Chapter 34 Ray Optics

Our everyday experience

that light travels in straight
lines is the basis of the ray
model of light. Ray optics
apply to a variety of
situations, including mirrors,
lenses, and shiny spoons.
Chapter Goal: To
understand and apply the ray
model of light.
 Ray Approximation
• The rays are lines
perpendicular to the
wave fronts, i.e., the
lines of Poynting
vectors
• With the ray
approximation, we
forget about vectors E
and B and focus on
the direction of the
energy transport
The Diffraction of Light by a Circular Opening
The Wave and Ray Models of Light

 When light passes through

an opening of size a, the
angle of the first diffraction
minimum is

 Light waves, because of their

very short wavelength, almost
always have λ/a << 1 and
diffract to produce a slowly
spreading “beam” of light.
The Wave and Ray Models of Light
The Wave and Ray Models of Light
 Light passes through a hole of diameter D.
 If the spreading due to diffraction is less than the size of
the opening, use the ray model and think of light as
traveling in straight lines.
 If the spreading due to diffraction is greater than the size
of the opening, use the wave model of light.
 The crossover point between the two regimes occurs
when the central-maximum width of a circular-aperture
diffraction pattern is equal to the size of the opening:

 For visible light with λ ≈ 500 nm, and a typical laboratory

distance of L ≈ 1 m, Dc ≈ 1 mm.
 Ray Approximation
• If a wave meets a
barrier, we will
assume that λ<<d
– d is the diameter of the
opening
• This approximation is
good for the study of
mirrors, lenses,
prisms, etc.
The Ray Model of Light

 Let us define a light ray as a line in the direction along

which light energy is flowing.
 Any narrow beam of light, such as a laser beam, is
actually a bundle of many parallel light rays.
 You can think of a single light ray as the limiting case
of a laser beam whose diameter approaches zero.
Camera Obscura
 Ray Approximation
• If a wave meets a
barrier, we will
assume that λ<<d
– d is the diameter of the
opening
• This approximation is
good for the study of
mirrors, lenses,
prisms, etc.
Specular Reflection of Light

 Reflection from a flat, smooth surface, such as a

mirror or a piece of polished metal, is called specular
reflection.
Reflection

 The law of reflection states that

1. The incident ray and the reflected ray are in the same
plane normal to the surface, and
2. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence:
θr = θi
The Plane Mirror
 Consider P, a source of rays that reflect from a mirror.
 The reflected rays appear to emanate from P′, the same
distance behind the mirror as P is in front of the mirror.
 That is, s′ = s
The Plane Mirror
 Reflection

 The law of reflection states that

1. The incident ray and the reflected ray are in the same
plane normal to the surface, and
2. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence:
θr = θi

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 34-18

 Example 34.1 Light Reflecting from a Mirror

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 34-19

 Example 34.1 Light Reflecting from a Mirror

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 34-20

 Example 34.1 Light Reflecting from a Mirror

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 34-21

 Example 34.1 Light Reflecting from a Mirror

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 34-22

 Diffuse Reflection

 Most objects are seen by virtue of their reflected light.

 For a “rough” surface, the law of reflection is obeyed
at each point but the irregularities of the surface cause
the reflected rays to leave in many random directions.
 This situation is called
diffuse reflection.
 It is how you see this
slide, the wall, your
hand, your friend, and
so on.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 34-23

Refraction
 Two things happen when a light ray is incident on a
smooth boundary between two transparent materials:
1. Part of the light reflects
from the boundary,
obeying the law of
reflection.
2. Part of the light continues
into the second medium.
The transmission of light
from one medium to
another, but with a change
in direction, is called
refraction.
Refraction
Refraction
Refraction
 The figure shows a wave crossing the boundary between two
media, where we’re assuming n2 > n1.
 Because the wavelengths differ on opposite sides of the
boundary, the wave fronts can stay lined up only if the waves
in the two media are traveling in different directions.
Example 34.4 Measuring the Index of Refraction
Example 34.4 Measuring the Index of Refraction
Example 34.4 Measuring the Index of Refraction
Total Internal Reflection
 When a ray crosses a boundary into a material with a lower
index of refraction, it bends away from the normal.
 As the angle θ1 increases, the refraction angle θ2 approaches
90º, and the fraction of the light energy transmitted decreases
while the fraction reflected increases.
 The critical angle of incidence
occurs when θ2 = 90º:

 The refracted light vanishes

at the critical angle and the
reflection becomes 100% for
any angle θ1 > θc.
Total Internal Reflection
QuickCheck 34.5

A laser beam undergoes two

refractions plus total internal
reflection at the interface
between medium 2 and
medium 3. Which is true?

A. n1 < n3
B. n1 > n3
C. There’s not enough
information to
compare n1 and n3.
QuickCheck 34.5

A laser beam undergoes two

refractions plus total internal
reflection at the interface
between medium 2 and
medium 3. Which is true?

A. n1 < n3
B. n1 > n3
C. There’s not enough
information to
compare n1 and n3.
Fiber Optics
 The most important modern application of total internal
reflection (TIR) is optical fibers.
 Light rays enter the glass fiber, then impinge on the
inside wall of the glass at an angle above the critical
angle, so they undergo TIR and remain inside the glass.
 The light continues to “bounce” its way down the tube as
if it were inside a pipe.
Fiber Optics

 In a practical optical fiber, a small-diameter glass core

is surrounded by a layer of glass cladding.
 The glasses used for the core and the cladding have
ncore > ncladding
 EXAMPLE : total internal reflection
A light ray (red) enters a concentrically cladded optical fiber at its
center and an angle of 29.0° to the axis of the fiber. The diameter
of the fiber is 1.0 mm and its refractive index is nf = 1.35. What
must be the value of ncladding to guarantee total internal reflection?
(nair = 1.00)
Objects

 Objects can be
either self-luminous,
such as the sun,
flames, and
lightbulbs, or
reflective.
 Most objects are
reflective.
Objects

 The diverging rays from a point source are emitted in

all directions.
 Each point on an object is a point source of light rays.
 A parallel bundle of rays could be a laser beam or
light from a distant object.
Ray Diagrams

 Rays originate from every point on an object and

travel outward in all directions, but a diagram trying to
show all these rays would be messy and confusing.
 To simplify the picture, we use a ray diagram showing
only a few rays.
Apertures

 A camera obscura is a
darkened room with a
single, small hole,
called an aperture.
 The geometry of the
rays causes the image
to be upside down.
 The object and image
heights are related by
Apertures

 We can apply the ray model to more complex apertures,

such as the L-shaped aperture below.
QuickCheck 34.1

The dark screen has a small

hole, ≈2 mm in diameter. The
lightbulb is the only source of
light. What do you see on the
viewing screen?
QuickCheck 34.1

The dark screen has a small

hole, ≈2 mm in diameter. The
lightbulb is the only source of
light. What do you see on the
viewing screen?
Image Formation by Refraction

 If you see a fish that

appears to be
swimming close to the
front window of the
aquarium, but then look
through the side of the
aquarium, you’ll find
that the fish is actually
farther from the window
than you thought.
Image Formation by Refraction
 Rays emerge from a
material with n1 > n2.
 Consider only paraxial
rays, for which θ1 and θ2
are quite small.
 In this case:

where s is the object

distance and s′ is the
image distance.
 The minus sign tells us that
we have a virtual image.
QuickCheck 34.6
A fish in an aquarium with flat sides looks out at a hungry
cat. To the fish, the distance to the cat appears to be

A. Less than the actual distance.

B. Equal to the actual distance.
C. More than the actual distance.
QuickCheck 34.6
A fish in an aquarium with flat sides looks out at a hungry
cat. To the fish, the distance to the cat appears to be

A. Less than the actual distance.

B. Equal to the actual distance.
C. More than the actual distance.
Lens = Optics
Lenses

 The photos below show parallel light rays entering two

different lenses.
 The left lens, called a converging lens, causes the
rays to refract toward the optical axis.
 The right lens, called a diverging lens, refracts
parallel rays away from the optical axis.
 Wavefront transformation at the
interface
Spherical interface converts plane wave into the spherical one

n1
n2>n1

The wavefront bends on the interface

because the speed of light on the right
side of the interface is less than on its left side.
The wave in the left medium passes distance during the same time as it passes
in the right medium
Converging Lenses

 A converging lens is
thicker in the center
than at the edges.
 The focal length f is the
distance from the lens
at which rays parallel to
the optical axis
converge.
 The focal length is a
property of the lens,
independent of how the
lens is used.
Diverging Lenses

 A diverging lens is
thicker at the edges
than in the center.
 The focal length f is the
distance from the lens
at which rays parallel to
the optical axis appear
to diverge.
 The focal length is a
property of the lens,
independent of how the
lens is used.
QuickCheck 34.7

You can use the sun’s rays and a lens to start a

fire. To do so, you should use

A. A converging lens.
B. A diverging lens.
C. Either a converging or a diverging lens will
work if you use it correctly.
QuickCheck 34.7

You can use the sun’s rays and a lens to start a

fire. To do so, you should use

A. A converging lens.
B. A diverging lens.
C. Either a converging or a diverging lens will
work if you use it correctly.
Thin Lenses: Ray Tracing

 Three situations form

the basis for ray
tracing through a thin
converging lens.
 Situation 1:
A ray initially parallel
to the optic axis will
go through the far
focal point after
passing through the
lens.
Thin Lenses: Ray Tracing

 Three situations form

the basis for ray
tracing through a thin
converging lens.
 Situation 2:
A ray through the near
focal point of a thin
lens becomes parallel
to the optic axis after
passing through the
lens.
Thin Lenses: Ray Tracing

 Three situations form

the basis for ray
tracing through a thin
converging lens.
 Situation 3:
A ray through the
center of a thin lens is
neither bent nor
displaced but travels
in a straight line.
Thin Lenses: Ray Tracing
 Rays from an object point P are refracted by the lens and
converge to a real image at point P′.
QuickCheck 34.8
A lens produces a sharply
focused, inverted image on a
screen. What will you see on the
screen if the lens is removed?

A. An inverted but blurry

image
B. An image that is dimmer
but otherwise unchanged
C. A sharp, upright image
D. A blurry, upright image
E. No image at all
QuickCheck 34.8
A lens produces a sharply
focused, inverted image on a
screen. What will you see on the
screen if the lens is removed?

A. An inverted but blurry

image
B. An image that is dimmer
but otherwise unchanged
C. A sharp, upright image
D. A blurry, upright image
E. No image at all
Lateral Magnification
 The image can be either larger or smaller than the
object, depending on the location and focal length of
the lens.
 The lateral magnification m is defined as

 A positive value of m indicates that the image is

upright relative to the object.
 A negative value of m indicates that the image is
inverted relative to the object.
 The absolute value of m gives the size ratio of the
image and object: h′/h = |m|
Lateral Magnification
 The image can be either larger or smaller than the
object, depending on the location and focal length of
the lens.
 The lateral magnification m is defined as

 A positive value of m indicates that the image is

upright relative to the object.
 A negative value of m indicates that the image is
inverted relative to the object.
 The absolute value of m gives the size ratio of the
image and object: h′/h = |m|
Virtual Images

 Consider a converging
lens for which the object
is inside the focal point,
at distance s < f.
 You can see all three
rays appear to diverge
from point P′.
 Point P′ is an upright,
virtual image of the
object point P.
Virtual Images

 You can see a virtual

image by looking
through the lens.
 This is exactly what you
do with a magnifying
glass, microscope, or
binoculars.
Example 34.8 Magnifying a Flower
Example 34.8 Magnifying a Flower
Example 34.8 Magnifying a Flower
Thin Lenses: Ray Tracing

 Three situations form the

basis for ray tracing
through a thin diverging
lens.
 Situation 1:
A ray initially parallel to
the optic axis will appear
to diverge from the near
focal point after passing
through the lens.
Thin Lenses: Ray Tracing

 Three situations form

the basis for ray
tracing through a thin
diverging lens.
 Situation 2:
A ray directed along a
line toward the far
focal point becomes
parallel to the optic
axis after passing
through the lens.
Thin Lenses: Ray Tracing

 Three situations form

the basis for ray
tracing through a thin
diverging lens.
 Situation 3:
A ray through the
center of a thin lens is
neither bent nor
displaced but travels in
a straight line.
QuickCheck 34.13

Light rays are converging to

point 1. The lens is inserted into
the rays with its focal point at
point 1. Which picture shows
the rays leaving the lens?
QuickCheck 34.13

Light rays are converging to

point 1. The lens is inserted into
the rays with its focal point at
point 1. Which picture shows
the rays leaving the lens?
Example 34.9 Demagnifying a Flower
Example 34.9 Demagnifying a Flower
Example 34.9 Demagnifying a Flower
Image Formation with Concave Spherical Mirrors

 The figure shows a

concave mirror, a
mirror in which the
edges curve toward
the light source.
 Rays parallel to the
optical axis reflect and
pass through the focal
point of the mirror.
A Real Image Formed by a Concave Mirror
Image Formation with Convex Spherical Mirrors

 The figure shows parallel

light rays approaching a
mirror in which the edges
curve away from the light
source.
 This is called a convex
mirror.
 The reflected rays appear
to come from a point
behind the mirror.
A Virtual Image Formed by a Convex Mirror
The Mirror Equation

 For a spherical mirror with negligible thickness, the

object and image distances are related by:

where the focal

length f is related
to the mirror’s
radius of
curvature by:
QuickCheck 34.15

You see an upright, magnified image of your face

when you look into magnifying “cosmetic mirror.”
The image is located

A. In front of the mirror’s surface.

B. On the mirror’s surface.
C. Behind the mirror’s surface.
D. Only in your mind because it’s a virtual image.
QuickCheck 34.15

You see an upright, magnified image of your face

when you look into magnifying “cosmetic mirror.”
The image is located

A. In front of the mirror’s surface.

B. On the mirror’s surface.
C. Behind the mirror’s surface.
D. Only in your mind because it’s a virtual image.
Example 34.16 Analyzing a Concave Mirror
Example 34.16 Analyzing a Concave Mirror
Example 34.16 Analyzing a Concave Mirror
Example 34.16 Analyzing a Concave Mirror
Refraction Theory

 Consider a spherical boundary between two

transparent media with indices of refraction n1 and n2.
 The sphere has radius of curvature R and is centered
at point C.
Refraction Theory

 If an object is located at distance s from a spherical

refracting surface, an image will be formed at distance
s′ given by
Lenses
 In an actual lens, rays refract twice, at spherical surfaces
having radii of curvature R1 and R2.
The Thin Lens Equation

 The object distance s is related to the image distance

s′ by

where f is the focal length of the lens, which can be

found from

where R1 is the radius of curvature of the first surface,

and R2 is the radius of curvature of the second surface,
and the material surrounding the lens has n = 1.
QuickCheck 34.14

A lens creates an image as

shown. In this situation,

A. s<f
B. f < s < 2f
C. s > 2f
D. There’s not enough information
to compare s to f.
QuickCheck 34.14

A lens creates an image as

shown. In this situation,

A. s<f
B. f < s < 2f
C. s > 2f
D. There’s not enough information
to compare s to f.
The image is real, which requires s > f.
The image is taller than the object, and
s′ > s requires s < 2f.
 Types of Lenses
Lens nomenclature

Which type of lens to use (and how to orient it) depends on the
aberrations and application.
Example 34.12 Focal Length of a Meniscus Lens
Example 34.12 Focal Length of a Meniscus Lens
Example 34.14 A Magnifying Lens
Example 34.14 A Magnifying Lens
Lenses in Combination

 The analysis of multi-lens systems requires only one new

rule: The image of the first lens acts as the object for
the second lens.
 Below is a ray-tracing diagram of a simple astronomical
telescope.
The Camera
 A camera “takes a picture”
by using a lens to form a real,
inverted image on a light-
sensitive detector in a light-
tight box.
 We can model a combination
lens as a single lens with an
effective focal length
(usually called simply “the
focal length”).
 A zoom lens changes the
effective focal length by
varying the spacing between
the converging lens and the
diverging lens.
A Simple Camera Lens Is a Combination Lens
QuickCheck 35.1
The parallel light rays will be focused at a
point _______ the second lens than
would light focused by the second lens
acting alone.

A. closer to
B. the same distance from
C. farther from
QuickCheck 35.1
The parallel light rays will be focused at a
point _______ the second lens than
would light focused by the second lens
acting alone.

A. closer to
B. the same distance from
C. farther from
Example 35.2 Focusing a Camera
Example 35.2 Focusing a Camera