpretations. Reproduction, distribution, or use of this material for
commercial purposes is strictly prohibited.

Definition – Philosophy is something how their truth values (if any) can be
obscure, weird, and idiosyncratic determined.
(Santiago, 1996). It is the systematized ▪ Normative ethics - practical means of
study of general & fundamental determining a moral course of action.
question; about existence, knowledge, ▪ Applied ethics - what a person is
values, mind, language. obligated (or permitted) to do in a
specific situation or a particular domain
Etymological definition – The term of action.
philosophy was first coined by
Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher. It came Ethics is science. A science is a
from the 2 Greek words; philos which relatively complete and systematically
means love, & sophia which means arranged body of connected data
wisdom. When compounded, its literal together with the causes or reasons by
meaning is the ‘love of wisdom’. which these data are known to be true.

Essential definition – Classically, Practical science, if the data of a

philosophy is the “search for meaning”. science directly imply rules or
But many have described philosophy as instructions for thought or actions.
the ‘science of all science’; as ‘mother of
all science’, or the “search for the Philosophy is an examination of life upon
ultimate meaning of reality”. which one will formulate a fundamental
principle as a standard for a more
Ethics is the practical science of organized ideas where human life &
the morality of human conduct. experience is based upon.

Three (3) Major Areas of Study Human conduct, means only such
▪ Meta-ethics - theoretical meaning and human activity as is deliberate and free.
reference of moral propositions, and A deliberate and free act, an act
performed with advertence and motive,
an act determined i.e., chosen and given • Voluntariness – Lt. voluntas (will),
existence by the free will, is called a an act that is voluntary must be a
human act. will-act.

ACTS OF MAN V. HUMAN ACT 3 Classifications (Ancient Greek):

Human acts are only those acts that are 1. Lovers of pleasure - seeks
proper to man as man; he is rational, that enjoyment, comfort, and the satisfaction
is to say, he has understanding and free of desires.
will. In Ethics, human acts are those acts 2. Lovers of success - often linked with
that proceed from a deliberate, i.e., ambition, pragmatism, and sometimes
advertent, knowing, and freely willing of materialism.
human person. 3. Lovers of wisdom - the most
superior of all for it pertains to the human
Man’s animal acts of sensation, i.e., use endeavor of seeking the truth for its own
of the senses and appetition, i.e., bodily [Link], attaining wisdom. Thus,
tendencies, as well as acts that man philosopher belongs to this
performs indeliberately or without classification (Agdalpen et al., 2011)
advertence and the exercise of free
choice, are called acts of man. Notion of ethics – Ethics from its Greek
word ethos means a characteristic way
Ethics is not concerned with acts of man, of doing things or body of customs.
but only with human acts. Ethics, therefore, is a practical science
which is meant teach how human ought
Thus, to live.
1. ACT OF MAN – instinctive,
involuntary and no guidance of 1. Rule
will and intellect. these are instructions that tell what we
2. HUMAN ACT – voluntary, are allowed to do & what we are not
deliberate action with guidance allowed to do (Collins Dictionary).
of will and intellect.
- Subject to moral consequence 2. Importance of Rule
and accountability. Rules are important because they tend
a. Knowledge – aware, to protect human rights & freedom
conscious, and understand especially the “weaker members” in the
your actions. society as they might be exploited if no
b. Freedom rules to shield them.
c. Voluntariness / will
The following are concrete importance of
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACT rules:
• Knowledge – a human act proceeds a. Rules organize relations between
from the deliberate will; it requires individuals;
deliberation. In ethics, deliberation b. Rules make it clear what is right to
means knowledge do/follow in a society & what are wrong
• Freedom – a human act is an act to refrain from;
determined by the will and by c. Rules provide opportunity to achieve
nothing else. An act, therefore, that personal & societal goals;
is under control of the will – freedom.
d. Rules regulate various social 4. AUTONOMOUS FROM
institutions to fulfill their integral roles for ARBITRARY AUTHORITY –
the common welfare. Independent and has our own
stand.
Ethics and Morals 5. PUBLICITY – it is open,
Moral – “mos” which means custom. transparent. The application is
Ethics – “ethos” which means character. shown in public.
Put simply morals are the customs 6. PRACTICABILITY – practical,
established by a group of individuals actionable and can be practiced.
whereas ethics defines the character of
an individual. While morals are Characteristics of Moral Standard
concerned w/ principles of good & evil, 1. Moral standard involve behavior
ethics is related to right & wrong conduct that seriously affect other
of an individual in a particular situation. people’s well-being.
2. Moral standards take a more
MORALITY important consideration than
Morality is the quality of human acts others, including self-interest.
which leads us to call some of them good 3. Moral standards do not depend
and some evil. on any external authority but in
how the person perceives the
A thing is good inasmuch as it can reasonableness of the action.
answer a tendency, appetite, desire. In 4. Moral standards are believed to
other words, it is good inasmuch as it be universal.
serves as an end of such tendency. 5. Moral standards are based on
objectivity.
Now in the matter of human acts – where 6. Moral standards are associated
moral good or evil is the point in question with vocabulary that depicts
– there is always a last end towards emotion or feelings.
which the action tends.
MORAL DILEMMA – is a situation where:
Subjectively, the end of human acts is 1. There are two or more actions
happiness – it follows that human acts that you can possibly do.
are good inasmuch as they serve to carry 2. There is a moral reason(s) for
the agent on towards the attainment of doing such actions.
this end, and not good, or evil, inasmuch 3. You cannot do all the possible
as they fail to lead towards the end, or actions presented to you. You
even lead away from it. only need to choose one.

Characteristics of Moral Principle Three (3) Levels of Moral Dillema

1. PRESCRIPTIVITY – the guiding • Personal Moral Dilemma – when
nature of ethics. Prescribes and your decision in a situation where
gives commands. there is a moral conflict is the
2. IMPARTIALITY – there is no bias, cause of either your own; that of
it’s for all/ neutral. another person; or a group of
3. OVERRIDINGNESS – you can persons potential harm.
override other norms/ rules. (personal problem)
 • Organizational Moral Dilemma – In the United States, most case of
when a member or members of anencephaly are detected during
the organization is in a situation pregnancy and aborted. Of those not
where there is moral conflict, and aborted, half are still born. About 300
the decision will potentially harm each year are born alive, and they usually
either some members of the die within a few days.
group or the entire organization
itself. (members of the Baby Theresa’s story would not be
institution is in conflict) remarkable except for an unusual
request made by her parents. Knowing
• Stuctural Moral Dilemma – that their baby could not live long and
when a person or group of that, even if she could survive, she would
persons who holds high level never have a conscious life. Baby
positions in the society faces a Theresa’s parents volunteered her
morally conflicting situation organs for transplant.
where in the entire social system
is affected. (dilemma within a But Baby Theresa’s organs were not
system) taken, because Florida law does not
allow the removal of organs until the
Moral Standards v. Non-Moral donor is dead.
Standards
Moral standards deal with matters, By the time Baby Theresa dies, nine days
which can seriously injure or seriously later, it was too late for other children –
benefit human beings while it is not the her organs could not be transplanted
case with non-moral standards. because they had deteriorated too
Etiquette and law, which we use to much.
measure morality, are non-moral
standards. The legitimacy of moral OPINIONS WERE DIVIDED
standards depends on the quality of the “It just seems too horrifying to use
reasoning used to support and defend people as means to other people’s
them. Even if it conflicts with other ideals ends…”
or self-interest, a person must do what is
morally right. “It is unethical to kill in order to save. It’s
unethical to kill person A to save person
Meanwhile, non-moral standards refer B.”
to rules that are unrelated to moral or
ethical considerations. Etiquette, “What the parents are really asking for is:
fashion, gaming, and house rules are Kill this dying baby so that its organs may
examples of NMS. be used for someone else. Well, that’s
really a horrendous proposition.”
BABY THERESA CASE
Theresa Ann Campo Pearson, an CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACTS
anencephalic infant known to the public Human acts may be classified under the
as “Baby Theresa,” was born in Florida in following heads: i. their complete or
1992 – “a baby without a brain” adequate cause; and ii. their relation to
the dictates of reason.
The Adequate Reason – While all E. Use: the employment by the will of
human acts have their source in man’s powers (of body, mind or both) to carry
free rational nature, there are some acts out its intention by the means elected.
that begin and perfected in the will itself, F. Fruition: the enjoyment of a thing
and the rest begin in the will and are willed and done; the will’s acts of
perfected by other faculties under satisfaction in intention fulfilled.
control of the will.
COMMANDED ACTS
Thus, some human acts find their A. Internal Acts the acts done by
adequate cause in the will alone; and internal mental powers under the
these are called elicited acts. command of the will. Examples: effort to
remember; conscious reasoning;
Other human acts do not find their nerving oneself to meet an issue; effort
adequate cause in the simple will-act, to control anger; deliberate use of the
but are perfected by the action of mental imagination in visualizing a scene.
or bodily powers under the control of the
will, or, so to speak, under orders from B. External Acts the acts effected by
the will; and these acts are called bodily powers under the command of the
commanded acts. will. Examples: deliberate walking,
eating, writing. Such acts are often acts
ELICITED ACTS of man, but they become human acts
A. Wish: the simple desire of anything; when done with advertence.
the first tendency of the will towards a
thing, whether this thing be realizable or C. Mixed Acts the acts that involve the
not. Every human act begins with the employment of bodily powers and
wish to act. mental powers. Example: study, which
involves use of intellect, and use of eyes
B. Intention: the purposive tendency of in reading the lesson.
the will towards a thing regarded as
realizable, whether the thing is actually THE RELATION OF HUMAN ACTS TO
done or not. Intention is distinguished as REASON
actual, virtual, habitual, and Human Acts are either in
interpretative intention. agreement or disagreement with the
dictates of reason, and this relation with
C. Consent: the acceptance by the will reason constitutes their morality. On the
of the means necessary to carry out score of their morality, or relation to
intention. Consent is further intention reason, human acts are: Good – when
of doing what is necessary to realize the they are in harmony with the dictates of
first or main intention. Here we see reason; Evil, when they are in
justified ancient saying: “He that wills opposition; Indifferent, when they stand
(intends) a thing, wills (consents to) the in no positive relation to the dictates of
means required to accomplish it.” reason.

D. Election: the selection by the will of THE MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS

the precise means to be employed By the modifiers of human acts
(consented to) in carrying out intention. we mean the things that may affect
human acts in the essential qualities of
knowledge, freedom, voluntariness, and limit, but unknowingly violates it
so make them less human. because of an inaccurate speedometer.

Such modifiers lessen the moral 3. Ignorance of Penalty is lack of

character of the human act, and knowledge of the precise sanction, (i.e.,
consequently diminish the an inducement sufficient to make
responsibility of the agent. reasonable men obey the law) affixed to
IGNORANCE – is the absence of the law. Example: A motorist knowingly
knowledge – and, may be defined as the violates the speed-law, not knowing that,
absence of intellectual knowledge in in that particular locality, the set
man. Ignorance is thus a negation of punishment for such an offense is a
knowledge; it is a negative thing. But short prison term, in lieu of which no
when it is absence of knowledge that amount of money will be accepted.
ought to be present, it is privative.
Ignorance in its Subject – In the person
Ignorance has, indeed, a positive aspect in whom it exists, ignorance (of law, fact,
when it consists not merely in the or penalty) is either vincible or invincible.
absence of knowledge, but in the
presence of what is supposed to be 1. Vincible Ignorance is
knowledge. ignorance that can be dispelled by the
use of ordinary dilifence (i.e.,
Thus, conquerable ignorance; ignorance that
if I see a stranger in the street, and can and should be supplanted by
realize that I do not know him, my knowledge) – degrees: if it be the result of
ignorance of his identity is merely total or nearly total, lack of effort to
negative. But if I am misled by poor dispel it, it is called crass (or supine)
eyesight or by a resemblance in the ignorance; if some effort worthy the
stranger, and judge him to be well-known name, but not preserving and whole-
acquaintance, my state of mind is hearted effort, be unsuccessfully
positive. employed to dispel it, the ignorance is
simply vincible.
THREE CATEGORIES OF IGNORANCE
Ignorance in its Object – the thing of 2. Invincible Ignorance is
which a person may be ignorant is a ignorance that ordinary and proper
matter of, law, fact, or penalty. diligence cannot dispel. This sort of
ignorance is attributable to one of two
1. Ignorance of Law is the causes, viz.: either the the person whom
ignorance of the existence of a duty, rule the ignorance exists has no realization
or regulation. Example: A motorist drives whatever of his lack of knowledge, or the
at the rate of forty miles an hour, not person who realizes his ignorance finds
knowing that the local speed-limit is ineffective his effort to dispel it. Hence,
twenty miles an hour. invincible ignorance is never the fault of
the person, in whom it exists, and it is
2. Ignorance of the Fact is inculpable ignorance – degrees:
ignorance of the nature or physically invincible, no human effort
circumstances of an act as forbidden. can dispel it.
Example: A motorist knowns the speed-
If such effort, as good and prudent men perform an which is against his will.
would expend to dispel it – taking into Violence cannot reach the will directly.
account the character and importance
of the matter about which ignorance HABIT – in Ethics, habit is understood as
exists – is found to be ineffective, the operative habit which is lasting
ignorance is called morally invincible. readiness and facility, born of frequently
Ignorance in its results. – Here we repeated acts, for acting in a certain
consider ignorance (of fact, law, or manner.
penalty) with reference to acts
performed while ignorance exists. THE ENDS OF HUMAN ACTS
a)Antecedent Ignorance is the Definition of End – An end is both a
which precedes all consent of the will. termination and a goal. In other words,
an end is that which completes or
b)Concomitant Ignorance is the finishes a thing, and it is that for which
ignorance which, so to speak, the thing is finished. By end we mean the
accompanies an act that would have end of an activity.
been performed even if the ignorance did
not exist. We do not speak of end in the sense of
boundary, or edge, or rim, or side of a
c)Consequent Ignorance is that bodily object, but as the termination and
which follows upon an act of the will. The goal of activity.
will may directly affect it, or supinely
neglect to dispel it. Thus, consequent Classification of Ends – Here we
ignorance does not differ from vincible distinguish:
ignorance. i. The end of the act, and the end of the
agent;
PASSION – is often used to signify the ii. Proximate and Remote ends;
frailty, or proneness to evil; here means iii. Intermediate ends.
those bodily appetites or tendencies
which are called the passions, and which i. The end of the act is the end toward
are enumerated as follows: love, hatred; which the act of its own nature ends.
joy, grief; desire, aversion or horror; hope, Thus, the act of giving food and shelter to
despair; courage or daring, fear; and destitute persons tends of its nature
anger. toward the relief of distress, and we say
that the relief of distress is the end of the
FEAR – is one of the passions; it is act.
specially mentioned because it is a very
common passion – induces the will to do The end of the agent is the end which the
what it would not do otherwise. Fear is agent inteds to achieve by his act. Thus,
the shrinking back of the mind from the act of giving food and shelter to
danger. It does not excuse an evil act destitute may be performed by the agent
which springs from it. to increase his merit before God, or as an
act of impetration to obtain a grace or
VIOLENCE – violence or coaction is favor, or as a personal preferred act.
external force applied by a free cause
(i.e., by a cause with free will; by man) for In Ethics, it usually means the end of the
the purpose of compelling a person to agent when we speak of end.
 must be a single object. [Men may set
ii. The proximate end is the end various ends as ultimate by perverse
intended as the immediate outcome of judgment: man inevitably tends to
an act. The remote end is that which the illimitable good.]
agent wishes to achieve later on, and
toward the attainment of which he To sum up: the objective
employs the present act as a means. ultimate end of human act is the
crowning and perfect fulfillment of
iii. An end whether proximate or remote, rational desire; it is the limitless good.
is willed either for its own sake or as a
means to an end more remote. If it is The Subjective Ultimate End
willed for its own sake, it is a last or The name subjective is given to
ultimate end, and if it is willed as a this end to indicate its possession by a
means to a further end, it is an subject, that is, by the person who has it
intermediate end. or strives to have it. The difficulty is this:
man, acting in a human manner, is
The Ultimate End of Human Acts seldom conscious of the fact that he is
The Objective Ultimate End acting for happiness.
The Subjective Ultimate End
“Man’s act are performed for
The Objective Ultimate End happiness.”
A human act is a deliberate and
knowing act; it is an act performed by the Now we must consider: i. Kinds of
knowing agent who wills to perform it – happiness; ii. the nature of man’s desire
because he has a motive, a reason, a for happiness; iii. The manner in which
final cause sufficiently attractive to happiness is to be possessed.
induce him to perform it.
Kinds of Happiness
This reason, motive or final cause Happiness is natural when it
amounts to this: it appears good to the comes of man’s possession of that
agent to perform the act and attain its which he finds achievable by his unaided
end. natural powers, or which is not beyond
the reach of his nature.
Human act are always done for an
end apprehended as good, and as the Happines is supernatural when it
greater good when there is question of consists in the possession of that which
sacrificing one thing in view of another. is of a value surpassing all that natural
powers can achieve unaided.
We may define the objective end,
the possession of which will give The Nature of Man’s Desire for
perfect happiness to man by Happiness
completely filling up his capacity for Man’s desire for limitless good,
desire, and leaving nothing and consequently for perfect happiness,
unpossessed toward which man is not illusory; it is not a deceitful and
could, by any possibility, continue to vain desire. It is a desire capable of
tend as towards an end. This absolutely fulfillment; realizable.
ultimately objective end must be one,
The Manner in which Happiness is to o Rule: Follow general rules
be Possessed that maximize happiness
Man’s absolutely ultimate in the long run.
subjective end is the act of perfect
happiness. Powers or faculties are that
by which action is accomplished; the act Virtue Ethics
is the crowning fact, the perfection of • Character-Centered – Focuses
faculty. on the moral agent’s character
rather than rules or
Now, how is the act of happiness to be consequences.
exercised? Man has the following • Virtues – Good
faculties: the senses, intellect, will. The habits/dispositions (e.g.,
senses are not man’s highest faculties, courage, honesty, temperance)
but serve the intellect during bodily life. that enable human flourishing.
• Golden Mean (Aristotle) – Virtue
Hence, the essential act of is the balance between extremes
happiness is not an act of sensation. (e.g., courage = between
Nor is it an act of will – the ultimate act cowardice & recklessness).
of perfectness is an act of speculative • Eudaimonia – The ultimate goal
intellect; it is an act of contemplation is flourishing or living a fulfilling,
of the limitless good. excellent life.
• Moral Development – Virtues are
SOME ETHICAL THEORIES: cultivated through practice,
habituation, and role models.
Utilitarianism • Practical Wisdom (Phronesis) –
• Principle of Utility – Actions are The ability to discern the right
right if they maximize action in concrete situations.
happiness/pleasure and • Relational & Contextual –
minimize pain/suffering. Morality is not one-size-fits-all;
• Consequentialist – The morality context and community shape
of an action depends on virtues.
outcomes, not intentions.
• Greatest Happiness Principle – Divine-Command Theory
Choose the action that promotes • God-Centered Morality – Moral
the greatest good for the greatest rightness and wrongness are
number. determined by God’s
• Impartiality – Everyone’s commands.
happiness counts equally; no • Obligation – An action is morally
one’s well-being is prioritized obligatory if God commands it;
above others. forbidden if God prohibits it.
• Hedonic Calculus (Bentham) – • Dependence on Divine Will –
Happiness can be Morality is not independent but
weighed/measured based on grounded in God’s authority.
intensity, duration, certainty, etc. • Faith & Obedience – Moral duty
• Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism – flows from obedience to God
o Act: Judge each action by and His revealed law (scripture,
its direct consequences. tradition, revelation).
 • Universality – God’s commands centered motives to universal
apply to all human beings. ethical principles.
• The Euthyphro Dilemma – • Stage progression is sequential –
Classic challenge: Is something no skipping; each stage builds on
good because God commands it, the previous one.
or does God command it because
it is good?
• Strength – Provides an absolute, • Focus shifts:
objective standard for morality. 1. Pre-Conventional – morality =
• Criticism – Raises concerns avoiding punishment, seeking
about arbitrariness (if morality is reward.
solely based on divine will). 2. Conventional – morality =
conforming to social norms and
Deontology (Kantian Ethics) laws.
3. Post-Conventional – morality =
• Duty-Centered – Morality is guided by social contracts and
based on following moral universal principles.
duties, rules, and principles,
not on consequences. Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
• Categorical Imperative (Kant) – (self-interest focus)
Act only according to maxims you • Stage 1: Obedience and
could will to be universal laws. Punishment Orientation
• Respect for Persons – Treat o Right = avoiding
humanity, whether in yourself or punishment.
others, always as an end in itself, o Authority is obeyed to
never merely as a means. avoid negative
• Autonomy & Reason – Moral consequences.
agents, through reason, freely • Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist
recognize and bind themselves to Orientation
moral law. o Right = serving one’s
• Intrinsic Rightness/Wrongness needs ("what’s in it for
– Some actions are right or wrong me?").
in themselves, regardless of o Reciprocity understood as
outcomes. equal exchange.
• Universalizability – A moral rule
is valid if it can be applied Level 2: Conventional Morality (social
consistently to everyone. approval focus)
• Moral Duty vs. Inclination – True • Stage 3: Good Boy–Nice Girl
morality comes from acting out of Orientation
duty, not out of self-interest or o Right = actions that gain
desire. approval or please others.
o Conformity to
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral expectations of family,
Development peers, community.
• Moral reasoning develops • Stage 4: Law-and-Order
through stages, moving from self- Orientation
 o Right = fulfilling duties and and all our actions are geared towards
upholding laws. satisfying these interests.
o Importance of authority,
social order, and Ethical egoism -differs from
maintaining rules. psychological egoism in that it does not
suppose all our actions are already
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality inevitably self-serving. Instead, ethical
(principle focus) egoism prescribes that we should make
• Stage 5: Social Contract our own ends, our own interests, as the
Orientation single overriding concern.
o Right = based on social
contracts, human rights,
and the greater good.
o Laws can be changed if
they fail to promote
justice.
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical
Principles Orientation
o Right = following self-
chosen ethical principles
(justice, dignity, equality).
o Moral reasoning guided by
conscience and universal
values.

Addenda:
Feminist Ethics - Right and wrong is to
be found in women’s responses to the
relationship of caring.

Moral Subjectivism - Right and wrong

is determined by what you – the
subject -- just happens to think (or
'feel') is right or wrong.

Psychological Egoism - “Human

beings are naturally self-centered, so
all our actions are always already
motivated by the self-interest.” is a
theory that describes the underlying
dynamic behind all human actions. As a
descriptive theory, it does not direct one
to act in any particular way. Instead, it
points out that there is already an
underlying basis for how one acts. The
ego or self has its desires and interests,
CULTURE The concept of cultural relativism also
Exposure to diverse societies and means that any opinion on ethics is
cultures exposes us to diverse ways of subject to the perspective of each
thinking and valuing, leading to cultural person within their particular culture.
relativism. This perspective suggests
that ethically acceptable actions are Overall, there is no right or wrong ethical
dependent on one's culture, which is system. In a holistic understanding of the
appealing as it aligns with reality. term cultural relativism, it tries to
promote the understanding of cultural
Second, by taking one’s culture as the practices that are unfamiliar to other
standard, we are provided for the basis of cultures such a seating insects,
our valuations. genocides or genital cutting.

Third, this teaches us to be tolerant of DR. JAMES RACHELS

others from different cultures, as we
realize that we are in no position to judge 1. Different societies have different
whether the ethical thought or practice moral codes.
of another culture is acceptable or 2. The moral code of a society
unacceptable. Our culture's moral code determined what is right and
is neither superior nor inferior, but it wrong.
provides us with appropriate and 3. There are no universal truths.
applicable standards. 4. The moral code of a particular
society has no special status.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM - is the ability to 5. It is arrogant for one culture to
understand a culture on its own terms
judge another culture.
and not to make judgments using the
standards of one’s own culture. The goal ADVANTAGES AND DANGERS OF
of this is promote understanding of CULTURAL RELATIVISM
cultural practices that are not typically Advantage:
part of one’s own culture.
1. It warns us from assuming that
Using the perspective of cultural our preferences are the absolute
relativism leads to the view that no one rational standard.
culture is superior than another culture 2. It teaches us to keep an open
when compared to systems of morality, mind and to be more amendable
law, politics, etc. in discovering the truth.
Danger:
It is a concept that cultural norms and
values derive their meaning within a 1. We cannot call out societal
specific social context. practices that promote harm.
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our
This is also based on the idea that there
won culture’s harmful practices.
is no absolute standard of good or evil,
3. The idea of societal progress
therefore every decision and judgment of
what is right and wrong is individually become doubtful.
decided in each society.
 leaving our families to work
abroad.
THERE ARE TWO DIFFERENT 8. The political environment –
CATEGORIESOF CULTURAL political power is mainly in the
RELATIVISM: hands of the elite and the
absence of a string government
Absolute: Everything that happens presence enhanced the Filipino’s
within a culture must and should not be already extreme family
questioned by outsiders. The extreme centeredness.
example of absolute cultural relativism 9. Mass media – rads, music ect.,
would be the Nazi party’s point of view were greatly based on American
justifying the Holocaust. pop culture. Superiority of
imported brand.
Critical: Creates questions about 10. Leadership and role models –
cultural practices in terms of who is any person with authority Is
accepting them and why. Critical cultural looked up to.
relativism also recognizes power
relationships. STRENGTH OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER
QUALITIES OF THE FILIPINO MORAL 1. Pakikipagkapwa-Tao –
IDENTITY helpfulness and generosity.
2. Family Orientation – genuine
DR. PATRICIA B. LICUANAN – wrote that love for family.
the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino 3. Joy and Humor – cheerful and fun
character are rooted in factors such as: loving.
1. The home environment – taught 4. Flexibility, Adaptability and
to value family and give it primary Creativity. – we can improve and
importance. make use of whatever is at hand
2. The social environment - to create and produce.
depending on one another to 5. Hard work and Industry –
survive. willingness to take risks and work
3. Culture and language – depict in other countries.
openness to foreign elements 6. Faith and Religiosity – bahala na
with no basic consciousness of mindset.
our cultural core. 7. Ability to Survive – “matutong
4. History – the culprit behind our mamulukot habang maikli ang
colonial mentality kumot.” We endure, make do, and
5. The educational system – get by on so little while looking
instrumental in molding the forward to the coming of better
strengths and weaknesses of the days.
Filipino character.
6. Religion – taught us optimism WEAKNESS OF THE FILIPINO
and resilience. CHARACTER
7. The economic environment – 1. Extreme Personalism – led to
hard life drove Filipinos to work prevalence of graft and
hard and take risks, such as corruption in the country.
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness –
concern for the rest of the
community and for the common
good is less important.
3. Lack of Discipline - “ningas
cogon”
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative –
reliance on others.
5. Colonial Mentality – general
feelings of inferiority.
6. Kanya-kanya syndrome –
personal and in-group interest are
supreme and the drive to fulfill
these interests is completely
intensive to the common good.
7. Lack of Self-Analysic and Self-
Reflection – madaling
makalimot. We easily forget the
mistakes we made.