Urban Ecology

Richard T. T. Forman

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Urban Ecology
Science of Cities
How does nature work in our human-created city, suburb, and exurb/peri-
urb? Indeed, how is ecology – its urban water, soil, air, plant, and animal foun-
dations – spatially entwined with this great human enterprise? And how can
we improve urban areas for both nature and people?
Urban Ecology explores the entire urban area from streets, walls, and lawns
to riversides, sewer systems, and industrial sites. The book presents models,
patterns, data, and examples from a breadth of cities worldwide. Numerous
illustrations enrich the presentation. Cities are analyzed, not as ecologically
bad or good, but as places with concentrated rather than dispersed people.
Spatial patterns and flows linking organisms, built structures, and the physical
environment highlight a treasure chest of useful principles.
This pioneering interdisciplinary book opens up frontiers of insight, as a valu-
able source and text for undergraduates, graduates, researchers, professionals,
and others with a thirst for solutions to growing urban problems.

Richard T. T. Forman is the PAES Professor of Landscape Ecology at Harvard

University, where he teaches ecological courses in the Graduate School of Design and
in Harvard College. His research and writing include landscape ecology, road ecology,
urban ecology, land-use planning and conservation, the netway system, and linking
science with spatial pattern to mesh nature and people on the land. His previous title,
Urban Regions: Ecology and Planning Beyond the City, was published by Cambridge
University Press in 2008.
Urban Ecology
Science of Cities
Richard T. T. Forman
Harvard University, USA
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

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Information on this title: [Link]/9781107007000
© Cambridge University Press 2014
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2014
Printed in the United Kingdom by XXXXX
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Forman, Richard T. T.
Urban ecology : science of cities / Richard T. T. Forman.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-107-00700-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-521-18824-1 (paperback)
1. Urban ecology (Biology) I. Title.
QH541.5.C6F67 2014
577.5′6–dc23
2013032913
ISBN 978-1-107-00700-0 Hardback
ISBN 978-0-521-18824-1 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Dedicated to Adrian William Forman
Contents
Foreword ix
Preface xii
Acknowledgments xiv

Part I – Framework 1 Energy and radiation 129

Urban heat 133
1 Foundations 1 Diverse airflows 139
Urban ecology concept 2 Air pollutants and effects 143
Routes to the present 4
Urban attributes and ecological assays 11 6 Urban water systems 149
People and their activities 16 Urban flows in the water cycle 150
Using urban ecology for society’s solutions 26 Groundwater 151
Clean water supply 157
2 Spatial patterns and mosaics 31 Sewage and septic wastewater 160
Scale, human, and nature patterns 32 Stormwater and pollutants 169
Urban–rural gradient as spatial model 38
Patch–corridor–matrix and other spatial 7 Urban water bodies 175
models 43 Urban wetlands and ponds 175
Neighborhood mosaics and their linkages 49 Constructed basins, ponds, wetlands,
Urban regions, metro areas, cities 58 biofilters 179
Urban streams 182
3 Flows, movements, change 65 Urban rivers 186
The nature of flows and movements 65 Flooding by river and stream 193
Flows around boundaries and mosaics 69 Urban coastal zones 197
Change-over-time principles 73
Urbanization 76 8 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants 205
Rates and trajectories of ecological change 83 Urban vegetation and habitat 205
Urban plants 208
Urban plant biology 215
Part II – Ecological features 91 Trees and shrubs 222
Plant community structure and
4 Urban soil and chemicals 91 dynamics 230
The essence of urban soil 91 Plants and urban habitat fragments 238
Key natural and human processes 97
Soil texture and associated properties 100 9 Urban wildlife 241
Life in the soil 104 Species types 242
Urban soil chemicals 113 Vertical structures, vegetation layers, and
The urban underground 119 animals 255
Spatial habitat patterns and animals 259
5 Urban air 125 Wildlife movement 264
Microclimate 126 Changing urban wildlife and adaptation 268

vii
 Contents

Part III – Urban features 275 12 Green spaces, corridors, systems 342
Urban agriculture 343
10 Human structures 275 Parks 348
Railways 276 Diverse large greenspaces 351
Roads and associated features 279 Semi-natural habitat areas and urban
Hard surfaces and cracks 287 woodlands/forests 352
House plots, gardens, lawns 292 Green corridors and networks 361
Buildings 306 Integrated urban greenspace system 365

11 Residential, commercial, industrial areas 314

City residential areas 315
Suburban and peri-urban/exurban residential Epilogue 371
areas 321 Appendix A: Positive and negative attributes
City center 327 of an urban region 378
Commercial sites dispersed across the urban Appendix B: Equations 380
area 332 Index 385
Industrial areas 336

viii
Foreword

The term “urban revolution” was introduced by specific places on Earth along with all the organisms
Gordon Childe in 1936 to highlight the powerful pro- that live there and the associated nutrient and energy
cess of transforming agricultural societies to large flows. The ecosystem concept implies a complex sys-
complex urban centers. His model describes how com- tem of interacting components with discernible feed-
munities, beginning around 9000 years ago, grew from backs between components. Thus, the vegetation in a
tens or hundreds to thousands of people. In 3100 BC, city park can influence energy use in adjacent buildings
Memphis, Egypt was the largest city in the world with and the wellbeing of the residents and workers in the
over 30 000 residents. Today, the Cairo metropolitan neighborhood. Ecosystem boundaries are not fixed but
area has over 17 million inhabitants and ranks 15th on depend on the questions or problems being addressed.
the list of the world’s largest cities. Mega-cities such as Therefore, an entire city can be viewed as an ecosys-
Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York have over tem or its smaller components such as lake ecosystems,
20 million urban dwellers and continue to grow. The woodland ecosystems, and residential community
scale and complexity of the urbanization process ori- ecosystems can be legitimate units of study and man-
ginally depicted by Childe has little resemblance to agement. Ecologists propose that a healthy ecosystem
what is happening today. is one that is stable and sustainable while maintaining
In the short history of humans on our planet, the its organization and autonomy over time and its resili-
number, population size, spatial extent, rate of growth, ence to stress. Hence, a key tool to achieving the goals
and degree of environmental impact of cities are of this new “urban revolution” is the incorporation of
unprecedented. Today, cities and towns face a myriad ecological knowledge and principles into the manage-
of formidable environmental challenges concerning ment and creation of cities in order to develop healthy,
food production, energy, water, waste management, liveable, sustainable, and resilient urban ecosystems.
and pollution, as well as social challenges in regard to In the 1980s, Richard Forman’s ideas and research
jobs, poverty, and human health and wellbeing. I pro- on landscapes started another revolution, in this case
pose that as a result of the current rate and magnitude a “landscape ecology revolution” in the way we see,
of urbanization around the globe, we are on the cusp manage, develop, and use our world. His groundbreak-
of a new “urban revolution.” The goal and rallying ing papers and books on landscape and road ecology
call of this revolution is “We Want Healthy, Liveable, changed my view of the world and I don’t think I am
Sustainable, and Resilient Cities and Towns.” alone. When I ride in a car, bus, or plane, or even when I
Modern cities have developed primarily based look out the windows of very tall buildings, I no longer
on the best planning, engineering, architectural, and see only static views of vegetation, waterways, build-
design standards of the day and have been driven by ings, and roads; I now see a dynamic, multidimen-
societal and economic requirements and constraints. sional landscape powered by the actions of humans
This resulted in cities having largely been built and and ubiquitous ecological processes. Richard has pro-
managed as distinct entities where people, buildings, vided us with the terminology, tools, and methods to
roads, rails, nature, water, energy, and money were describe and analyze the towns and cities in which we
studied, planned, and managed separately in profes- live and work; the farmlands that produce our food;
sional, academic, and administrative silos. the forest, lake, and mountain regions in which we
Over the past 25 years, human settlements have take our vacations; and the remote regions of the world
increasingly been regarded and treated as complex where humans rarely tread. His pioneering patch–cor-
ecosystems. Ecosystems can be simply defined as ridor–matrix, and subsequent land mosaic model of

ix
 Foreword

landscape structure has passed the test of time and has they have primarily been focused on single cities or
been adopted throughout the world in order to achieve single organisms and have been primarily funded and
more positive environmental outcomes. While the use designed to advance the basic science of urban ecology,
of an ecosystem perspective appropriately represents rather than to address the applied research questions
cities as complex adaptive systems and provides the being asked by practitioners. To be fair, there are urban
tools to assess levels of sustainability and resilience, ecologists working in cities around the world, espe-
the adoption of Richard’s land mosaic model provides cially in Europe, who have been actively addressing
the tools to create sustainable and resilient cities and applied research questions. Recently, there have been
towns. calls within the discipline of urban ecology to bridge the
Richard’s seminal book Land Mosaics summarizes gap between basic and applied urban ecology research
the ecology of heterogeneous landscapes and includes by increasing the interactions between scientists and
comprehensive discussions of how landscape structure practitioners, by adopting a comparative approach to
and composition (i.e., the land mosaic) affect the flows the study of cities and towns, and by identifying more
of water, nutrients, animals, wind, and people. A recent general principles regarding the effects of urbanization
search of Google Scholar revealed that this book has on ecological patterns and processes.
been cited in over 4000 publications. Thus, Richard’s As a result of this current state of affairs, there has
“landscape ecology revolution” has had far-reaching been no urban ecology textbook published to date for
global effects that have influenced how ecological students, planners, designers, and policy makers inter-
and social scientists conduct their research, how pol- ested in the practical aspects of creating healthy, livable,
icy makers and land managers conserve plants and sustainable, and resilient cities and towns. Of course
animals, and how planners, designers, and landscape that is until I began reading the book in your hand. I am
architects create more sustainable human settlements. very impressed with the content and approach of this
The current worldwide interest in creating sustain- volume and feel it will no doubt make a significant con-
able and resilient cities has resulted in an increasing call tribution to the future development of the study and
for locally relevant ecological information and princi- practice of the discipline of urban ecology. As I have
ples to guide urban development and management. written in a recent history of urban ecology, Richard
Unfortunately, there has been a mismatch between approaches the study and practice of urban ecology
the questions that planners, designers, and decision- from a different perspective than the mainstream aca-
makers are asking urban ecologists, and the questions demics in the field.
that urban ecologists are asking to advance the science Richard has utilized his extensive ecological
of urban ecology. Planners, designers, and managers knowledge and experience, as well as his two decades
are asking questions that are relevant to their day-to- of teaching suburban and urban ecology at Harvard
day decision-making such as: How much green space University in the Graduate School of Design to bring
is necessary to reduce the impacts of climate change? the full force of this revolutionary landscape scale
What design and construction techniques can be put approach to the study, design, and management of cit-
into practice to minimize energy consumption? How ies and towns. He has carefully chosen the appropri-
much connectivity is required in an urban landscape to ate topics for chapters to provide his readers with both
support diverse plant and animal communities? How the basic principles of his unique landscape mosaic
can we design cities to improve human wellbeing? In approach to urban ecology and practical examples of
contrast, most urban ecologists are conducting basic how they can be applied. As with Richard’s previous
research designed to attain a better understanding of books, the number of references he cites is indica-
the structure and function of urban [Link] tive of the extent of his scholarship. I am certain that
the past 25 years, urban ecologists have produced a both students and professionals alike will find these
large body of studies from cities around the world that references a valuable resource for years to come. The
provide important insights into how urbanization is breadth of the subject matter and examples presented
affecting ecological and social patterns and processes. in the book no doubt came from the many scientists,
However, the results of these studies have proven to landscape architects, planners, designers, engineers,
be somewhat lacking when called upon to address the and policy makers that Richard has worked with in
pressing questions from practitioners. This is because cities around the world.

x
 Foreword

In conclusion, I would have to say that Richard ating healthy, livable, sustainable, and resilient cities
Forman has had the unique education, university and towns in the future.
environment, and international experience to write Mark J. McDonnell
the first comprehensive urban ecology text book that Director, Australian Research Centre for
will guide the new urban revolution. This innovative Urban Ecology
book provides the foundation and inspiration for cre- Associate Professor, University of Melbourne

xi
 Preface

Most of us call urb our home. Today’s giant urban areas water, and air comprise the physical environment.
grow upward in population, with a fast-march outward. Cities, towns, and adjacent built areas are the prime
Now urban footprints, the agricultural and natural human concentrations.
lands needed to sustain us, more than cover the globe. Of course, many other interactions highlighted
This great urban enterprise thoroughly interacts with in sister disciplines, professions, and human activ-
ecology, reflecting a yet more powerful force. Nature ities are important in urban areas. For instance, public
molds our urban world, from “natural disasters” and health, urban agriculture and bird watching emphasize
resource scarcities to treasured plants and wildlife human–organism interactions. Architecture, engin-
around us. Even pollutant and waste accumulation, eering, and construction link humans and built struc-
green marketing, and natural landscapes pictured on tures. Water supply, flood disasters and meteorology
our walls and in our dreams highlight the ecological link humans and the physical environment. Sociology,
dimension. The clashing and collaborating of these two employment, and retail shopping highlight human–
giants – urb and ecology – lead to this book. human interactions. Adding “interactions with built
My lens focuses on spatial pattern, how it molds and structures” and “where people are concentrated” to the
responds to flows/movements, and how they all change. traditional core of ecology pinpoints urban ecology as
The pattern and process of mosaics, now a centerpiece a basic science, promising a diversity of highly useful
of ecology from which most other components nicely applications. This intriguing subject offers challenge,
follow, are central. Indeed, spatial pattern emerges as discovery, and societal solutions now.
an especially useful handle for planners, engineers, The perspective is global. Limiting our view to a sin-
landscape architects, park managers, pollution experts, gle nation or region feels like a Mozart symphony with
architects, transportation specialists, hydrologists, and most of the orchestra missing. But using models, data,
more. All can easily use the principles of urban ecology examples, and figures from a breadth of cities world-
to build more-promising futures. wide, we gain understanding, and discover great pat-
Although other sciences underpin cities – chem- terns for our own places. I have lived in urban regions
istry, soil science, meteorology, microbiology, and of ten nations, and while writing, visited numerous
more – ecological science fills the core. Indeed, ecol- US cities, five Chinese cities, five Spanish cities, four
ogy incorporates key features of these fields. Ecology Brazilian cities, three English cities, two Mexican cit-
as metaphor, marketing, sociology, or motherhood ies, Calgary, Dublin, Berlin and Paris. To feel my
receives bare mention. Ecologists use the central con- subject, I lived temporarily in a balconied old-narrow-
cept of ecology – interactions among organisms and street apartment at the heart of several million people,
the environment – to study and understand the ecol- observing street trees change, birds in a courtyard, suc-
ogy of forests, lakes, populations, ecosystems, soils, cessional habitats, scores of industrial sites, soil under
whole landscapes, even regions. Tying this core theme streets, plenty of parks, water flows, restaurant wastes,
to urban areas produces the highly useful concept of spatial patterns galore, even cracks underfoot. I became
urban ecology used in this book: a keen city watcher.
For convenience, the general term “urban area” is
Interactions of organisms, built structures, and the physical used for all scales, from megalopolis and city to neigh-
environment, where people are concentrated.
borhood and housing development. The chapters ahead
Plants, animals, and microbes are the organisms, roads include parks and other greenspaces, but ecologically
and buildings the predominant built structures. Soil, explore essentially the entire urban area – streets, walls,

xii
 Preface

lawns, industrial sites, sewer systems, artifact-rich soil, exciting frontiers, and to professionals improving the
aerial components, roofs, commercial centers, parks, built areas around us. Moreover, the informed public
dumps, and much more. Also, rather than outlining can gain “eurekas,” while pursuing a better future in
the newest hypotheses, I emphasize patterns and proc- ever-more-crowded urban living space. Discovery and
esses with reasonable evidence and broad application. delight pop off the pages.
Together, these approaches open up frontiers of insight In 1992 I began teaching a Harvard course on urban
and provide dependability for users. and suburban ecology. From the outset we attempted to
High winds, scorching sun, frigid nights, big floods, discover or develop an intellectual core of urban ecol-
insect outbreaks, and the seasonal flower explosion ogy. Landscape ecology emerged as a key integrative
periodically highlight the power of nature. Meanwhile, ingredient, along with fine-scale urban pattern, proc-
the day-to-day expression of urban nature – pleasant ess and, change. Gradually that core coalesced.
temperatures, pouring rain, tree shading, venerable Broadening the perspective from city to urban
trees, birds singing, flies flying, soil growing grass, region, another key step, was catalyzed by an analysis-
stormwater running off, microbes decomposing, and-planning project for the Barcelona urban region
clouds moving over us – permeates the city. People and (Mosaico territorial para la region metropolitana de
nature are thoroughly intertwined in cities. Barcelona; Forman 2004b). That challenge convinced
Most urban residents like the nature around them. me, an ecologist, that urban regions are really import-
In contrast, most ecologists consider urban nature and ant globally for natural systems and their human uses,
ecological conditions to be severely degraded, bulging and especially as cities expand outward in the years
with bad contaminants, invasive weeds, waste sites, just ahead. So, to help jumpstart our understanding
sewage overflows, traffic pollutants, pigeons, pests, and of urban ecology, I analyzed the spatial ecological and
pathogens. While I cannot eradicate my own tiltings, human patterns in urban regions of 38 small-to-large
cities and ecological conditions are inherently neither cities worldwide (Urban Regions: Ecology and Planning
good nor bad. Rather than judging urban nature, I Beyond the City; Forman, 2008). Using scores of spatial
attempt to objectively analyze and portray the distinct- analyses, this effort highlighted patterns and princi-
ive ecological dimensions. Occasionally, urban areas ples, plus the importance of the ring-around-the-city
are compared with natural or agricultural landscapes to the city, and vice versa.
mainly to enhance our understanding of urban pat- The book in your hand is the essential complement
terns. The book is urbanocentric rather than natural- to the urban region work. In effect, peeling back our
land-centric. familiar human layer reveals the fundamental natural
Urban ecology has roots in many related fields, and and built patterns of a city, how it works, and how it
benefits from the obvious goal of improving conditions changes. Lots of lucid patterns and processes appear.
for people packed together. Two recent salutary trends The world of eternal flows, especially in urban net-
have been especially important. In one, a few integrated works, emerges. Plenty of principles based on these are
studies, notably in and around Berlin, Baltimore, articulated. Worldwide forms of repeated spatial pat-
Phoenix, Melbourne, Seattle, and Sheffield/London, terns, such as road network, city center, building plot,
have combined multi-investigator, multi-disciplinary, even cracks in a surface, are compared ecologically.
and relatively long-term study. In the second, several Lacunae and research frontiers galore are evident.
edited books and an occasional authored one on urban Scores of solutions for human application are men-
ecology have appeared, each containing useful infor- tioned, but left for applied experts and professionals to
mation and insights, and together suggesting a rich develop and use.
promising picture. Publications with strong applied Today urban regions are the place for most of us,
dimensions provide additional perspectives. “Homo sapiens urbanus,” and for many more in the
The time has arrived to pull the science together years just ahead. Cultural and natural resources within
in a coherent and comprehensive form, pinpointing the region enrich us. It is our annual home range; over
synergies where pieces of the picture are juxtaposed. years we become familiar with and care about it. Our
The pages ahead attempt to catalyze urban ecology as sense of place is increasingly the urban region. Here
accessible and appealing to students who will carry the ecology is in our heart, and on our lips. The pages ahead
field to greater heights, to research scholars pushing move urban ecology to the forefront of our mind.

xiii
 Acknowledgments

I am immensely grateful to the following colleagues time. I also thank the Zofnass Program for Sustainable
and students for important contributions to this book: Infrastructure at Harvard University and Spiro Pollalis
Anita Berrizbeitia, Michael W. Binford, Anthony J. for funding support. It is a special pleasure to thank the
Brazel, Stephan Brenneisen, Mark Brenner, Peter Del talented editors of Cambridge University Press for this
Tredici, Sarah W. Dickinson, Matthew Girard, Gary R. and two previous books, which were of highest quality
Hilderbrand, Michael C. Hooper, Stephanie E. Hurley, and well marketed.
Jason J. Kolbe, Jonathan Losos, Mary E. Lydecker, Mark Once again it has been a joy to work with Taco I.
J. McDonnell, Steward T. A. Pickett, Peter G. Rowe, Matthews, whose thoughtful approach, communica-
Hashim Sarkis, Hilary Swain, John C. Swallow, Jianguo tion skill, and enormous talent created the superb art-
(Jingle) Wu, my treasured colleagues in Barcelona, work for this book.
and the impressive teaching fellows in Harvard’s ESPP I deeply appreciate Andrew F. Bennett, Jose Vicente
Ecology and Land-Use Planning course. I salute the de Lucio, Jessica M. Newman, Daniel Sperling, and
remarkable students in my classes who were encour- Michael T. Wilson, who played especially important
aged to improve the world; we learned together, even roles. Lawrence Buell and Barbara L. Forman have been
shared eurekas. catalytic forces throughout, helping me intellectually
I thank the Harvard University Graduate School transform energized ponderings and paper scribblings
of Design, the Harvard Forest, the Harvard University into the sequence of ideas and discoveries ahead.
Center for the Environment, and the Universidad Cover photograph: Sao Paulo aerial view courtesy
de Alcala-Madrid for milieus of ideas and reflection and with permission of Silvio Soares Macedo.

xiv
 Part I Framework

Foundations
Chapter

1
In short, then, it takes the whole region to make the roofs of buildings, or in the atmosphere with organ-
the city. isms further overhead. Nor is the soil just under us vis-
Patrick Geddes, Cities in Evolution, 1914 ible, the deeper underground infrastructures, the fish
movements in the river, the river bottom, or the far side
But for all our buildings and lights and roads, for all
of the city. Indeed, we cannot even see the multitude of
our signs and words, that human presence is only a
microbes right around, on, and in us. We mainly miss
thin film stretched over mystery. Let sunlight flame
the active organisms and processes at night. And we do
in a blade of grass, let night come on, let thunder
not have the time or patience to see the really slow flows
roar and tornado whirl, let the earth quake, let mus-
and slow changes eternally occurring around us.
cles twitch, let mind curl about the least pebble or
Interesting, but are all those things important com-
blossom or bird, and the true wildness of this place,
pared with what we see? Well, consider a few examples.
of all places, reveals itself …
Up in that atmosphere, pollen and seeds and even spi-
Scott Russell Sanders, Staying Put: Making Home in
ders with tiny parachutes move across the city, ozone
a Restless World, 1993
smog forms, and sky radiation is generated. The tree
Imagine a glorious day in your favorite city being ener- canopies contain bird nests and numerous insects, and
gized at every turn. Sparkling clear air. Hardly any traf- evapo-transpire water to the air. Traffic noise inhibits
fic. People alive, interesting. Appealing architecture successful avian reproduction, while vibrations from
and gardens (Figure 1.1). Amazing cultural events. traffic and trains compact soil. Soil itself is a cornu-
Delightful diverse shopping. Food the best. Saw every- copia of roots, microbes, and soil animals, with water
thing … relished it all. and oxygen flowing downward, and carbon dioxide
Suddenly a friend appears, an ecologist. Comparing upward. The underground urban infrastructure con-
notes, she or he is equally enthusiastic. Luxuriant native tains raceways for cockroaches and rats to reach build-
street trees with lots of lichens. Clear water in the city ings, as well as stormwater and sewage wastewater to
pond. Bicycle routes and long walking routes bus- enrich water bodies. Underwater fish are feeding, being
ily used. Songbirds zipping along a shrubby tree strip eaten, even migrating. Harbor and river bottoms boast
between parks. No dog droppings. Wind blowing the a rich interacting mix of sediment, worms, pollutants,
smokestacks’ noxious air out of the city. Green walls and carbon dioxide, even sometimes oxygen. At nighttime,
balconies facing each other over streets. Restaurants migrating songbirds are hitting towers and skyscraper
with rat-proof dumpsters. Elongated grass-and-flower windows, cats are roaming, slugs are eating plants,
depressions for riverside floodwaters. The intriguing nighthawks are catching insects, and garbage is being
list goes on. Chuckling, together you have seen almost ravished. Slow flows and changes are also really hard
everything, yet seemingly in two different cities. to see – plants growing, termites chewing, water-table
But what about the invisibles? The what? We saw dropping, species diversity changing, plants adapt-
“everything” but maybe we missed some important ing, pests becoming pesticide resistant, species ranges
things. For instance, in this urban ecology no-one expanding, pipes rusting, wood foundations decaying,
directly sees the sounds and vibrations around us and sea-level rising. While the list of invisible organ-
(Figure 1.2). The smells and gases we breathe are invis- isms, interactions and processes could go on and on,
ible. Turbulent and streamline air flows hit us unseen. do these examples seem important ecologically? And
We do not see what happens in tree canopies over us, on for society?

1
 Foundations

Let’s find a little restaurant with something to drink

and explore this urban ecology a bit more. Maybe a
book on the subject would highlight lots of invisibles
and visibles, opening doors to insight and delight all
around us. Indeed, these revelations could be founda-
tions for making where we live much better.

Urban ecology concept

We have just become an urban species, Homo sapiens
“urbanus.” Half the human population now lives in
urban areas. The proportion grows, and the number
of urbanites skyrockets. The next two billion people
will all be urban, half joining today’s urban poor. These
newcomers will squeeze in now within a single gener-
ation. How welcoming is our land, our urban space,
our planet?
Meanwhile two mammoth changes are engulfing
us. First urbanization, the “urban tsunami,” easily vis-
ible today, sweeps swiftly and powerfully across the
land. Seemingly inexorable, yet not. And second, nat-
ural systems degrade – freshwater dries up, biodiversity
plummets, climate changes, soil thins, and unpolluted
places disappear. Two familiar drumbeats. We pick at
the problems. Or simply shrug, and consider them too
Figure 1.1. Glimpsing a garden of nature in city center. A wide large, too complex to solve.
range of planting designs, architectural forms, and urban patterns
provides rich experience for people, and microhabitat diversity for Addressing such trajectories requires understand-
species. Sevilla, Spain. From R. Forman photo. ing of natural areas, forestry areas, agricultural areas,
and dry areas of the globe. Ecologists for over a century
have analyzed and educated us about natural systems

Figure 1.2. The invisibles and visibles

for understanding an urban area. Invisible
objects in bold type; visible objects in
Nighttime light type and parentheses.
Slow changes organisms
+
Atmospheric organisms activities
Slow flows (Cloud) + activities

CO SO2 NO Canopy insects

CO2 x
+ processes
(Dust) O3
O2
(Tree)
Gases (Rain)
Sounds
(Light) Airflows
(Building)
Vibrations (Road)
(Car)
Far side Smells Microbes
(Dog)
of city
(Water surface)
Fish Dynamic soil, Underground
movement roots, infrastructure
animals, +processes
Bottom
chemicals
processes

2
 Urban ecology concept

there. Yet the overlooked ecology of built areas has now Although humans are obviously organisms, ecolo-
emerged as of core importance. Urban ecology is the gists have mainly excluded people in their research, or
ecology of right where we live. considered humans as an outside factor causing effects.
Envisioning the subject at two spatial scales is a useful A humans-as-inside-or-outside-of-an-ecosystem
way to start. First, cities lie at the center of urban regions discussion is endless (McDonnell and Pickett, 1993;
(Forman, 2008). In effect, an essentially all-built metro- Alberti et al., 2003; Head and Muir, 2006). Meanwhile
politan area visible from outer space is surrounded by lots of major disciplines, including economics, soci-
a ring-around-the-city. The metro-area and its urban- ology, transportation, engineering, and architecture,
region ring are interdependent, that is, tied together by all focused on human activities and including inter-
in-and-out flows and movements. Cities are no longer actions with the environment, carry on. One could
viable units, no longer make sense, whereas urban include humans as a key part of ecology, and then much
regions make good sense. An ecology of urban regions. of the field would be logically subdivided and dispersed
Second, urban areas are mosaics. The spatial pattern into pieces within these other big human-centered dis-
or arrangement of patches and corridors is extremely ciplines. However, it seems wiser to maintain and fur-
diverse and ecologically important (Forman, 1995, ther build on the core strength of ecology, with its basic
2008; Wu, 2004; Pickett et al., 2009). Indeed, most focus on plants, animals, and microbes.
people and most decisions focus on these finer-scale Sister disciplines and professions will welcome and
spots or areas within the urban region. Urban ecol- use principles developed by a strong vibrant urban
ogy highlights all the spaces, not only parks and other ecology. Tying these conceptual threads together
greenspaces, but also the rich variety of built spaces. An leads nicely to the following urban ecology concept
ecology of these spatial patterns, especially where most (Figure 1.3):
of us live in metropolitan areas, is the topic at hand. An
Urban ecology studies the interactions of organisms, built
ecology of urban mosaics. structures, and the physical environment, where people
To some, urban and ecology are contrasts (McIntyre are concentrated.
et al. 2000), or even an oxymoron. Recent work by urban
ecologists should dispel this perspective. The two con- Organisms refer to plants, animals, and microbes.
cepts overlap and are quite compatible. Another famil- Built structures are buildings, roads, and other human
iar ecological perspective is that the urban or human
component is “bad,” that is, has a negative effect on
nature or ecological conditions. No such assumption is
made here. People can have both negative and positive
effects on nature. Furthermore, nature has both nega-
tive and positive effects on people (Forman, 2010a).
Ecologists have focused on understanding “nat-
ural” patterns and processes, those minimally affected
by humans, and thus have largely avoided urban areas.
For example, of 6157 articles published during 1995–
2000 in nine leading ecological journals, only 25 (i.e.,
0.2%) dealt with cities (Benton-Short and Short, 2008).
As seen in the previous section, the core of urban ecol-
ogy must focus on, and understand, the central pat-
terns and processes of urban areas.
Ecology is the study of organisms interacting with
the environment. “Environment” here is overwhelm-
ingly understood by ecologists to refer to the physical
environment dominated by air, water, and soil (not
the built environment of roads and buildings). With
research mainly in relatively natural areas, “organisms” Figure [Link] ecology concept. Interactions of organisms,
has normally meant plants, animals, and microbes built structures, and the natural environment, where people are
aggregated. Adapted from Forman (2010a).
(microorganisms).

3
 Foundations

constructions. The physical environment refers to air, time. Urban ecology theory and principles lead to
water, and soil/earth. Where people are concentrated applications for society.
primarily refers to cities, suburbs, and towns.
Built structures are a key to urban ecology. Routes to the present
Organism–environment interactions are simple ecol-
Three intriguing and brief histories bring us up to date:
ogy, whereas inserting buildings and roads in the inter-
(1) cities; (2) ecology and environment; and (3) urban
actions transforms the subject to urban ecology.
ecology.
Urban ecology is useful for many allied fields
focused on different interacting factors. Sociology
highlights people-people interactions. Recreation Cities and history
and aesthetics commonly focus on people–organisms We begin with the population growth of cities. Then
interactions. Architecture, housing, and transporta- the key concepts and terms used to understand urban
tion emphasize people–built structure interactions. ecology are spelled out.
Engineering and weather reports focus on people–
environment interactions. Economics concentrates Changing city size
on people–environment–built structure interactions, The first population centers that might be called cit-
while public health highlights people–organisms–built ies appeared some 5000–6000 years ago in at least
structure interactions. The distinctiveness of urban Mesopotamia (today’s Iraq), Egypt, and the Indus
ecology promises much of use to each of these major Valley (today’s Pakistan) (Pacione, 2005; Benton-
human-centered fields. Short and Short, 2008). Early cities also emerged in the
Appealing metaphors and symbols often enhance Huang Ho Valley (today’s China), Greece, Rome, and
understanding, though normally are not conceptual Maya land (today’s Middle America). Damascus might
research frameworks (Grove and Burch, 1997). City as be the oldest continuously inhabited city. Over time,
powerhouse. City as system of arteries. City teeming the largest city worldwide has moved around, e.g.,
like an anthill. City as “second nature. “City mimicking Constantinople (now Istanbul) with 700 000 people
the human body. Urban development as natural pro- in 1700, to Peking with 1.1 million people in 1800, to
cess. Neighborhood change as ecological succession. Tokyo today (Berry, 1990). By the end of the 19th cen-
City as living system or natural system. Ecosystem tury the UK and Australia were largely urban nations.
health. City functions like a tree. Metaphors catch one’s In 1850 human history had produced 1 billion
attention, but to be useful must then lead to specific people on Earth (Platt 2004), 10% of whom were urban.
patterns, mechanisms or changes. Two billion and 20% urban were reached 80 years later;
Urban ecology for planners typically emphasizes 3 billion and 30% arrived 30 years after that. Each new
providing environmental amenities for people, while billion people thereafter arrived in only 12–15 years.
ideally decreasing environmental impacts. In contrast, Today the 6.5+ billion people on Earth are half urban.
ecologists usually study species and habitat patterns, Some 4% of the Earth’s land surface is urban.
and may include chemical flows, animal movements, The next billion is coming fast. United Nations
and patterns of change. With the concept of urban ecol- statistics point to an Earth in 2040 with 8.5+ billion,
ogy highlighted above, ecologists are less likely to try to approaching two-thirds urban. Since the rural popu-
fit traditional ecological frameworks to urban patterns, lation worldwide is expected to remain essentially
and more apt to study and build principles around the constant at 3 billion, the next 2 billion people will join
central distinctive characteristics of urban areas. This the existing 3 billion urban people. Of the new urban-
approach should make a stronger, more useful urban ites, half will be middle-income and wealthy, perhaps
ecology, as well as expand the frameworks of the field mainly settling in suburban/exurban/peri-urban areas
of ecology itself. and near city center. The other half of the arrivals, 1
Coalescence of the preceding themes leads to the billion, is expected to double the population of urban
intellectual core of urban ecology. Specifically, urban poor to 2 billion. The rapidly growing informal- or
areas are mosaics of diverse spatial pattern. Organisms, squatter-settlement component of the urban poor par-
built structures, and the physical environment inter- ticularly targets and covers urban greenspaces.
act. Flows and movements through the mosaic create Where on Earth are we humans, and where will
a dynamic system. Urban areas markedly change over we soon be? In 1970, Asia had 37% of the world’s

4
 Routes to the present

population, rising to about half in 2005 (UN-Habitat, different types and sizes (Kenworthy and Laube, 2001).
2005). For Europe the comparable figures dropped Travel time has widely shaped the size and form of cit-
noticeably from 31% to 19%. Northern America (USA ies, so many remain “one hour wide” (Newman and
and Canada) figures also dropped. Latin America (and Jennings, 2008). People can get to most places they
the Caribbean) changed little. Africa increased from need by transit or traffic in less than a half hour. Thus,
6% to 10% of the world’s people. Overall these relative high-density cities can become larger without being
growth rates are expected to continue for the upcom- “dysfunctional,” whereas low-density cities reach the
ing few decades. apparent travel-time threshold at a smaller population
Today Europe, Northern America, and Latin size. The density of buildings or people in an urban
America each have about 75% of their population area (Theobold, 2004; Pacione, 2005) is of particu-
urban. In sharp contrast, Asia and Africa are each about lar ecological importance, both for the area and its
40% urban. Megacities are commonly highlighted as surroundings.
centers, powerhouses and hubs. However, small cities The size of land-use units or districts within a city
are much more numerous, remain widely distributed also affects city size. Indeed, “mixed-use patterns,”
across the land, and provide quite different human rather than large separate residential, industrial, and
benefits and ecological characteristics. shopping areas, reduce transportation time and cost.
The size of population centers is yet more inform- Planning that arranges people’s primary needs in
ative. For instance in the USA, nine cities have >1 mil- proximity reduces the travel-time limitation on city
lion people, 52 have 250K (250 000) to 1 million, 172 population size.
have 100K–250K, 363 have 50–100K, 644 have 25–50K, Bioregional limits constrain city size as well
1435 have 10–25K, and 16 772 population centers have (Newman and Jennings, 2008). Thus, local water sup-
fewer than 10 000 people each (Platt, 2004). Also, a ply, food, energy, and materials from the ring-around-
rather constant 15% (±2%) of the total 300 million the-city are cost effective and reduce dependence on
population live in each community-size category. Thus, imports. The carrying capacity idea of a city in balance
virtually the same number of residents lives in large cit- with the resources of its urban region is an especially
ies as in tiny communities. appealing goal (Mumford, 1961; Rees and Wackernagel,
The 22 megacities worldwide with >10 million popu- 1996, 2008; Forman, 2008). Reducing consumption,
lation are currently most abundant in Asian regions waste production, and air and water pollution should
(cities listed by population size in each region) (UN also affect city population size.
Population Division, 2007; Benton-Short and Short, One may ask whether all cities today are in “eco-
2008): East Asia area (Tokyo, Shanghai, Osaka, Beijing, system decline.” That is, has the human use of envir-
Seoul); South Asia (Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Dhaka, onmental resources exceeded the environmental
Karachi); Southeast Asia (Jakarta, Manila); Latin carrying capacity everywhere? Have ecological foot-
America (Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires, Rio prints outstripped the land, so we need more than one
de Janeiro); North America (New York, Los Angeles); Earth’s surface to sustain today’s human population
Europe/Russia (London, Moscow); and Africa (Cairo, (UN Population Division, 2007)? Are any cities liv-
Lagos). ing effectively within environmental limits? If so, we
Plato in the 4th century BC said that when a city should learn from them.
reached 50 000 people, that is enough … a new city Many cities have a published natural history
should be founded. A few decades ago a leading urban describing especially the key greenspaces, plants,
planner suggested 25 000 to 250 000 as the optimum and animals present (Kieran, 1959; Houck and Cody,
city size (Lynch, 1981). Recently some megacities, after 2000; Forrest and Konijnendijk, 2005; Wein, 2006). Yet
rapid population growth, have grown little (Newman apparently the “history of a city’s nature” is rare. Thus,
and Jennings, 2008). This may be a temporary pause for Boston’s four centuries, the dramatic changes in
or may reflect some limit to concentrated population greenspaces, water bodies, wildlife, bird populations,
growth. Are there limits to city population size? and much more are elucidated (Mitchell, 2008). This
Some scholars have suggested that travel time provides a much-needed complement to the famil-
might provide an answer. The “Marchetti constant” iar sequence of military, economic, social and other
of an average of approximately one hour of travel human changes constituting most histories. Indeed,
per person per day seems to apply in many cities of Boston’s natural history also highlights the changing

5
 Foundations

efforts and successes in protecting, even enhancing, Dictionary, 1991; Hartshorn, 1992; World Resources
natural conditions over time. Institute, 1996; Hardoy et al., 2004; UN-Habitat, 2006).
Thus, urban area applies broadly at different scales to,
Key concepts and terms for urban areas for instance, megalopolis, urban region, city, suburb,
As for all major subjects, a few key terms are particularly neighborhood, or housing development.
useful in understanding cities and urban areas (Forman, Specifically, megalopolis refers to a group of adjoin-
2008). To sense the problem of choosing terms useful ing urban regions (e.g., Washington-Baltimore-
worldwide, consider some common land-use terms Wilmington-Philadelphia-New York-Boston or
in particular countries: tip (UK), biotope (Germany), Amsterdam-Utrecht-The Hague-Rotterdam) (Hanes,
rodeo (USA), bush (Australia), rink (Canada), feng- 1993). Urban region is the area of active interactions
shui (China), favela (Brazil), shrine (Japan), allotment between a city and its surroundings (e.g., the 80-km-
(South Africa), and polder (The Netherlands). In the radius irrigated-rice floodplain encompassing Bangkok,
UK, a city with a cathedral may be an urban area, and or Philadelphia and its surrounding farmland areas
sprawl refers to unregulated (by government) rather now squeezed by New York, Wilmington, and other
than low-density spread of housing. regions) (Figure 1.4). Metro area (metropolitan area)
As much as practical, concepts and terms in this is the continuous essentially all-built area of a city and
book are used for clarity and applicability worldwide. its adjacent suburbs (e.g., as seen in a satellite image).
“Urban” pertains or relates to city. I extend the con- [Note that this spatial concept applies in all regions, and
cept slightly in using the general term, urban area, avoids the USA sprawl-and-car concept of a “commuter
referring to city- or town-related spaces where people shed” (Hartshorn, 1992); in most parts of the world
and buildings are concentrated (Webster’s College people live and work in or adjacent to a city]. A city is

(a) Figure 1.4. Concepts and terms for

urban ecology. Metro area extends
outward to the edge of the essentially
continuous all-built area. Some suburbs
extend beyond the metro area, and
include some or all of the exurban or
peri-urban zone. The urban-region ring
also contains separate towns and villages.
(a) Width of arrows roughly proportional
to amount of flows and movements.
(b) (b) Concepts and terminology used in
this book. (c) The two components of
urbanization in different areas [see (b)] of
the urban region. (d) Examples for bits
of green cover (in built space) = window
box, street trees, back yard space, green
roof; examples of created greenspaces =
city plaza/square, cemetery, vacant lot,
dump, waterworks, golf course. Based on
Forman (2008) and other sources.

(c)

(d)

6
 Routes to the present

a relatively large or important municipality or popula- The familiar general term, “land use,” is used as
tion center (Webster’s College Dictionary, 1991; Hardoy equivalent to the slightly more-technical term, “land
et al., 2004; UN-Habitat, 2006). A suburb is a mostly cover,” which refers to the area where a specific type
residential municipality or town close to a city, and may of greenspace or built space predominates (Breuste,
be within, partially within, or outside the metro area. 2009). Thus, a particular land use is considered to be a
Three terms describe the area outside the all-built single land cover with one or more uses or roles.
metro area (Forman, 2008). The urban-region ring Three types of “environment” may be recognized
refers to the area between the metro-area border and the (Hardoy et al., 2004): natural environment (dominated
urban-region boundary. A usually narrow zone adja- by organisms, and with little human influence); physical
cent to or close to the metro-area border, typically char- environment (air, soil, or water characteristics predom-
acterized by some recent housing developments and inant, with little role of organisms); and built environ-
other evidence of urbanization, is perhaps best called ment (area dominated by buildings or other human
exurban. If the narrow zone contains considerable agri- artifacts). Nature refers to what humans have not made
culture, it can be called either peri-urban or exurban, or strongly altered (Webster’s College Dictionary, 1991;
whereas if natural land predominates, exurban seems Forman, 2008). Natural system focuses on the struc-
to be the more appropriate term (Theobold, 2004; ture and functioning of nature (dominated by air, soil,
Pacione, 2005; Vince et al., 2005; McGregor et al., 2006; water, plants, animals, and/or microbes), and ecosys-
Tacoli, 2006; Maconachie, 2007). tem highlights a natural system where organisms play
Urbanization is a land-change process of densifica- central roles (in contrast to groundwater, earthen fill,
tion and/or outward expansion (Figure 1.4c) (Pacione, and atmospheric systems). Habitat refers to a relatively
2005; Forman, 2008). Densification refers to increas- distinct area and its environmental conditions, where
ing the density of people or buildings (e.g., by chan- an organism or group of organisms mainly lives.
ging low-rise to high-rise housing or the conversion/ Natural habitats or systems are found in four eas-
loss of greenspace to buildings, as in Portland, Oregon, ily recognized forms: built area; created greenspace;
USA). Outward expansion refers to city-related devel- semi-natural greenspace; and natural area (Figure 1.5)
opment beyond the metro-area border, effectively a (Forman, 2008, 2010a). As suggested above, a built area
suburbanization process. The expansion may occur contains continuous closely spaced buildings typically
in many different ways, including development along with roads and other human structures present, as in
transportation corridors (e.g., Grenoble, France), various residential and commercial areas. Within the
by bulges around the metro-area border (history of built area, tiny spaces covered with plants are described
London), or by dispersed sprawl [e.g., Las Vegas (USA) as green cover, as for example a grassy entranceway to
and Chicago] (Forman, 2008). Consistent with the a building, street trees, backyard of a house plot, or a
dictionary concept, sprawl is the process of distribut- tiny unmaintained weedy patch. A created greenspace
ing built structures in an unsatisfactory (“awkward”) is a small or large area mainly covered by plants that
spread-out (rather than compact) pattern. Compact- was formed by, or is intensively used or maintained
nucleus expansion, illustrated by concentrated growth by, people, such as a grass-tree city park, golf course,
on the edges of many European towns, is an urbaniza- or farmland. A semi-natural area is a large or small
tion alternative to sprawl. space resembling a natural ecosystem but significantly
An urban area is basically covered by two com- altered or degraded by people, sometimes with cre-
ponents, built spaces or areas and greenspaces. Both ated unbuilt spaces intermixed, such as a woodland
are exceedingly diverse and important. Greenspaces park (Figure 1.5), or greenway, or wetland for pollu-
are mainly covered by plants and, though publicly or tant treatment (Haber, 1990; Millard, 2008; Cilliers
privately owned, are large enough to be public green- and Siebert, 2011). A natural area is unplanted and
space. Built spaces or areas are mainly covered with without intensive human management or use, such
human-made structures, but commonly contain small as a relatively large marsh, forest, or shrub area with
areas of plant cover (Figure 1.4d). Thus, greenspaces little human usage, usually in the outer urban-region
include golf courses and most abandoned sand/gravel- ring (Peterken, 1996; van Bohemen, 2005; Kowarik
extraction sites and capped dumps, while built spaces and Korner, 2005). These four categories, from built to
include most housing developments, active dumps, natural, represent a broad sequence of ecological alter-
and parking lots. ation or degradation, where human activities decrease

7
 Foundations

theoretical, evolutionary, community and systems

ecology. Many subspecialties have evolved over time,
including the recent development of landscape ecol-
ogy, conservation biology, and urban ecology. These
diverse flavors of ecological science naturally have gen-
erated variations in defining ecology, e.g., in empha-
sizing vegetation, population dynamics, ecosystem
flows, evolutionary adaptation, or interaction with the
physical environment. Fortunately, despite these vari-
ations, ecologists of diverse types almost all ascribe to
the traditional core concept of ecology, as the “study of
interactions of organisms and the environment.”
In a two-century history of society’s “big ideas” –
religion, science/rationalism, nationalism, hard-work-
makes-land-productive, communism, and economic
growth – the idea of environmentalism barely made
a sound (McNeill, 2000). But it hit the headlines and
became a household word in the 1960s–70s, associated
with a whole set of issues – wetlands, wolves, foam-
ing rivers, and choking air – and in the wake of Rachel
Carson’s 1962 book, Silent Spring. Environmental
organizations, political parties, laws, regulations, and
some visible successes rapidly followed in developed
Figure 1.5. Semi-natural oak woods (Quercus) in a city park. and certain developing nations. International confer-
Rather dense canopy, understory, shrub layer, and herbaceous layer
suggest natural conditions, whereas the paths, bench, constructed ences and treaties further spurred environmentalism
pond, and overflowing trash bin indicate a significant human into our consciousness.
impact. London. R. Forman photo courtesy of Jessica Newman. Then suddenly in the 1990s–2000s, urbanization
(especially sprawl) and global climate change further
natural vertical structure, horizontal pattern, and/or pushed environmentalism to the forefront, as one of
flows and movements. the big ideas of history. The primarily scientific com-
ponent of this, ecology, emerged as a core field for soci-
etal solutions. Within this, embryonic urban ecology is
Ecology, environment, and history growing rapidly.
Barely a century and a half old, ecology as a discipline Not surprisingly, diverse subjects and terms have
catapulted to the front line for society in the 1960s when also appeared in the overlap areas of ecology and other
an “environmental crisis” was suddenly recognized fields. Consider environmental engineering, eco-criti-
(Carson, 1962; Bartuska and Young, 1994; McNeill, cism, social ecology, political ecology, environmental
2000). Ecology was recognized as a core subject for design in architecture, ecological/natural-resource/
both understanding and solution. Quickly it became a environmental economics, human ecology, global ecol-
familiar word in kitchens, drinking places, and diplo- ogy, eco-city and ecopolis, sustainable development,
mats’ conferences. road ecology, green infrastructure, industrial ecology,
Ecology appeared in the 1860s in Germany, and deep ecology, even green marketing (Park et al., 1925;
by the 1890s was a recognized scientific discipline Ma, 1985; Costanza et al., 1997a, 1997b; Roseland,
in Europe, tying together animal and plant ecology 2001; Buell, 2001, 2005; Steiner, 2002; Forman et al.,
plus freshwater and marine biology (Worster, 1977; 2003; Babbitt, 2005; van Bohemen, 2005; Allenby,
McIntosh, 1985; Forman, 2010a). In the USA the field 2006). Together such subjects represent hybrid vigor,
emerged in the Midwest about 1900, focusing on eco- the opening of frontiers of discovery and knowledge,
logical succession. Professional societies and jour- and importance to society.
nals were founded in 1912–15, and modern ecology Eight major concept areas today describe the field
emerged in the 1940s–50s, highlighting ecosystem, of ecology (Smith, 1996; Cain et al., 2011; Morin, 2011):

8
 Routes to the present

(1) physiological organism–environment ecology; (2) changing species composition (e.g., London, Paris,
population growth and regulation; (3) competition New York, Vienna) (Sukopp, 2008).
and predation; (4) community/habitat and succession; Ecosystem studies of urban areas, in some cases by
(5) ecosystem and biogeochemical cycling; (6) fresh- teams of researchers focusing on flows of nutrients and
water ecology; (7) marine biology; and (8) landscape, materials, appeared in the 1970s–80s (e.g., Brussels,
regional, and global ecology. Professional journals, Berlin, Hong Kong) (Nix, 1972; Duvigneaud, 1974;
organizations, meetings, academic programs, courses, Stearns and Montag, 1974; Boyden et al., 1981; Sukopp,
research grants, and research programs sustain these 1990). A focus on urban trees also appeared from the
subfields and their growth. More than 25 000 people 1970s on (Grey and Deneke, 1992; Rowntree, 1986).
today identify themselves primarily as ecologists. Vegetation and the ecosystem concept were linked in
Tokyo (Numata, 1982). A particularly nice balance and
Urban ecology and history synthesis of urban microclimate, soil, water, plants,
vegetation, and animals was published mainly for UK
Early phases cities (Gilbert, 1991).
The roots and development of urban ecology are Also since at least the 1970s, urban nature has been
highlighted in two recent reviews (Sukopp, 2008; scientifically linked with human health, welfare, and
McDonnell, 2011). Although the term was used by culture, highlighting a human ecology dimension (e.g.,
sociologists in the 1920s (Park et al., 1925), urban Tokyo, Hong Kong) (Boyden et al., 1981; Numata,
ecology as a scientific discipline really emerged in the 1998). Human ecology as a field linking urban plan-
1970s–80s (Nix, 1972; Duvigneaud, 1974; Stearns and ning and social patterns with ecological science has
Montag, 1974). Thus, although overlaps exist, it is con- continued to evolve (Steiner and Nauser, 1993; Steiner,
venient to briefly consider the pre-1970 period and the 2002).
post-1970 period. The major linkage between the 1970s–80s urban
Floras of urban botanical gardens, cemeteries, ecology work and the current phase goes through Berlin
tree-planted spaces, and indeed of whole cities [e.g., in and Central Europe, especially the work of H. Sukopp,
German cities, Montpellier (France), and Leningrad] P. Pysek, and later I. Kowarik (Sukopp et al., 1990, 1995;
were published from the 1500s on (Sukopp, 2002, Pysek, 1993; Pysek et al., 2004; Breuste et al., 1998;
2008). Floras of castles, ruins, and urban areas (Rome, Kowarik and Korner, 2005; Sukopp, 2008). An active
Paris, Palestine, London) appeared from the 1600s on. researcher, editor of books, and catalyst for the field,
Urban plant migration studies, especially by a Swiss especially in Northern and Central Europe, Sukopp
botanist Thellung in the 1910s, were published from highlighted the changing urban vegetation and flora,
the 1700s on (Schroeder, 1969; Pysek, 1995b). Urban but welcomed contributions from diverse researchers,
bird and mammal studies appear from the 1800s on, ecological fields and geographies. Vegetation or “bio-
though studies of animals of economic importance tope” mapping in cities was a foundation of this work
appear >1000 years ago (Gilbert, 1991; Owen, 1991; (Schulte et al., 1993; Pysek, 1995a; Schulte and Sukopp,
Klausnitzer, 1993; Erz and Klausnitzer, 1998; Sukopp, 2000). In 1995 Berlin and London were probably the
2008). Urban vegetation studies appeared from the best known major cities ecologically.
1950s on [Berlin, Prague, Brno (Czech Republic)]
(Murcina, 1990; Pysek, 1993; Sukopp, 2002). Urban The current phase of urban ecology
environmental conditions relative to ecology are also Throughout both the early phase and the current
important in urban ecology, including studies of phen- phase, dispersed perceptive pioneers have contributed,
ology from the 1700s, and of microclimate, soils, and and continue to contribute, an unending sequence of
air pollution from the 1800s (Sukopp, 2008). diverse insights and important results to our under-
Ecological studies of World War II bombed sites standing of urban ecology. These individual scholars
and rubble surfaces from the 1940s on highlighted or small groups work in large and small cities, differ-
flora, fauna, and vegetation dynamics (Salisbury, 1943; ent geographic settings, and diverse cultures. Examples
Pfeiffer, 1957; Gilbert, 1992), and represent an import- are M. Soule et al. (1988), top predator effect on urban
ant step underlying modern urban ecology. Newer species diversity; A. von Stulpnagel et al. (1990), park
studies of whole cities from the 1940s–50s on empha- size and air cooling; J. Owen (1991), ecology of a house
sized distinctive urban sites, plant communities, and plot or garden; M. Godde et al. (1995), urban habitats

9
 Foundations

and plant/animal diversity; and, yes, R. Forman and definitions to their diverse fields (Geddes, 1914, 1925;
D. Sperling (2011), netway system for reconnecting Spirn, 1984; Deelstra, 1998; Beatley, 2000b; Pickett
the land. et al., 2001, 2013; Hough, 2004; Alberti, 2008; Forman,
The current phase of urban ecology perhaps 2008; Nassauer and Opdam, 2008; Musacchio, 2009;
emerged in the late 1990s with the establishment of Reed and Hilderbrand, 2012). Social science does as
multidisciplinary, integrative and long-term studies well (Pickett et al., 2001; Alberti, 2008; Muller et al.,
of a few temperate-zone cities (Grimm et al., 2000; 2010; McDonnell, 2011). At a much earlier time soci-
Wu, 2008): New York, Baltimore, Phoenix, Seattle, ology saw promising analogies with the then-emerg-
and Melbourne. Research in Sheffield/London is simi- ing science of ecology (Park et al., 1925; Hawley, 1944;
lar in scope. This work added impetus and integrated Catton and Dunlap, 1978), and subsequent thinking
knowledge. It changed the field from the domain of dis- from this approach may have been retained in part in
persed individual scholars to the initial coalescence of the broad field of human ecology (Steiner and Nauser,
an embryonic field. 1993). The role of social science, engineering, and other
Numerous edited books from the 1980s to 2010s fields in urban ecology will of course remain dynamic.
have catalyzed the field and effectively sketched out As in the evolution of landscape ecology (Zonneveld
its current and evolving core (McDonnell, 2011): and Forman, 1990; Forman, 1995; Farina, 2006), an
Sukopp et al. (1990, 1995), Platt et al. (1994), Breuste ecumenical approach without attempting to draw
et al. (1998),Konijnendijk et al. (2005), Kowarik and boundaries lets the highest quality and most valuable
Korner (2005), Carreiro et al. (2008), Marzluff et al. theory-and-application work simply define the core of
(2008), McDonnell et al. (2009), Gaston (2010), Muller a field, in this case urban ecology.
et al. (2010), Niemela et al. (2011) and Richter and Today’s major urban-ecology approaches and cent-
Weiland (2012). Also key books on urban climatology ers of research (Sukopp et al., 1990; Nilon and Pais,
(Gartland, 2008; Erell et al., 2011), soils (Craul. 1992, 1997; Breuste et al., 1998; Jenerette and Wu, 2001;
1999; Brown et al., 2000), water (Baker, 2009), and Pickett et al., 2001; Luck and Wu, 2002; Grimm et al.,
geography (Hartshorn, 1992; Pacione, 2005) provide 2003, 2008; van der Ree and McCarthy, 2005; Kowarik
important components for urban ecology. and Korner, 2005; Wu, 2008; Alberti, 2008; Forman,
Five books with the benefits of single authorship 2008; McDonnell et al., 2009; Lepczyk and Warren,
offer valuable integration and depth in key areas. O. L. 2012; Richter and Weiland, 2012) include: (1) habi-
Gilbert (1991), as mentioned, highlights the basic eco- tat/biotope mapping and related analyses (especially
logical components of urban ecology, especially for UK in Berlin and Central Europe); (2) species types and
cities. C. P. Wheater (1999) has a similar content but richness (Berlin, Melbourne); (3) city-to-rural gradi-
is less detailed and appeals to audiences beyond ecol- ent (Melbourne, Baltimore); (4) modeling and biogeo-
ogy. M. Alberti (2008) highlights concepts from ecol- chemical/material flows (Phoenix, Seattle); (5) coupled
ogy through the eyes of a planner, and provides many biophysical-human systems (Phoenix, Baltimore,
stimulating ideas. R. T. T. Forman (2008) highlights the Seattle); and (6) urban-region spatial patterns, pro-
urban region, within which a city functions, as a key cesses, and changes (worldwide analyses).
viable unit for ecological analysis and planning. F. R. The concept of a city-to-rural (urban-to-rural) gra-
Adler and C. J. Tanner (Adler and Tanner, 2013) usefully dient has been an especially useful concept in catalyz-
apply some basic ecological concepts to the built envir- ing urban ecology research (McDonnell and Pickett,
onment. The book in your hand thus delves into urban 1990; McDonnell et al., 1993; McDonnell and Hahs,
areas from megalopolis to micro-site, developing eco- 2008; McDonnell, 2011). Just as the 19th- and 20th-
logical principles based on the urban characteristics. century lichenologists and botanists studied lichens
The present book focuses squarely on the science and other plants along lines from outside the city to
of ecology and urban areas (Grimm et al., 2000; Pickett city center (Le Blanc and Rao, 1973; Schmid, 1975),
et al., 2001; Alberti et al., 2003; Niemela et al., 2009). numerous ecological phenomena have now been stud-
Naturally this science is of considerable use and value ied and compared along such gradients worldwide.
to various human disciplines. For example, engineer- This approach is familiar and convenient for ecologists
ing, planning, and landscape architecture incorporate and is likely to continue, even as research increasingly
components into their fields, contribute to the under- turns to the more difficult, but especially valuable, two-
standing of urban ecology, and may have tailored dimensional studies of urban mosaics. Differentiating

10
 Urban attributes and ecological assays

the ecology “in” and “of ” cities (typically “in” = single

component, small space, within a city; “of ” = inter-
Distinctive attributes, hierarchical scales,
disciplinary and multi-scale) has helped spur broad- and gradients
scale urban-ecology thinking and research (Grimm Consider a few widespread unusual or distinctive eco-
et al., 2000; Pickett et al., 2001; Alberti, 2008; Wu, 2008; logical characteristics. All are familiar to urban ecolo-
McDonnell, 2011). Presumably, ongoing research, gists and even to the observant public.
including multidisciplinary small-space as well as 1. Habitats and species
single-component multi-scale studies, will reduce the • Usually diverse intermixed greenspaces and
value of or need for such a separation. built patches cover the area.
Today the field is developing in two ways. First, dis- • Small sites tend to have few species, whereas
persed scholars continue to publish research results large areas are often species rich.
from large and small cities in diverse regions and
• Planted ornamentals, as well as spontaneous
cultures worldwide. These studies crack open fron-
colonized species, are widespread.
tiers on an array of subjects the researchers perceive
• Generalist species survive and predominate in
to be important. Together these provide both specific
urban conditions.
insights and broaden the field. Second, several research
2. Patches and areas
teams carry out relatively integrated research from a
few cities on related subjects with a logical focus. These • Housing developments and house plots
focused research studies deepen understanding in their emphasize rectilinear repetition.
domains, and together provide comparisons, linkages, • Boundaries are overwhelmingly straight,
and breadth. This dual and synergistic approach rep- abrupt, and in high density.
resents a strong model for developing urban ecology • Mowed grassy areas range from abundant to
into the future. essentially absent.
• Widespread impervious surfaces absorb solar
radiation, generate heat, and greatly increase
Urban attributes and assays stormwater runoff.
In the late 19th century, suppose the field of ecology • Air and water are often heavily polluted.
had begun in cities, rather than in woods, shrub- 3. Corridors and flows
lands, farmland, and ponds (Worster, 1977; McIntosh, • Rectilinear road networks channel hordes of
1985). Surely its central themes would have involved moving vehicles and people.
muddy roads and puddles, cobblestone streets, horses • Underground branching conduits permeate
and dung, dust, coal-burning smoke, lots of dumps, and connect the place.
streams/rivers for waste removal, connected back- • Animal movement is often along stepping
yards/garden areas, privies and human-wastewater, stones rather than continuous strips.
pigeons and house sparrows, rail facilities, rats, dis- • Watercourses are channelized and flood-prone
eases, and blocks of burned buildings. An ecology of areas common.
natural ecosystems might have evolved separately, 4. Change
or perhaps hand-in-hand with the ecology of cities. • Many ecological changes are human-caused,
Irrespective, today urban ecology would be much fur- rapid, and drastic.
ther along.
• Abundant species from afar endlessly arrive,
Solidly rooted in natural areas, often with a lim-
while both native and non-native species
ited or modest human imprint, how does an ecologist
disappear.
get started in a city? Buildings and roads are packed
• The city expands directionally over suburbs,
together. People and vehicles and an array of human-
and suburbs over rural land.
made objects cover the place. Flows and movements are
For a natural or agricultural landscape, these patterns
channeled through networks. Flying animals and bits
would be bizarre. In urban areas they predominate.
of green, from sidewalk mosses to whole parks, catch
Most of the distinctive patterns are not even men-
our attention. Where do species live in a city? Urban
tioned, and none is emphasized, in today’s ecology
species, urban habitats, and their spatial arrangement.
texts.
That is a good way to begin.

11
 Foundations

Such patterns tend to fit together and suggest a (with roots, microbes, and soil animals; Chapter 4),
novel model. In essence, buildings and roads, as well as vegetation layers (herbaceous, shrub, understory, sub
people, vehicles, and diverse other artifacts at the core, canopy and canopy) or building levels, and on upward
strongly imprint and determine ecological patterns, through the atmosphere layers (Chapter 5). The verti-
processes, and changes of urban areas. cal gradient thus integrates many dimensions of urban
Before examining urban attributes in more detail, ecology.
we should briefly step back to consider them in broader A third gradient of ecological interest, perhaps as
perspectives. First, a range of spatial scales character- yet unstudied, is circular. A ring, for instance just out-
izes any subject, including urban areas (Milne, 1988; side the all-built metro area, might slice through and
Wiens, 1989; Pacione, 2005). For example, in urban highlight a rich diversity of large patches and fine-scale
ecology the following scales seem especially important: heterogeneity, housing developments and farmland,
(1) megalopolis; (2) urban region; (3) metro area; (4) and radial transportation strips of development. This
city; (5) major land-use type (residential, commercial, circular gradient would normally portray dynamic
etc.); (6) neighborhood; (7) block; (8) building; and (9) rapid land-use changes.
micro-site (wall, roof, basement, and so forth). At any Note that all three gradient types add considerable
of these levels one could focus in on a different compo- ecological insight if done in different locations. Radius
nent, such as suburb instead of city, or tiny park instead gradients along different radii, vertical gradients in dif-
of building. Furthermore, pinpointing the scale of a ferent land uses, and circular gradients at different loca-
study is important, because a particular object, such as tions between city center and urban-region boundary,
an animal population or soil condition, often differs at in each case produce different results. Studying multiple
each level of scale. gradients of a type pinpoints the average pattern and
This hierarchy of scales highlights another key the variability present, and facilitates comparisons.
dimension in understanding urban ecology. Typically
the object or pattern of interest at a particular scale
is strongly affected by characteristics at three scales
Urban objects of ecological study
(O’Neill et al., 1986; Forman, 2008). First, characteris- The basic concept of urban ecology highlights organ-
tics at the next broader or higher scale encompass and isms, built structures, and the physical environment in
tend to control the object. Second, characteristics at the populated areas, so urban objects in each of these areas
next finer or lower scale help control and explain the are illustrated below. Also we explore urban flows,
internal mechanisms or functions of the object. Third, movements, and changes.
other objects at the same scale interact competitively or
collaboratively with the object considered. These three Built structures, physical environment, and organisms
hierarchical interactions effectively determine or mold Built structures. Chicago’s surface is dominated by
the form of an object. tar (tarmac or asphalt) (21%), lawn (20%), buildings
The other broad perspective for urban attributes is (17%), and cement (12%) (Nowak, 1994). A Chicago
spatial pattern, especially gradient and mosaic patterns suburb is predominantly lawn (33%), herbaceous vege-
(see Chapter 2). Measuring ecological attributes along tation (20%), tar (12%), and buildings (8%). A study
a line or transect across a sequential gradient of differ- of suburban and urban woods around Wilmington
ent land uses or habitats is of prime interest here. Such (USA) found the following human impacts in order of
studies provide insight into spatial arrangement and abundance (Matlack, 1993): recent dumps, grass clip-
changing spatial pattern along a slice of the land. pings, lawn extensions, building rubble, children’s huts,
Three gradients would seem to be of particular and woodpiles. A study of European cities identified
interest in urban ecology. The most familiar case is city- hundreds of distinctive urban forms – plazas/squares,
to-rural. This is effectively a radius from city center intersections, areas around historical and religious
through inner suburb, outer suburb, exurban (or peri- structures, tiny parks, and so forth (Kostas, 1992).
urban) area, agricultural land, to natural land. One or A list of built objects only or mainly found in urban
more of the types may be absent in certain radii. areas would be extensive. Consider skyscraper, inter-
A second important gradient is vertical, e.g., city train station, art museum/concert hall, large city
extending sequentially from bedrock through the park, major sewage-treatment facility, subway sys-
zone of underground infrastructure, surface fill or soil tem, group of high-rise residential buildings, major

12
 Urban attributes and ecological assays

shopping center, dense street network, fine-scale soil 56% for recreation, 21% infrastructure, and 14% agri-
heterogeneity, major port, convention center, and so culture. All three roles serve the peri-urban people,
forth. but perhaps much more important is how the objects
Even the peri-urban or exurban area teems with built serve people of the big city, such as food products being
objects related to urban uses (Figure 1.6) (Hersperger transported inward and recreationists going outward.
et al., 2012). The objects in the figure are also interest- Most of the objects are probably of little ecological
ing because in a geographic-information-system (GIS) importance (Figure 1.6). However, 26 of the object
study of land uses, they are largely eliminated by the types seem to be of ecological importance, slightly
computer. In the 47 km2 area sampled around Zurich over half positive and the rest negative. Clusters of
(Switzerland), 1012 objects of 80 types (excluding signs farm buildings would be the prime negative objects,
and structures along roads) were discovered. These while bins for dog feces and nature information signs
human objects serve major roles for society, including are the most frequent ecologically positive objects.

(a) (b) Figure 1.6. Human-made objects

and their roles in a peri-urban area.
Objects were identified by bicycling
and walking in forty-seven 1 km2(0.39
mi2) plots in Canton Aargau, Switzerland
(15% urban, 45% agricultural, 37% forest,
3% unproductive land). + = typically
more ecological benefits or positives
than negatives; − = more negatives
than positives. General human uses:
I = infrastructure; A = agriculture;
H = housing; S = spiritual need; C =
commercial; L = cultural; F = forestry;
N = nature protection. (a) Buildings; (b)
facilities; (c) structures; (d) signs. Adapted
from Hersperger et al. (2012).

(c) (d)

13
 Foundations

Since numerous objects of the 26 ecologically import- Eleven contrasting forms or types of ecological-
ant types are present, it would be valuable to learn the succession sites seem to characterize urban areas
cumulative impact as well as the spatial arrangement worldwide. These range from microsites, such as the
of ecological impacts. Analogous multitudes of human base of a sign or a window box, to long discontinuous
objects exist in suburbs and a city. A research frontier corridors along railways and highways (Figure 1.7).
awaits urban ecologists. The prime causative mechanism differs for each of the
Physical environment. A still-broader approach successional forms. All 11 cases have little or no human
studies habitats. These are where organisms and maintenance, and manifest vegetation change in the
species mainly live, and thus strongly represent the early phase of ecological succession (before a site is
physical environmental conditions of soil, water, and essentially covered by a canopy of woody plants). Also
air. Again the list is extensive – soil composition, fill, all cases are dominated by “spontaneously” colonized
earth, hill, slope, and valley (see Chapter 4). For air, (unplanted) plants, mostly herbaceous. These early
atmosphere level, composition, and air quality are successions are on small and large patches in diverse
characteristic (see Chapter 5). And for water, we see locations, as well as on many types of corridors.
wetland, river, stream, pond, harbor, riverside, stream Cumulatively such early succession sites are prob-
corridor, lakeshore, seacoast, groundwater level ably extremely important ecologically in urban areas.
(water-table), water quantity, and water quality (see Together they maintain high plant species diversity.
Chapter 6). The degree of habitat heterogeneity, i.e., They provide dispersed sites for pollinators. They may
how packed together different habitats are, is particu- function as stepping stones and corridors for species
larly informative. movement across urban areas. By beginning succession
Organisms. Organisms and objects associated at different times and escaping human maintenance
with them also range widely in urban areas. Obvious and disturbance for varied lengths of time, together the
organisms are trees, shrubs, birds, and soil animals. ecological succession sites sustain many examples of all
Organisms can also be characterized as street trees, stages in early succession.
ornamentals, lawn grass, pests, non-natives, wall A comparison of the 11 succession forms or types
vines, disease carrying, and so forth. Ecologists not based on 28 ecologically related variables suggests sev-
only study these as individual organisms, but also as eral patterns of interest. All of the forms have both eco-
“populations” of individuals, especially their variations logically positive and negative roles (relative to plants,
in abundance or density. animals, soil, air, water). Negatives strongly outweigh
A natural or “ecological community” perspective positives in three cases (Figure 1.7a, b, g). However,
often focuses on the species living together at a site and positives are considerably more frequent than nega-
their interactions. Thus, species richness (i.e., diversity tives in six cases (Figure 1.7c, d, e, f, j, k). The 28 eco-
or number), composition (the actual species present), logical variables considered were roughly grouped into
and dominance (or relative abundance) of species are three categories: general; air, soil and water; vegetation,
major attributes to assay. Different types of species are plants, and animals. The 11 succession forms are most
of prime interest, including rare, dominant, pest, non- clearly differentiated by negatives and positives in the
native, rapidly reproducing, herbivore, predator, dan- vegetation, plants, and animals category. Thus, overall,
gerous, and keystone species. early ecological succession sites are major character-
Change over time in the ecological community or istics of urban areas, and some sites appear to be far
vegetation is ecological succession. Ecologists usually better ecologically than others.
focus on changing vertical, horizontal, and/or bio-
logical structure (Ricklefs and Miller, 2000). Typically Flows and changes
succession follows major disturbance, even vegeta- Flows and movements. Most of the preceding attributes
tion clearing. Ecological processes, rather than human are objects or spatial patterns. Lots of things of major
management or activity, predominate in ecological ecological importance move through urban areas.
succession. In this book we refer to successional habitats Consider streamline, turbulent, and vortex air flows
as sites in an early stage of succession, normally char- (winds), as well as various breezes created by local tem-
acterized by abundant herbaceous vegetation that may perature differences.
contain shrubs plus tree seedlings and saplings (Adams Urban water flows are exceedingly diverse. Rainfall,
et al., 2006). stream/river flow, and floodwaters are readily seen.

14
 Urban attributes and ecological assays

(a) (b) (c) Figure 1.7. Eleven alternative forms

of urban successional habitats. Such
sites (variously labeled neglected,
abandoned, fallow or ruderal) are largely
covered with “spontaneous” herbaceous
vegetation, often with scattered
shrubs, even small trees, present. Based
on Gilbert (1991), Godde et al. (1995),
Wheater (1999), Boada and Capdevila
(2000), Del Tredici (2010), and other
sources.

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(j) (k)

Stormwater drains and pipes carry rainwater and Organisms mainly move by locomotion in the
snowmelt away. But also a clean-water supply is typ- urban environment. Birds and bats and insects fly over-
ically piped into urban areas. Human wastewater may head, while mammals, reptiles, amphibians and many
leave buildings in a sewage pipe and flow to a sewage invertebrates run, walk, or crawl about. Fish and some
treatment facility. Wastewater may also leave a build- other aquatic organisms swim by. Other aquatic organ-
ing and abruptly enter a small adjacent septic system isms are carried one-way by water flow, analogous to
for cleaning and distribution into the soil. the movement of spores, pollen, and tiny organisms

15
 Foundations

caused by wind. Many of the vertebrate species have grow larger, and vacant lots appear and disappear.
several types of movement. Territorial defense, for- Early ecological succession is conspicuous on many
aging for food in a home range, dispersing to mate and sites, which are often transformed to buildings or other
set up a new home range, and even migrating back and land uses at this time scale.
forth between locations over time are characteristic. Over-decades changes describe a city’s outward
Change over time. Change occurs over different urbanization, pipes rusting and bursting, vehicle tech-
time scales. These may range from minutes/hours to nology evolving, and indeed sea-level rise (Figure 1.8).
day/night, week/weekend, seasonally, over years, over The over-centuries time scale has been useful, for
decades, over centuries, even over millennia. Some instance, to understand shipping and port patterns,
species or ecological systems may be relatively resistant vegetation types relative to land-use change in Sydney
to change, while others are resilient and rapidly bounce (Benson and Howell, 1990), as well as the arrival time of
back after an alteration. With the intensity of changes plants to cities in Europe (Sukopp, 1990). Cities come
in the urban environment, some species or habitats and go (Mumford, 1961). Very few cities have persisted
are neither sufficiently resistant nor resilient, so that over millennia.
change leads to a quite different ecological condition
or state afterward. People and their activities
Minutes/hours changes include earthquakes, tsu-
With a concentrated human population, nearly every-
namis, sinkhole formation, and the flight of flocking
thing people do in urban areas has ecological impli-
birds to a different park. Diurnal changes occur in CO2
cations. The large human fields of urban history,
evolution and plant evapo-transpiration, as well as ani-
geography, economics, sociology, housing, trans-
mals either being active at daytime when people are,
portation, water, and public health will be noticeably
or at night with few people about. Week/weekend eco-
enhanced by adding a strong urban-ecology dimen-
logical studies barely exist, but the cycles of commut-
sion. Before moving on to the book’s central themes
ers and of weekend recreationists suggest that animals
of interactions among organisms, built structures, and
could readily respond, even adapt. The changing sea-
the physical environment where people are concen-
sons are familiar, with weather, phenology, dormancy,
trated, we briefly introduce diverse human interactions
and migration responses of organisms.
with the environment.
The over-years changes seem especially widespread
For illustration, we briefly highlight three dissimi-
in urban areas. Shops change, informal squatter settle-
lar dimensions, each of considerable ecological import-
ments appear, termites degrade wooden foundations,
ance: (1) human needs, social patterns, and economics;
species populations change, shrubs and small trees
(2) domestic animals; and (3) pests and public health.

Human needs, social patterns,

and economics
Human needs
The United Nations traditionally has highlighted four
basic human needs: water, food, health, and shelter. A
fifth – energy – is often added. Water means a rela-
tively clean water supply; health means age-related
reasonably good health; shelter usually refers to hous-
ing; and energy indicates fuel for cooking, and in cool
climates, heating. All have major implications, positive
and negative, for the ecological conditions of a city or
urban area.
For most cities a clean water supply requires a reser-
Figure 1.8. Change in shipping over centuries plus big bridge and voir (s) with surrounding land protection (Chapter 6)
cars over decades. Philadelphia (foreground) and Camden, New
Jersey (background). Industrial and stormwater pollutants wash (Forman, 2008). Small cities using groundwater or
directly into the river water. R. Forman photo. streams typically have insufficient water quantity and

16
 People and their activities

poor water quality. Without adequate land protec- perspectives: (1) interactions with one or a few people;
tion around a reservoir, water quantity fluctuates and (2) interactions with a group; and (3) spaces for social
quality may require extensive chemical treatment. The interactions.
water supply and its surroundings are key sources of First, family activities occur both within a residence
biodiversity in an urban region. and in outdoor private space, if any, where gardening,
Food for urban people may be imported from afar lawn mowing, relaxing, and children playing are com-
and depend on distant agricultural land plus long- mon. Beyond the residence, people walk, join friends
distance transportation. On the other hand, urban for a meal, recreate, and engage in mate-finding. For all
agriculture produces food locally, thus avoiding both of these a sense of security is important. Where cars are
distant farmland and transportation (Chapter 12). abundant, many people spend considerable time driv-
Urban agriculture ranges from window-box tomatoes ing, often alone, in traffic. The ecological dimensions
and herbs, to backyard vegetable gardens and market of these personal activities are far-reaching and intro-
gardening (truck farming) near the city. All types of duced in later chapters.
urban agriculture may affect biodiversity and species Second, people interact in groups of all sorts.
movement, as well as soil, water, and air conditions. Neighborhood activities, government or political activ-
Energy may be locally generated usually in small ities, and meetings of varied social groups illustrate
amounts, such as from geo-thermal, tidal, wave, wind the breadth of group interactions. People join crowds
or solar sources, all of which have ecological effects. attending concerts and sporting events. Shopping nor-
But the concentrated urban human population today mally involves interacting with pedestrians and diverse
normally depends on a major input of fossil fuel, i.e., shop personnel. Using public transport is a group-join-
oil, gas, and/or coal. Transportation by ship, pipeline ing activity. Social interactions may be extensive in an
or rail involves key urban land uses, as well as leaks and emergency or disaster event.
spills of ecological import. Pipeline and rail corridors Third, spaces in urban areas are planned and dis-
into a city are doubtless major routes for species move- tributed to enhance different social interactions. Parks
ment. Mostly within the metro area, the fossil fuel is are favorite meeting places as well as relaxation and
combusted in power plants, industries and vehicles, recreation spaces. Neighborhoods, from old wealthy
with another range of ecological effects. areas to rich or poor residential areas, even informal
Several key urban features are not included as squatter settlements, often have walkways, ball fields,
basic human needs. Transportation by train, bus, car, and other amenities as meeting places. Neighbors may
and bicycle is omitted. Mainly people can walk (sup- meet at the water fountain or well, the public toilet, or
plemented by public transit), especially in a city where indeed the dump. Creating an effective arrangement of
their needs could be met close by. Waste disposal, from spaces that combines residential, shopping (commer-
garbage and rubbish to human wastewater, is missing cial), and employment (e.g., industry) areas in proxim-
from the list. Is that a basic human need? Certainly ity would tend to sustain a stable community. Stability
the urban ecology implications are large. Recreation, over time normally increases social interactions and a
education, religion, aesthetics, private spaces, fam- sense of community.
ily, security, and employment, while often desirable, A few activities illustrate the countless ecological
are not included. Quality of life is not listed as a basic dimensions of these social patterns. Gardening and
human need. Nonetheless, essentially all of these fun- lawn mowing may improve soil and water conditions,
damental human dimensions affect ecological condi- as well as enhance plant species diversity and wildlife
tions in urban areas, and vice versa. movement. Or they may cause the opposite. Walking
or using public transport, rather than driving, causes
Social patterns less aerial nitrogen-oxide emission, petroleum-related
Social patterns focus on groups of people, their inter- pollution reaching water bodies, and traffic blockage
actions, and their organizational and spatial arrange- of wildlife movement routes. Distributing parks so
ments (Grove and Burch, 1997; Pacione, 2005; Berke that they are, say, a 10-minute walk from everyone’s
et al., 2006; Warren et al., 2010; Redman, 2011. With residence provides stepping stones for wildlife move-
thousands of people packed together, clearly this is a ment across the city. Combining homes, shopping and
central component of urban areas. For convenience, we employment in mixed-use areas reduces transpor-
consider social conditions and interactions from three tation impacts. In essence, social patterns and urban

17
 Foundations

ecology dimensions have manifold reciprocal interac- and short-term future are important; and (6) prudence
tions, both positive and negative. based on uncertainty addresses resource constraints.
Economic models are traditionally weak in consid-
Economics ering spatial arrangement and natural systems, both
Before introducing specific economic imprints and especially important in urban areas (Daily and Ellison,
activities in an urban area, it is valuable to briefly con- 2002; Burchell et al., 2005; Forman, 2008). For instance,
sider key perspectives linking economics and ecology. the core of environmental economics is the degradation
These include growth economics, regulatory eco- by pollution of water bodies, soil, biodiversity, natural
nomics, ecological economics, and environmental communities, wildlife, and even recreation, aesthet-
economics. ics and public health. Consider clean water, which is
Growth economics, which has especially developed increasingly in short supply and expensive in urban
since the 1940s (McNeill, 2000) is usefully highlighted regions. Surrounding a water source with natural vege-
in the phrase, “Let the free market determine it” tation is the best way to protect it both long-term and
(Forman, 2008). Three components are central. Human short-term. This natural vegetation is one of nature’s
consumers are the main players. Preferences and tastes services or ecosystem services (Daily, 1997; Daily and
are the primary driving force. And the resource base is Ellison, 2002; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
virtually limitless, since substitution or technology can 2005; National Research Council, 2005b), or landscape
overcome shortages. Success means sustained growth, services (Termorshuizon and Opdam, 2009), providing
avoiding too-high and too-low periods. a huge value to the population. Wetlands that absorb
Regulatory economics, on the other hand, depends stormwater and reduce flooding, nearby areas for rec-
on government regulations, laws, other limitations, reation, vegetated stream corridors reducing erosion
and sometimes planning for the future, to head off eco- and sedimentation, and natural soils that absorb and
nomic problems or crises (Jones, 2002; Perman et al., break down pollutants are nature’s services. These pro-
2003; Box, 2011). Short-term regulations may be react- vide large, mainly non-market economic values.
ive or proactive and open up opportunity, but they Looking specifically within an urban area pinpoints
also intrude on the free market and business, some- its economic imprint and activity. Manufacturing and
times suppressing innovation. Population growth and industry, a city-center central business district (CBD),
economic growth are related in complex ways (Ray, office and business centers, centers of employment, and
1998; Rogers et al., 2006). Irrespective, cities world- several types of shopping areas directly highlight eco-
wide are mushrooming in population, and overall the nomic activity. Also one sees transportation, housing
outward expansion is worse ecologically than internal of varied types, and construction sites as indirect meas-
densification. ures of economic conditions. Wealthy, middle-income,
Ecological economics seems to have emerged as the poor, informal-squatter, ethnic, old, and new neigh-
combination of resource and environmental dimen- borhoods are quite separated or mixed, and are close
sions (Perman et al., 2003; National Research Council, to or far from employment. These spatial patterns tell
2005b). Thus, natural resources represent input cap- much about both economic and ecological conditions.
ital for an economy (Costanza et al., 1997b; De Groot, Consider a few more ecological linkages with eco-
2006; Kareiva et al., 2011). Meanwhile environmental nomic patterns. Old and new neighborhoods tend
economics focuses on the by-products of production to have different species, densities, and sizes of trees
and wastes of consumption, especially air and water (Schmid, 1975; Whitney, 1985). So do wealthy and
pollutants. Many other important human effects on poor neighborhoods. Soil erosion is often a problem in
natural systems should also be highlighted. informal settlements, partly because of their location
Compared with the growth and regulatory often on steep slopes and partly because of the density
approaches above, ecological economics has a notice- of people squeezed into one- and two-level housing.
ably different set of core attributes, including (Costanza Ecological finiteness is a special concern in urban
et al., 1997a; Jones, 2002; Forman, 2008): (1) humans areas where so much of the land is impermeable sur-
are a part of the overall natural and human system; face. Many habitat types are rare. Indeed, only one lake,
(2) preference and technology adapt to changing eco- semi-natural woods, stunning natural view, rock out-
logical conditions; (3) human intelligence can manage crop, rare-species population, large wetland, stream
for a goal; (4) resources are finite; (5) both the long-term corridor, or sequence of key stepping stones may be

18
 People and their activities

present. To prevent disappearance and consequent runoff and sewage wastewater are heavily dosed with
urban impoverishment, such rare ecological features nitrogen and other pollutants from these urban-animal
require sustained protection. Economic activity in facilities. Water bodies then receive the pollutants.
an urban setting of scarce resources can be appro- Finally domestic animals are subject to, and vectors
priately integrated with ecological conditions for the for, numerous diseases. These include viruses, bacterial
long term. infections, and parasites (MacPherson et al., 2000). In
areas of unvaccinated dogs, wildlife are infected with
more canine distemper and parvovirus (Fiorello et al.,
Domestic animals 2006). In the next two sections we consider dogs and
Companion animals or pets are packed into urban areas cats in more detail relative to urban ecology.
at high density and represent a key linkage between
human and ecological conditions. Pets include fish, Dogs
birds, lizards, turtles, snakes, frogs, invertebrates, ham- While some dogs (Canis familiaris) remain indoors,
sters, mice, monkeys and much more. However, dogs most spend a portion of their day outdoors, either
and cats are the predominant companion animals, and on a leash or free-ranging. Since urban dogs are typ-
are most likely to interact with wildlife in urban areas. ically fed by their owners, generally dog predation on
In addition to companionship and comfort, pets may wildlife is uncommon. “Feral” dogs and cats have no
provide security, education for children, and improved owners. Dog packs in urban areas are usually limited to
human health (Kellert, 2005). locations with few people and near sources of garbage
Biophilia, the inherent human attraction to, link- for food.
age with, and dependence on nature, is well illustrated Consider the home ranges, the area covered in
in urban areas (Kellert, 2005; Kellert et al., 2008). daily movements, of free-ranging dogs in a small city
Familiar examples are the more rapid recovery from (Figure 1.9) (Berman and Dunbar, 1983). The average
illness, or the increased productivity and satisfaction home range size is 3.5 hectares (8.6 acres) in this small
of workers, when viewing vegetation rather than bare city, though of course home ranges vary enormously
walls. But the biophilic benefits of nature right around according to the breed or size of dog. Thus, the bea-
us range from lower stress levels to enhanced mental gle (0.01 ha) and spaniel (0.02 ha) essentially only use
development in children. Plants along hallways, out- a single city block in their daily movements. In con-
door green walls, tropical fish tanks in schools and cor- trast, the home range for collie (5.4 ha) includes five
porate office spaces, and viewing cute or active animals city blocks and for afghan (7.9 ha) seven city blocks.
all have biophilic roles for people. Yet vegetation also Overall, urban home ranges tend to be small for such
enhances environmental conditions, such as improv- dogs because being fed at home means that foraging for
ing interior air quality, reducing airborne particulate food is essentially unnecessary.
pollution above streets, and providing insect food and Much of these residential home-range areas is com-
nest sites for birds. posed of buildings and fenced-off yard areas. Thus, the
Farm animals, while sometimes pets in urban areas, effective or “accessible home range” for the dogs aver-
are usually kept in small numbers for food. Chickens, ages only 1.7 ha (4 acres). Accessible home ranges differ
rabbits, goats, cows, and even pigs may provide meat, little from total home ranges for the smaller sedentary
eggs, or milk for families or local shops. Other values of dogs, but differ considerably for the wider-ranging
urban farm animals include pelts or hides (e.g., rabbits, breeds. The dog home ranges are composed of a core
cows), garbage recycling (pigs), riding (horses), and area of dense movement, plus a usually larger travel area
spiritual or sacred dimensions (cows). of occasional movement. Superimposing home ranges
Domestic animals are concentrated in pet stores, of the different dogs emphasizes that a travel area com-
animal shelters, varied farm-animal venues, animal monly extends into another dog’s home range, though
pounds, kennels for temporary care, and veterinary usually not into its core area where territorial defense
facilities. These facilities scattered through the urban might be an issue. In general the dogs do not gravitate
area deal with large amounts of animal food and ani- toward the park (Figure 1.9, left side) where more wild-
mal waste. Pests from cockroaches to mice, rats and life diversity might be expected.
other animals are permanently attracted to such sites. The sight, sound (barking), or smell of a dog may
Presumably pesticides are widely used. Stormwater cause wildlife to respond with any of three avoidance

19
 Foundations

(a) (b) (c) Figure 1.9. Home ranges of dogs in

residential area of a small city. Based
on 105 samples between 06.00 and
24.00 h from April through October
in a 48-hectare (120-acre) middle-
income area of Berkeley, California. The
free-ranging dogs are without human
supervision and have immediate
unrestrained access to public property.
Shading = dense core area for a dog;
remaining enclosed area = sparse travel
area. N = number of observations; HR =
home range area based on connecting
the outlying sightings; AHR = accessible
home range, i.e., on streets, sidewalks,
parks, and unfenced private property.
No aggressive behavior and no dog
pack of 2+ individuals observed. (1 ha
= 2.5 acres). Adapted from Berman and
Dunbar (1983).

behaviors (Liddle, 1997): (1) flushing, that is, stress and trees, where the slow-moving animals are easily sub-
moving away; (2) changing to a new habitat; and (3) ject to dog-kill (Prevett, 1991).
direct damaging contact. Flushing is usually a tempor- The effectiveness of requiring dogs to be on leashes
ary movement and the wildlife may return after the dog (via a dog leash law) in urban parks was evaluated for
has left. Flushing distances, such as between person and bird diversity in three major habitat types in Edmonton
animal, are known for some wildlife such as herons and (Canada) (Forrest and St. Clair, 2006). In none of the habi-
deer in natural areas, but seem to be poorly known for tats was there a significant effect of leashing dogs on avian
dogs in urban areas. Changing to a new habitat usually species diversity, or on the diversity of probable-breeding
results from repeated flushings of an animal, and tends species. However, dogs, especially unleashed, seem to
to reduce populations and species richness in the ori- have the greatest effect on mid-size and large mammals.
ginal habitat. Direct damaging contact, such as a dog The home range of dogs that are occasionally leash-
catching a rabbit, eliminates only one animal, unless restrained by owners in a Queens, New York City study
other animals witness the event and thereafter avoid was reported to be about 2 ha (5 acres) (Rubin and
the site. Beck, 1982). Free-ranging dogs without restraints cov-
Dog walking may cause all three wildlife behav- ered five times that area. However, free-ranging dogs
ioral responses. Thus, for visitors to an urban nature- at a dump with ample food had a home range of about
protection area, dog walkers penetrated the furthest in, 2 ha, the same as the occasionally restrained dogs that
and off-leash dogs were considered to have the most feed at home (Rubin and Beck, 1982).
intrusive impact on wildlife (Antos et al., 2007). But Dog packs of typically 2–5 individuals remaining
the smell of dogs also affects wildlife. Canine scent- together are frequent where home feeding and leashed
marking by urine and feces near trails may cause some dog-walking are less. In a rural New Mexico (USA)
wildlife to avoid the area (Miller and Hobbs, 2000). In community, feral dogs in packs had a home range aver-
the UK, certain urban tree bases regularly squirted by aging 0.14 km2(14 ha = 0.05 mi2) when pups were small,
dog urine as “signal or communication posts” may be expanding to 1.6 km2 after pups were about 4 months
covered by a green alga, Prasiola crispa, presumably old (Daniels and Bekoff, 1989). In the small city of Fort
benefitting from the added nitrogen (Gilbert, 1991). Collins (Colorado, USA), about 80% of the free-rang-
Imagine the amount of dog urine and dog feces pro- ing dogs showed evidence of being owned, while 17%
duced daily in a city or region (Matter and Daniels, were in packs (Rubin and Beck, 1982; Lehner et al.,
2000). 1983). In the larger cities of Sacramento (California)
Direct mortality by dogs is perhaps best illustrated and Baltimore, with a higher human population dens-
by the iconic yet scarce koala, which feeds on leaves ity, 33% and 49% of the dogs respectively were reported
atop tall eucalypt trees in Australia. In suburban areas, to be in packs. For Sacramento, in city center 30% of the
koalas must periodically cross the ground between dogs were in packs, and in the suburbs 21%.

20
 People and their activities

Finally, >95% of the free-ranging dogs in an Isoso ranging cats outdoors are of primary ecological inter-
(Bolivia) area were carrying both the canine distem- est (Figure 1.10). Three types are recognized: (1) cats
per virus and canine parvovirus (Fiorello et al., 2006). maintained or fed by owners; (2) stray cats recently lost
Since many opportunities existed for contact between or escaped from owners; and (3) feral cats. About two-
the domestic dogs and wild carnivores, the disease risk thirds of the outdoor cats in the USA are considered to
for native wildlife is considerable. Water bodies in and be owner-maintained, while the rest are free-ranging
downslope of urban areas may also be at risk of disease strays and feral cats.
from dogs. Considerable amounts of dog feces are pro- The density of cats correlates much more with
duced in an urban area where the dog density is 20 to human density than with prey density (Sims et al.,
100+ times the density of native carnivores (Figure 1.10) 2008). In an area of dispersed houses the cat density is
(Matter and Daniels, 2000). Fecal coliform bacteria (E. some 20 to >100 times the density of native predators
coli) from dog waste throughout the city and suburb (Kays and DeWan, 2004). The ratio is doubtless much
are stormwater-washed into drains and water bodies. higher in city areas, although the density of scavengers
Nitrogen from dog urine follows the same route into such as rats and raccoons often far exceeds cat density
water bodies. Also, park areas dedicated for use by off- (Jackson, 1951; Childs, 1986; Courchamp et al., 1999).
leash dogs may have a buildup of dog waste, and conse- Cats generally cannot control urban rat populations.
quent impacts on nearby water (Lee et al., 2009). Free-ranging cat density is higher in suburbs than in
rural areas. Meanwhile, urban cat owners may have
Cats only half as many outdoor cats as owners in rural areas
Since being domesticated in the populated areas of (Lepczyk and Warren, 2012). Also in suburbs cat dens-
Egypt some 4000 years ago, cats (Felis catus) have been ity typically exceeds dog density (Campos et al., 2007).
prime human companions. In addition to being pets, Four ecological studies provide insight into the
cats retain their instinct to hunt and are often main- actual density of free-ranging cats in urban areas. A 4.2
tained to reduce mouse, and even rat, populations. km2 urban area of Bristol (UK) had an average of 229
Estimates of cat abundance range from >400 mil- owner-maintained cats per km2 (595/mi2) (Baker et al.,
lion worldwide to some 100 million in the USA alone 2005). Another UK study found 986 cats associated
(Marks and Duncan, 2009). with 618 households, an average of 1.6 cats/household
Relatively few cats remain indoors and hardly (Woods et al., 2003). An estimated 800 to 3100 free-
any outdoor cats function well on leashes. Thus, free- ranging cats were found along 120 km (72 mi) of road
in a Michigan (USA) suburb (Lepczyk et al., 2003).
Figure 1.10. Finally, in a 33-ha (83-acre) city area in two neighbor-
Urban dogs and
cats. (a) Meeting hoods of Brooklyn (New York), the density of owner-
place of companion maintained free-ranging cats (pets) was 48/km2 (125/
dogs in a park; mi2). Meanwhile, 134 feral cats per km2 (348/mi2) were
columns for the 52
Chinese peoples also present (Haspel and Calhoon, 1991). If the preced-
in background. ing studies are broadly representative, it appears that
Beijing. R. Forman free-ranging cat density increases from rural to subur-
photo. (b) Free-
ranging urban cats ban to city area, and that feral cats may predominate in
by the Coliseum a large city.
(a) underground, Food is particularly important in determining how
where lions
and tigers once cats, as generalists, use urban space. Three types of
prowled before food are available: (1) owner-provided food (cat food);
shows. Rome. (2) garbage; and (3) prey animals caught by cats. The
Photo courtesy and
with permission of total amount of available food in urban areas typically
Brent C. Forman. well exceeds what cats consume (Haspel and Calhoon,
1991). Owner-provided food is normally stable and
dependable, so cats dependent on this have no need to
forage, and thus have rather-small urban home ranges.
Garbage supply, as found in house or building garbage
(b) containers, restaurants/hotels, grocery stores, recycling

21
 Foundations

dumpster containers, and rubbish dumps (tips), is food normally available. Nonetheless, the question of
often also a dependable food source (Sims et al., 2008). the effect of cat predation is important because the
Cat density around these sources is doubtless related to uncommon wildlife species in urban areas have small
the amount of accessible garbage. population sizes. Such populations could be signifi-
The third food source, prey animals, follows from cantly reduced by cat predation.
domestic cats’ instinct for hunting. Prey animals nor- A comparative study of two parks in California is
mally vary markedly in density and location, so hunt- particularly interesting (Hawkins et al., 1999). One
ing and predation mean much larger distances moved. park had no cats, and the second park had 25 cats that
Predation may especially occur along the edges of were fed daily. The first park ended up with twice as
woods where two habitats adjoin and where vegetation many bird species, including two ground-nesting
and wildlife may be dense (Marks and Duncan, 2009). species absent from the second park. Trapping small
Although urban cats may catch prey, it is normally a tiny mammals indicated that the first park had 85% native
portion of the diet, because of the ready and widespread deer mice and 21% house mice, whereas the second
availability of garbage and owner-provided food. park with cats had 79% house mice and 15% deer mice.
In the Brooklyn study, the average home range was Thus, a population of fed cats apparently lowered the
1.8 ha (4.5 acres) for female cats, and 2.6 ha for males. abundance of native bird and rodent populations, and
Home-range sizes were essentially the same in two city radically changed species composition.
neighborhoods. Feral cats especially are more active Do cats kill more birds or more mammals? The fol-
and travel longer distances at night (when fewer people lowing studies provide real data. In the urban Bristol
are around in built areas) (Haspel and Calhoon, 1991; study mentioned above, with an average of 229 pet
Barrat, 1997). Thus, a suburban study of ten cats found cats per km2, the predation rate based on animals
the daytime (diurnal) home range to average 2.7 ha (6.8 brought home was calculated to be 21 prey killed per
acres), whereas the nocturnal home range averaged 7.9 cat per year (Baker et al., 2005). Twice as many birds
ha, and with considerable variation among cats (Barrat, were killed as mammals. Bird predation was highest in
1997). Movements more than 100–200 m from home spring and summer, probably reflecting the availabil-
only occurred at night. ity of young. For three species [house sparrow (Passer
Feral cats concentrate where food resources and domesticus), dunnock (Prunella modularis), and robin
shelter are close together, and where few people are (Erithacus rubecula), all among the most common
present (Figure 1.10b). Without an owner’s home for birds present], the estimated predation rates were high
shelter, feral cats are vulnerable to daily and seasonal relative to the estimated production of birds. This sug-
weather variations. In Rome, groups of female feral cats gests that the study area could be a “dispersal sink,”
collectively occupy areas with the best shelter, which is where birds lost to cat predation are replaced by immi-
used for rearing kittens. The females attack and chase grating juvenile birds, which in turn are at particular
away all males and almost all females (Natoli, 1985). risk of predation.
Predation by domestic cats on native wildlife has The Michigan study above only studied predation
been reported to be significant on certain islands on birds, and concluded that the 800–3100 cats present
(Atkinson, 1989). The relative importance of cat pre- along 120 km of suburban roads killed 16 000 to 47 000
dation remains uncertain in rural areas. There human birds during the breeding season, or 1 bird killed/km/
activities around homes and farm buildings alter the day. On average each cat killed 1 bird per week. Of the
fauna, e.g., by attracting house mice and house spar- 23 bird species killed, two were considered as of “con-
rows and largely eliminating sensitive wildlife species. servation concern.”
Consequently, almost all rural cat predation is of com- Other studies conclude that small mammals are
mon species benefitting from humans. more abundant in the cat diet. The 986 cats in 618
In considering the roles of urban and suburban UK households brought home (killed) during April
cats following, it is important to note that, although through August were 69% mammals, 24% birds, 4%
cats as hunters kill prey, little information is available amphibians, 2% fish, 1% reptiles, and some inverte-
evaluating whether the number killed significantly brates (Woods et al., 2003). These included 44+ species
decreases a species population. Common urban ani- of wild birds, 20 wild mammal species, 4 reptiles, and 3
mal species doubtless make babies much faster than amphibian species. On average a cat brought home one
cats kill animals, especially with ample garbage or cat animal every 2 weeks.

22
 People and their activities

In a suburban and rural area in Hungary, small projects and books focus on pests and public health.
mammals were 61–82%, and birds 2–7%, of cat prey Thus, the point of this brief section is to illustrate a
(Biro et al., 2005). A village study (Bedfordshire, UK) range of public health issues involved, and how eco-
found a similar 64% of the cat prey to be small mam- logical conditions affect people, as well as vice versa,
mals, especially wood mice, field voles, and common in urban areas. But first, garbage trucks break down,
shrews (Churcher and Lawton, 1989). Bird prey was house mice lurk, stormwater drains clog, cracks form,
only in the majority in winter when mammals were termite-filled foundations crumble, toilets leak, vehi-
mostly underground. Young cats also chased frogs and cles crash, floods happen, clouds of mosquitoes des-
butterflies, while old cats had little predation. House cend, pollen pours in, pollutants accumulate, pigeon
sparrows (Passer domesticus) were 16% of the prey, and flocks poop (defecate), dumpsters overflow, and rats
it is hypothesized that cat predation may represent 1/3 lurk. These are essentially inexorable urban proc-
to 1/2 of sparrow mortality. The authors suggest that cats esses, all causing significant effects. All thoroughly
may only bring home half of their prey, and that, despite link humans to urban ecology, i.e., to organisms, built
higher previous estimates, about 100 killed prey per structures, and the physical environment.
year is the maximum for a free-ranging mid-age cat.
In short, domestic cats as inherent hunters kill small Pests
mammals, birds, and other animals. In urban areas of Pests are organisms that annoy humans. The common
diverse types, little evidence is available that predation response is to apply pesticides, including insecticides,
rates have a significant effect on population sizes of herbicides, fungicides, and many others depending
prey, except at local spots. Nevertheless, the question on the type of pest. Because pesticide application is so
needs study because most species of ecological and frequent and has continued for so long, in effect many
conservation interest are present in low numbers, and pest species have genetically adapted and are pesticide
increasing their numbers and movement patterns may resistant (Robinson, 1996). In some rural and subur-
be considered an urban conservation goal. ban areas, “integrated pest management” (IPM) is
A few final observations on urban cats broaden the sometimes recommended or used (Carpenter, 1983;
perspective in diverse directions. A suburban/rural Robinson, 1996; Mizell and Hagen, 2000). This means
study in Southeastern Brazil found that invertebrates that a battery of approaches is used to reduce pest num-
were the prime prey of free-ranging cats, and that mam- bers, such as by increasing species diversity, accelerat-
mals represented 20%, and birds still less of the prey ing ecological succession, reducing or adding water
(Campos et al., 2007). Cats are well-known vectors for and nutrients, altering the topsoil, adding competitors,
many animal and human diseases, including parasites, adding predators, and, if appropriate, adding a limited
bacteria, and viruses (MacPherson et al., 2000). Little amount of pesticide.
seems to be known about the effect of concentrated Plant pests tend to defoliate trees, including street
feces from so many outdoor cats in the limited green- trees (Tello et al., 2005). Ornamental plantings of
spaces of urban areas. With an overabundance of food flowers, shrubs, and trees throughout the urban area
for cats, overall predation, competition, territorial may suffer from plant pests, though pest resistance
behavior, and starvation typically remain at low levels has often been selected for in advance for ornamen-
in urban areas. Since hunting and hunger are appar- tals (Mizell and Hagan, 2000; Benedikz et al., 2005).
ently controlled by different areas of the brain, cat pre- Vegetables and fruits are often damaged by plant pests
dation rates may not be affected by the availability of as gardeners well know (Mougeot, 2005; Tallaki, 2005).
cat food at home (Warner, 1985). Finally, domestic cats Among the solutions that may work are growing adja-
introduced into Australia are generally considered to cent plants known to repel pests such as rabbits. Pests
be significant ecological problems due to their preda- of lawn grass include vertebrates, invertebrates, fungi,
tion on the distinctive native fauna. and bacteria (Mizell and Hagen, 2000).
Not surprisingly, insects are the most familiar and
numerous urban pests (Ehler and Frankie, 1978; Hickin,
Pests and public health 1985; Robinson, 1996). Cockroaches, termites, carpen-
Bags split, cockroaches lurk, pipes burst, sewage facil- ter ants, mosquitoes, flies, midges, and the list goes on
ities overflow, and pathogens multiply. Unlike the (Fowler, 1983; Wheater, 1999; Aluko and Husseneder,
preceding topic of cats and dogs, numerous research 2007). Insecticides have traditionally been the solution

23
 Foundations

of choice. Insects, however, may readily adapt to insec- Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Chemicals in air and
ticides, heat, and other urban conditions (Ehler and water cause many illnesses and deaths but microor-
Frankie, 1978; Parmesan, 2006; Angilletta et al., 2007; ganisms (microbes) are the prime source of disease
Evans, 2010). Urban alternatives for limiting insects and death. Before introducing the human diseases, it
include planting certain plants, adding bat boxes, using is important to remember that microbes are “every-
natural substances, improving water drainage, adding where.” Indeed, many are central to well-functioning
fish, and other ecological approaches (Flanders, 1986; natural systems and human life. For example, con-
Raupp, 2012). Invertebrate pests also include slugs, spi- sider the bacteria and fungi that decompose dead
ders, and ticks. leaves and garbage, soil-enriching nitrogen-fixing
Vertebrate pests often make headlines in urban bacteria in legume roots, mycorrhizal fungi upon
areas (Hickin, 1985; Adams and Leedy, 1991; Bolen, which many trees depend, productive phytoplankton
2000; Adams et al., 2006). For example, the top-ten in the sea, zooplankton as a key stage in aquatic food
urban vertebrate pests in the USA (in order based on chains, essential bacteria in the gut of animals and us,
number of national and regional records during 1994– and so forth.
2003) (Adams et al., 2006) are: (1) raccoons (73 084); The public health issues introduced below are illus-
(2) coyotes (56 081); (3) skunks (54 198); (4) beavers trative rather than exhaustive; many others including
(45 958); (5) deer (36 943); (6) geese (34 808); (7) squir- tuberculosis, typhus, and smallpox could be added.
rels (28 975); (8) opossums (21 871); (9) foxes (20 635); Also they highlight physical health, not mental or emo-
and (10) blackbirds (19 228) (Procyon; Canis; Mephitis; tional health, for instance related to genetics, stress, or
Castor; Odocoileus; Branta canadensis; Sciurus, disasters (Frumkin et al., 2004; Kaplan and Kaplan,
Tamiasciurus; Didelphis; Vulpes, Urocyon; Quiscalus, 2008; Tzoulas and Greening, 2011). Lots of indirect
Agelaius, Sturnis, etc.). issues could be added, such as expanding urbanization
In each of nine regions of the nation, on aver- increasing urban heat (Chapter 5), which makes people
age six of these species are among the top-ten pests, more susceptible to illness and disease (Knowlton et al.,
along with four other species (Adams et al., 2006). The 2004; Gartland 2008). Public health issues have repeat-
Middle Atlantic Region, with only three of the above edly altered human history (McNeill, 2000; Ponting,
species in the top ten, diverges by far the most from the 2007; Benton-Short and Short, 2008). Human popu-
national pattern. In addition to the list above, top-ten lation density and associated rate of disease transmis-
regional pest species in order are: woodchucks; black sion are keys to urban public health. But also ecological
bears; hawks/owls; pigeons; bobcats; crows; black rats; change and conditions underlie most illnesses and
coots; ducks; armadillos; vultures; bats; cougars; wood- diseases. Public health issues focus around four urban
peckers; gophers; gulls; mourning doves; sparrows; characteristics: (1) water-related; (2) wildlife-related;
mink; and blue jays. Many other urban vertebrates are (3) air pollution; and (4) home, plants, and sprawl.
regarded as pests, including wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Water-related. Stormwater runoff cleans the urban
Berlin and elephants in African and South Asian cit- surface by carrying heavy metals, organic toxic sub-
ies. Lists of airport wildlife posing a threat to aircraft stances, and some pathogens to nearby water bodies,
worldwide would be quite interesting. Reports of pests adding to water pollution levels. In many cities human
commonly stimulate people and government to act in wastewater flows in open ditches or channels to nearby
eliminating or reducing the perceived pest problem. water bodies, greatly increasing the pathogenic bac-
The wide range of vertebrates listed above as pests teria levels (Costa-Pierce et al., 2005). In other cities,
may be annoying to certain people, yet all of the species the wastewater flows in sewer pipes to a sewage treat-
are also much appreciated by other urban residents. ment facility. Such facilities may completely clean the
Both the diversity and abundance of such species in wastewater, or clean it except during heavy rains that
urban areas is impressive. Indeed, all of the vertebrates cause combined sewer overflows (CSOs) putting raw
also play important positive ecological roles in specific sewage directly into water bodies (Benton-Short and
urban habitats, as well as urban regions as a whole. Short, 2008). Most urban sewage treatment facilities
only partially clean the wastewater (providing pri-
Public health mary or secondary treatment), leaving pathogens
Ecological changes and conditions play central roles and/or pollutants to enter water bodies. Urban waste-
in urban public health (McNeill, 2000; Millennium water is sometimes used in aquaculture to grow food

24
 People and their activities

(­ Costa-Pierce et al., 2005; Mukherjee, 2006), a process Some years ago, in the midst of a swine encephal-
warranting continued public-health overview. itis outbreak, I recall feeling like almost the only visitor
According to the United Nations, contaminated in Kuala Lumpur and Malacca (Malaysia). Hundreds
water, especially in developing nations, is over- of people died and thousands of pigs were killed. The
whelmingly the major cause of disease-related deaths. virus normally only resided in flying-fox fruit bats, but
Drinking non-potable (unclean) water leads to gas- urbanization pushing into rainforest placed the bats
tro-enteritic diseases (e.g., the protozoa Girardia and people’s pigs in close proximity (Breed et al., 2006).
and Cryptosporidium), diarrhea, hepatitis virus, and The virus was transmitted from bat to pig to person.
much more. Many chemicals in water from industry, This zoonotic disease, which effectively jumps from
transportation, and other sources also produce toxic wild animals to people (humans “suddenly” become
effects. susceptible), is of special worldwide public-health con-
Wildlife-related. Animal-transmitted diseases are cern. Avian flu or influenza spreading from migrating
extremely diverse, each with a specific pattern, and wild birds to poultry to people, another example, is
cumulatively represent a major public health focus. particularly worrisome because migrating birds cover
Arthropods and rodents especially, but also domestic such large distances.
animals, carry diseases to people. Various intermediate Air pollution. Industry and transportation are
hosts or vectors may be involved, from snails to deer major sources of air pollutants of public health import-
and farm animals. ance (Chapter 5) (Frumkin et al., 2004). Particulate
Mosquitos, favored by standing water where their matter (PM10, and especially the smaller PM2.5 parti-
larvae grow, carry many diseases including the mal- cles) accumulating in lungs causes respiratory disease.
aria protozoan and the equine encephalitis and West Heavy metals such as lead (Pb) are important airborne
Nile viruses (Carpenter, 1983; Robinson, 1996; Patz pollutants degrading health. Concentrated organic
et al., 2000). Ticks on deer, rodents, pets, plants, and compounds in air near certain industries are toxic.
soil may carry the bacteria for Lyme disease or Rocky Smog, produced in the air by combining nitrogen
Mountain spotted fever (Hayes and Piesman, 2003; oxides (NOx) with hydrocarbons (VOCs) in the pres-
Adams et al., 2006). Fleas on rodents, pets, and other ence of sunlight, is an important contributor to asthma
vertebrates may carry the plague bacterium, as high- and emphysema. Moving vehicles are major sources
lighted in the 14th century Black Deaths of Europe and of NOx.
Asia, and in the 20th century plague outbreaks killing Home, plants, and sprawl. Cooking with wood and
>10 million people in India (Robinson, 1996; Collinge other types of biomass coats the lungs with particu-
et al., 2005). lates and toxics, causing disease and death. Gardens
Mammals such as bats, mongoose, skunks, rac- may use fertilizer with excessive heavy metals and
coons, and foxes may carry the rabies virus directly to other pollutants (Maconachie, 2007). Residents often
a person, or the virus may be transmitted indirectly over-use pesticides, plus petroleum-based chemicals
via a pet dog or cat (Rosatte et al., 1991; Bolen, 2000). associated with mowing and vehicles, which reach air
Armadillos may carry the leprosy bacteria. Large and water. A surprising percentage of septic systems
amounts of bird or bat droppings (guano) may con- function poorly, so pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli
tain the fungus Histoplasma causing histoplasmosis, a accumulate in the soil and water. Pollen allergy seems
human disease. related to the abundance of early successional sites,
Rodents, especially rats and mice, are particularly or a low diversity of trees dominated by species pro-
important transmitters of disease in urban areas. These ducing voluminous wind-dispersed pollen (Kopecky,
rodents carry salmonellosis, trichinosis, tularenia, 1990; Carinanos and Casares-Porcel, 2011). Finally,
plague, and more. Mice tend to concentrate around low-density homes dependent on vehicle driving are
buildings and kitchens, while rats typically aggre- associated with high levels of obesity (Frumkin et al.,
gate around dumps, markets/supermarkets, restaur- 2004; Ewing et al., 2008).
ant/hotel areas, storage warehouses, and harbors. A few urban infectious diseases, such as HIV,
Stormwater pipe systems connecting streets and build- Chagas disease, Lyme disease, hantavirus, and rabies,
ing basements are favorite runways for ready rodent seem likely continue no matter how people attempt to
movement. Garbage around home containers, dump- improve or modify ecological conditions (Millennium
ster containers, and dumps is a major rat attractor. Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). But the majority of

25
 Foundations

diseases, including malaria, leishmaniasis, schistosom- and planning for the future. The second through ninth
iasis, Japanese encephalitis, cryptosporidiosis, dengue concepts listed in Table 1.1 effectively contrast cities
fever, and cholera, could be greatly reduced with eco- as products of human perception. The ninth concept
logical solutions. listed, “time perspective,” is also especially informative.
The varied diseases introduced above can be and Some of the reasons for a short or long time perspec-
are addressed with individual solutions, such as redu- tive are mentioned. Time perspective says much about
cing point pollution sources, improving sewage treat- people’s sense of place, caring or stewardship, and plan-
ment facilities, spraying, and so forth (Hardoy et al., ning ahead. The last concept listed, “solutions to prob-
2004; Tzoulas et al., 2007). Some combined solutions lems,” emphasizes how things get done, how the urban
including reducing urban heat, separating stormwater area has been and can be molded for the future.
and wastewater flows in different pipe systems, and an As urban ecology evolves, research questions and
ambitious new semi-permanent system for garbage interpretations of results can be expected to differ geo-
and making rats rare, would provide considerable pub- graphically. But cities are no more diverse than, for
lic health and economic value. However, a big-picture instance, vegetation types or rural land uses worldwide.
integrated approach, focused on broad-scale ecological Ecologists calculate an average and a variance for data.
patterns and processes and the design of whole urban Core theories and principles, plus models highlighting
regions or metro areas, would doubtless offer still- worldwide and local variability, will likely describe the
greater cumulative benefits for public health. encompassing urban ecology of the future.

Using urban ecology for Using urban ecology principles

society’s solutions
We first briefly examine the quite-different urban Spatial planning principles and patterns
environments worldwide as the product of regional Principles combined with creativity are used to accom-
and cultural human perspectives. Then urban ecology plish planning and design goals. Stating goals at the
in key disciplines and professions dealing with urban outset helps determine solutions and achieve success.
areas is introduced. Finally we consider the use of ecol- Thus, a person wishing to have an ecologically designed
ogy in solutions to big urban problems. house plot may choose among goals such as high spe-
cies richness; native species; certain favorite species;
Cultural and regional perspectives pest reduction; diverse aquatic habitat conditions; wet-
land zonation; erosion control; wind control; recyc-
on the urban environment ling; movements and flows; ever-changing conditions;
Not surprisingly, the urban environment and urban or a natural ecosystem (Forman, 1995). The solutions
ecology are perceived differently depending on cul- for these different goals are all ecological but produce
ture, geography, climate, land use, and history (Gilbert, extremely different house plots.
1991; Hardoy et al., 2004; McGregor et al., 2006; Urban, city, and regional planning represents a
Forman, 2008). Comparing six major regions of the body of theory and practice of major importance to
world, the individual characteristics and perspectives society. With strong roots in both the natural and social
clearly differ (Table 1.1). Adding the ten concepts or sciences, pioneers such as Frederick Law Olmsted left
characteristics together highlights huge and funda- indelible marks on major cities including Boston and
mental differences from region to region in human New York. In recent decades urban and city planning
perception, as well as the formation and use of urban has shifted its foundations to socioeconomic and pol-
areas. Yet despite these striking differences, people in icy dimensions. Focusing on housing, jobs, transpor-
all regions apparently strongly believe in nature pro- tation, and economic development, a rich array of
tection and an environment based on good ecological planning principles is used (Lynch and Hack, 1996;
principles. A puzzle to ponder. Pacione, 2005; Berke et al., 2006).
“Visual core” differences (Table 1.1) are particu- In the current phase of limited environmental
larly important because they tend to daily reinforce planning, several cognate fields have stepped in to
the image or distinctiveness of a city for its people. contribute valuable principles (Craul, 1992; Hough,
The people’s image in turn strongly colors their uses 2004; Marsh, 2010; Erell et al., 2011; Butler and Davies,

26
 Using urban ecology for society’s solutions

Table 1.1. Urban environment perspectives in different regions and cultures. Brief encapsulations attempt to highlight the essence, but
of course miss the richness of pattern within and among cities of a region. Perspectives are more characteristic of traditional or small cities
than very large “globalized” cities. Mitsch and Jorgensen (2004) and van Bohemen (2005) consider China and the West.

Tropical North
Concept Latin Am. North Africa East Asia Australia America Europe
Visual core Business, & Seamless Recent British imprint, Central Historical
plaza central white buildings & eucalypts business buildings,
buildings signs district tourists
People & parks Dense, & Fairly dense, Extremely Not dense, Fairly dense, Very dense,
informal few parks dense, few many parks parks parks
settlers parks
Energy use Oil & people Oil People, oil & Oil &coal Oil, gas, & coal Oil, coal, & gas
coal
Recycling, re-use Limited Limited Important Encouraged Acceptable Strongly
encouraged
Urban agriculture Some Tiny courtyard Much in tiny Limited Limited, field Community
gardens spaces crops gardens
Air& water Widely Scarce water, Highly Rather clean Rather clean Clean &
polluted polluted polluted to polluted areas
+clean
Nature in city Diverse & self- Mostly in Treasured Tidy park, City parks & Tidy parks &
sufficient watered tiny spots, exotics, & wild street trees lines of plane
courtyards meanings bush trees
Surrounding Rainforest & Irrigation, & High rises Bush & Suburban Farmland &
context pasture pastoral dry & market planned sprawl & leisure
land gardening suburb nature spaces
Time perspective Medium Long Very short & Rather short Short (often Long (history
(family, (extended very long move) & place)
mañana) family)
Solutions to Government Family & Government Government Private-public Government
problems government & self- partners & people
sufficient

2011; Pickett et al., 2013). Most striking, however, is At some point in the planning process, planners
the array of urban ecology principles now available to draw on the store of spatial patterns known to produce
planners and other urban practitioners (Sukopp, 2008; good results. Most such spatial patterns are pieces of
Alberti, 2008; Marzluff et al., 2008; Grimm et al., 2008; the overall puzzle to creatively solve. Patterns known
Pickett et al., 2009). An especially useful and usable not to work well are avoided. Still, urban-ecology-
summary groups the urban land-use planning prin- based spatial patterns for planning have been enu-
ciples into five categories (Forman, 2008). In essence, merated into three useful categories (Forman, 2008):
each is a single statement of importance and broad good, bad, and interesting patterns. Each category is
applicability: subdivided into the following groups: (1) metro area,
1. Patch sizes, edges, and habitats: 30 principles city, and urban region characteristics; (2) nature, for-
2. Natural processes, corridors, and networks: 24 est/woodland, and food production; (3) water; and (4)
principles transportation, development, industry, and pollution.
3. Transportation nodes: 16 principles A fifth “hazards” group is added under bad patterns.
4. Communities and development: 31 principles Such spatial patterns can be fit together for urban plan-
ning that seriously addresses natural environmental
5. Land mosaics and landscape change: 20 principles

27
 Foundations

dimensions, along with housing, jobs, transportation, island. Diverse types of foundations. Stormwater
and economic development. ponds and depressions. Hard structures in
streams and rivers. Infrastructure. Piped systems.
Use in key disciplines and professions Vegetated green walls. Dammed reservoirs. Land
I think the fundamental objective for our future protection for reservoirs.
urban regions is to “mold the land so nature and 2. Architecture (Create well-designed buildings).
people both thrive long term.” But why, for example, Materials and leaching of toxic chemicals.
are we repeatedly stuck with ecologically sterile parks Green roofs. Solar heat. Water use and recycling.
(Figure 1.11)? Greenhouse-gas emissions. Interior biophilic
What problems can be solved partially or entirely designs. Vegetated walls. Wind turbulence
by using urban ecology principles? Each of us could and accelerated streamline airflows. Natural
make a long and distinctive list. Indeed, suppose ten ventilation. Natural light. Mixed multi-use
of us gathered around a round table, each representing housing.
one of the major disciplines and professions focused 3. Landscape architecture (Aesthetics and nature
on the city. We pause for five minutes, individually list- in spaces for people). Trees for the greatest heat
ing key problems where urban ecology could provide benefit. Connected street-tree corridors along and
valuable solutions. Then we read our lists to the group, across roads. Biodiversity hot spots. Connections
and a lively discussion follows, frequently punctuated between parks. Park design for nature. Diversity
by discoveries and “eurekas,” as overlap and convergent of native-species plantings. Riversides and stream
interests emerge. corridors. Stormwater ponds, wetlands, and
Here is an example of the problems and issues where biofilter depressions.
urban ecology principles may be important (Forman, 4. Transportation (Safe and efficient mobility). Traffic
1999), but your round table may well do better. The pri- flows. Urban spread. Quieter road surfaces.
mary background of each person, and objective of the Quieter tires. Quieter trucks. Diverse public transit
field or profession, is encapsulated in parentheses. systems. Multi-modal nodes. Netway and pods
1. Engineering (Design/construction of infrastructure system. Transit-oriented development (TOD).
and systems). Impermeable surfaces. Urban heat Air quality. Wildlife underpasses and overpasses.
Vegetated noise barriers and soil berms.
5. Water resources (Maintain water quantity and
Figure 1.11.
Parks illustrating quality). Sea level rise. Flooding. Stormwater.
two models of Wastewater sewer system. Wetlands. Water
urban people and supply. Land protection. River and floodplain.
nature. (a) One
tree, 20 people, Streams/pipes. Shorelines. Aquifers. Reservoirs.
and architectural Groundwater and water table. Agricultural,
inspiration. stormwater, industrial, and wastewater pollutants.
Valencia, Spain. (b)
Lawn, trees, and Nitrogen and phosphorus. Constructed basins/
paved walkways, ponds/wetlands.
plus the author 6. Public health (Services to protect/improve
(a) in a one-sided
conversation on community health). Wetlands. Air quality. Water
urban ecology. quality. Toxic chemicals. Sewage flows, pathogenic
De Hoge Veluwe, bacteria, and treatment. Land protection.
Netherlands. R.
Forman photos. Mosquitoes, midges, malaria habitats.
7. Economics (Production/distribution/consumption
of goods and services). Ecological economics.
Environmental economics. Park and natural
resource values. Commercial areas. TOD. Non-
sprawl residential development. Real estate land
values. Adaptability/flexibility/resilience/stability.
Long-term horizon.
(b)

28
 Using urban ecology for society’s solutions

8. Urban planning (Mold the arrangement and used as a framework to justify technical planning solu-
condition of a community). Urban spread. tions for specific areas within a city. ”Ecopolis” seems
Informal squatter housing. Sea level rise. to refer to a conceptual urban-planning framework for
Residential development. Commercial sound urban development, based on four general prin-
development. Industrial development. ciples, three main themes (responsible city, living city,
Transportation. Jobs. Land protection. Protect participating city), and 18 guiding models (Tjallingii,
economic value. 1995). Again the term describes an urban-development
9. Government-politics (Directing of the public methodology, using the term environment, but instead
affairs of a community). Land protection. Park focusing on people and social patterns. At present both
management. Stormwater. Sewage wastewater. “eco” terms seem akin to green marketing and nearly
Adaptability/flexibility/stability. Many of the devoid of the science of ecology and urban ecology (Sze
urban planning items. and Gambirazzio, 2013).
10. Religion (Universe-related beliefs, often with moral “Urban sustainability,” also has a nice ring to it,
code and superhuman). Ethics. Help the poor. though many scholars have noted that it is essentially
Informal squatter housing. Ecology of religious an oxymoron. It is hard to envision a city of thousands
properties/buildings. Intermixed affordable or millions attaining and maintaining a viable long-
housing. Honor nature’s beings. term balance between nature and people (Forman,
2008). Also, everyone seems to define the term to
One characteristic ties all of the disciplines and suit their own interests. Scholars have made some
professions together. Just as in the previous section on headway in elucidating scientific aspects of sustain-
people’s perspectives worldwide, all ten of these fields ability (Kates et al., 2001; Clark and Dickson, 2003;
subscribe to nature protection and an environment Antrop, 2006; Wu, 2012). Although I essentially avoid
based on good ecological principles. In fact, that goal the term, four perspectives might be useful (Forman,
is commonly the second stated goal (after the primary 1990; Rees, 2002; Newman et al., 2009; Wu, 2010),
one in parentheses) in each field. This coalescence of i.e., sustainability as (1) a never-achieved ideal goal
fields on ecological conditions highlights the synthesiz- or endpoint; (2) a cumulative product of a multitude
ing role and expected value and use of urban ecology. of fine-scale solutions; (3) a “black box” or system of
For many issues facing cities, urban ecology has unending inputs, outputs, and changing box sizes;
only been incorporated in selected places or in mini- and (4) a prime-footprints model that integrates the
malistic ways or mainly symbolically. A strength- urban area with dispersed major ecological-foot-
ened solid urban ecology should lead to widespread print areas plus the connecting transportation links
dependable solutions for society. Each discipline will (Forman, 2008).
be strengthened as well. Societal solutions at the broad scale, as suggested
by the prime-footprints concept, tend to be scarce.
Use of urban ecology for big solutions Examples range from the New York parkway-highway
Clearly urban ecology principles, either alone or com- system and London’s greenbelt to Seoul’s former green-
bined with other fields, can play useful roles in solu- belt, a TVA dam-system project (Southeastern USA),
tions to many or most of the specific problems or Stockholm’s green wedges, Portland’s (Oregon, USA)
issues raised above. Yet the principles can also be used, urban growth boundary, the large-woods-and-fields
and may be more significant, in addressing big issues land around Moscow and Berlin, and the cleanup of
involving large areas. Too seldom do we address or Lake Washington in the city of Seattle (USA) (Forman,
solve whole city, whole metro-area, or whole urban- 2008). Such broad-scale solutions can be enormously
region issues. successful economically, socially, and environmen-
Before introducing examples, consider two terms tally, especially in the long term.
occasionally used, eco-city and ecopolis, focused at the Consider some big-picture perspectives for plan-
broad scale. “Eco-city” seems to refer to an idealized ning and solutions with an urban-ecology founda-
cultural/ecological condition where urban people and tion. All are at the city-wide, metro-area-wide, or
their activities are in balance with natural processes, so urban-region-wide scale. These could be replicated
that the latter do not degrade (Roseland, 2001; Register, or tailored to cities worldwide. Pilot projects, as well
2006; Wittig, 2008). But the ideal seems to have been as full solutions, could turn around current major

29
 Foundations

degradation trends to form wonderful urban areas • Prime footprints. Integrating urban areas with
ahead. their near and distant footprint impacts, plus
• Public health. Addressing all or most public-health the transportation network linking residents
diseases and illnesses together, mentioned above, to sources and sinks, would provide spatial,
is greatly preferable to the piecemeal approach. environmental, and economic clarity for reducing
• Wildlife and biodiversity. Providing a logical impacts and accelerating benefits.
arrangement of medium and large greenspaces, • Nature’s services or ecosystem services. Nature’s
plus the connecting corridors and stepping stones services to society have been categorized as
linked to the surroundings, would provide urban provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting
habitat and biodiversity throughout the metro services (Costanza et al., 1997a; Daily, 1997;
area, as well as enhance routes for continually Norberg, 1999; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
incoming species. 2005; National Research Council, 2005b; Adams
• Tree cover. Doubling tree cover, for instance, et al., 2006; McDonald and Marcotullio, 2011;
in an urban area to have the greatest Levin, 2012; Termorshuizon and Opdam, 2009). All
environmental benefit, would create a logical are familiar as “traditional” ecological knowledge
arrangement of woody vegetation that provides (Huntington, 2000). Increasing these services, say,
combined urban heat, wind, water, wildlife, and ten-fold, in urban areas (Bolund and Hunhammer,
people benefits. 1999) would provide a major increase in, and logical
• Water bodies. Achieving 100% clean water bodies arrangement of, greenspaces and green cover.
(e.g., streams, rivers, ponds), for example, would Benefits go directly to residents and shopkeepers, as
improve pipe and drainage systems, sewage well as government.
treatment facilities, natural water-cleaning, and Other big-picture objectives with big solutions
land-use patterns, a combined benefit for fish, underpinned by urban ecology exist, such as envir-
aquatic ecosystems, flood reduction, wildlife, and onmental resistance, resilience, and adaptability, or
recreationists. having, e.g., 90% of incoming resources being local or
• Vehicle traffic. Cutting ground-level traffic by, say, from that geographic region. Of these big urban chal-
50–75% in urban areas would provide alternative lenges and opportunities, which would have the great-
and new ways to move, as well as mixed-use areas est cumulative benefit for nature and us?
with human needs in proximity, thus significantly I will return to urban ecology solutions, both
reducing driving, traffic disturbance, and air and specific and broad, at the book’s end. Meanwhile the
water pollution, plus improving mobility and chapters ahead reveal and develop the urban ecology
more-livable neighborhoods. principles themselves.

30
 Part I Framework

Spatial patterns and mosaics

Chapter

2
Towns don’t want to be suburbs, suburbs don’t want to bridges, residential areas, and so forth. A cluster of
be cities, and cities don’t want to be wastelands. high-rise buildings serving as a central business dis-
Michael Dukakis, quoted in Conservation and trict (CBD) commonly characterizes a city center.
Values, 1978 Deep canyons cut between tall buildings. High rises
poke up, mainly supported by bedrock, and may be
If you know one of their cities, you know them all, for
scattered across the city. Many of the 5000 or so high
they’re exactly alike … Amaurot lies up against a gently
rises (10+ levels) in Sao Paulo, for example, remain a
sloping hill; the town is almost square in shape. From a
block or more apart, so residents have adjacent space
little below the crest of the hill, it runs down about two
for park relaxation, children playing, and car parking.
miles to the river. … the water runs clean and sweet all
Night lights glitter from thousands of windows creat-
the way to the sea … another stream, not particularly
ing a magical sense of place … while drawing migrat-
large, but very gentle and pleasant, which rises out of
ing birds to their death. Rows of trees line streets and
the hill, flows down through the center of town … The
boulevards. A city’s upward dimension is extremely
town is surrounded by a thick, high wall … The streets
diverse.
are conveniently laid out for use by vehicles and for pro-
Downward from the ground surface is no mirror
tection from the wind. Their buildings are by no means
image, though the assortment of human construc-
paltry; the unbroken rows of houses facing each other
tions may double the city’s vertical pattern. Deep and
across the streets through the different wards make a
shallow wells, which lower the water table, often dry
fine sight. The streets are twenty feet wide. Behind each
out the upper soil. An anastomosing three-dimen-
row of houses at the center of every block and extend-
sional network of rails used by noisy subway trains.
ing the full length of the street, there are large gardens.
Every house has a door to the street and another to the
garden … They raise vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers,
so thrifty and flourishing that I have never seen any
gardens more productive or elegant than theirs. … the
founder of the city paid particular attention to the sit-
ing of these gardens.
Thomas Moore, Utopia, 1516
Between bedrock and stratosphere, a city lies uneas-
ily on a sheet of wet soil and is covered by a sheet of
air. Industrious lilliputians in the city keep creating
pattern, upward, downward, inward, and especially
outward.
The surface of the earth or wet soil is the bench-
mark. Upward pattern is largely formed by earthen
fill, vegetation, low and tall buildings, and engineered
structures (Figure 2.1). Combinations and arrange- Figure 2.1. A planned and built city center with streets and tree
lines radiating from circular intersections. Low-rise buildings and no
ments create the vertical patterns familiar to urban skyscrapers; blocks typically have central spaces with plants. Arc de
residents – skyscrapers, street trees, mounded dumps, Triomphe (top); Palais Galliera (lower right). Paris. R. Forman photo.

31
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

Uncoordinated shopping walkways and arcades with a sequence of recognizable images appears, such as
disorienting branches. A dendritic (tree-like) pipe sys- a lettuce plant, vegetable garden, house plot, hous-
tem with seldom-clogged acute angles for ever-flowing ing development, neighborhood, residential area,
human sewage. Maybe a catacomb to store excess skel- city, urban region, geographic region, continent, and
etons and skulls, a 3D labyrinth of interconnecting globe. These are scales or levels of scale. The sequence
passageways, small reservoirs to hold clean water, and observed proceeds from “fine scale” to “broad scale.”
underground rooms with unseen and unseemly uses The space or area or distance varies from small to large.
over time. Together these diverse networks and cav- Consider two maps, one of a local spot with the “scale”
ities appear disjointed, uncoordinated, disoriented: a marked as 1:100 (map distance divided by actual dis-
spatial pattern awaiting a pioneer or explorer. Hardly tance on the ground), and the other of a nation with
anyone in history has seen or grasped all the under- the scale given as 1:100 000. One over 100 is a much
ground parts of a city. A true frontier lurking at our larger scale than one over 100 000. For simplicity and
feet. Exploring the urban underground promises a clarity, this book uses fine scale for the former map
Christopher Columbus-type voyage in the abyss, in (local spot) and broad scale or coarse scale for the lat-
this case, eternally lost within meters of the multitude ter (a nation).
above. Each scale in the zoom sequence shows a heteroge-
neous pattern. Heterogeneity could be simply a gradi-
Scale, human, and nature patterns ent, or series of gradients, where objects or attributes
gradually change in density across space such that
The preceding perspective highlights the vertical
no distinct boundaries are evident. However, almost
dimension. Horizontal patterns are central to this book
always the pattern observed is a mosaic composed
and are introduced in the following sections.
of relatively distinct objects with boundaries. This is
But first, curiously the oblique pattern remains a
because underlying substrates tend to be patchy, nat-
frontier. Consider the diagonal up or down bird’s-eye
ural disturbances tend to create patches with relatively
view, the city-center view from a street corner or sky-
sharp boundaries, and, especially important to urban
scraper, and a diagonal ground-penetrating technol-
areas, most human activities produce sharp bound-
ogy image. Although gravity and sun provide a vertical
aries. These “land mosaics,” from small to large, have
orientation, these oblique angles are quite normal in
easily understood characteristics at the heart of urban
nature – tree branches, roots, caves, corals, and bee-
ecology.
tle legs. Many birds and insects fly obliquely through
The giant lens and the relative distinctiveness or
space. Diagonal patterns and views through nature
indistinctiveness of boundaries highlights another
appear familiar. In contrast, humans normally build
key characteristic. What is the resolution relative to
horizontal and vertical structures. Oblique views
the grain size of the mosaic? “Resolution,” as in art and
through these constructions often highlight odd pat-
photography, is mainly determined by two attributes,
terns absent from engineering and architectural draw-
the degree of difference and the abruptness of a bound-
ings. What indeed are the main oblique patterns in
ary. A black object adjacent to a white one is easily dif-
cities? Are they important in how things work? How
ferentiated, whereas light and dark gray objects may
can they be improved?
appear as one. An abrupt or sharp boundary adds con-
trast and thus increases resolution.
Spatial scale Grain size, the average area or diameter of constitu-
Many discussions of scale conclude that “Scale mat- ent parts or patches, is also a useful way to analyze an
ters.” Both patterns and processes tend to differ at dif- area or mosaic (Forman, 1995). A prevalence of small
ferent scales. Also scale involves both time and space. patches produces a fine grain, whereas large objects
Temporal scales vary, say, from minutes to millennia. produce a coarse grain. Grain size has considerable
Here we focus on urban spatial scales, especially from importance for the flows and movements in an area,
meters to hundreds of kilometers. how the area works, and what kinds of species, people,
Imagine having a giant zoom lens that you pro- and activities prevail. Relating grain size to the “extent”
gressively open at a constant rate. Starting at the or area being examined provides insight into the spatial
microscopic level, one might see, for instance, soil par- scale of ecological processes (Wiens, 1999; McGarigal
ticles and algae cells. As the lens progressively opens, and Cushman, 2005; Farina, 2006).

32
 Scale, human, and nature patterns

Opening the giant zoom lens, or zooming out by In addition, the upper levels typically constrain
computer from a spot on a satellite image, highlights the lower levels, while the lower level initiates changes
an important but poorly understood ecological dimen- affecting upper levels, though in both cases the oppos-
sion. As the lens opens at a constant rate, does one see a ite may occur. Conditions of a unit at one scale thus are
gradual change in heterogeneous pattern, or relatively affected by inputs or signals from both the scale above
distinct images that persist and then change rapidly and the scale below. Furthermore, the unit is affected by
in kind of a stair-stepped process? One line of reason- competitive or collaborative conditions of other units
ing leads to the second option. A domain of scale refers at the same scale. Thus a particular unit is controlled by
to the range of distance or scale in which an object three scales, upper, same, and lower levels.
remains in focus as the lens opens (Wiens, 1989). For Different ecological and human factors operate
example, the individual plantings in a vegetable gar- and are important at different scales. For example, a
den seem to remain clear until suddenly they are hard moss species was found to have distinct distributions
to distinguish, as the whole garden appears to be an over nine spatial scales from the globe to a tree stump
element in the house plot design. Analogously with the (Forman 1964). Moreover, the environmental factors
opening lens, a farmer’s bean field remains clear until it controlling the distributions differed at each scale.
quickly disappears into its agricultural valley surround Three or more scales are typically needed to under-
by wooded ridges. stand a park or a house plot. But the same is true for
This stair-stepped interpretation of changing scale understanding a metro area or urban region (Hardoy
patterns seems to result from the basic mechanisms et al., 2004; Pacione, 2005; McGranahan, 2006). A com-
producing pattern. The garden pattern results from mon urban hierarchy is: megalopolis, urban region,
planting seeds or seedlings of different vegetables in metro area, city, residential area, neighborhood, hous-
rows. The bean field pattern results from plowing by a ing development, house plot, and vegetable garden.
large tractor (which could not effectively turn around in But other hierarchies are equally useful, such as urban
the vegetable garden or house plot). The ridge and val- region, urban-region ring, peri-urban (or exurban)
ley pattern results from ancient geological processes. area, commercial area, and building space.
In these fine-scale and broad-scale examples, no clear The Washington-to-Boston Region illustrates a
intervening pattern-forming mechanisms are evident. megalopolis as a specific object, i.e., a group of large cit-
The pattern of Paris streets and buildings results from ies with their surrounding zones of influence (Gottman,
urban planning (Figure 2.1). Each pattern is a level of 1961; Borchert, 1993; Benton-Short and Short, 2008).
scale, or simply a scale (McGarigal and Marks, 1995; From 1950 to 2000 this megalopolis increased in: total
Wu, 1999, 2004). population from 32 to 49 million; human density from
A domain of scales refers to two or more scales with 1580 to 2411 people/km2 (610–931 people/mi2); autos
a similar spatial pattern determined by essentially the from 6 to 24 million; and water usage from 1027 to
same process (es). Natural processes and human activ- 1500 gallons/person/day. In the year 2000, the Region
ities serve as mechanisms producing a scale pattern, had: 1.4% of the USA land area; 17% of the population;
and then maintaining or changing it. Each spatial scale 20% of gross domestic product (GDP); and 4.3 pounds
in an urban region can be planned and sustained using of municipal solid waste/person/day, as well as very
a combination of incentives, regulations, laws, care/ long journeys for trash-removal trucks. Together these
stewardship, social action, market investments, or gov- probably constitute the greatest environmental impact
ernment action. per person in the history of the world.
Such a hierarchy of spatial scales is common Other megalopolises are present in The
in urban areas. A hierarchy or hierarchical system Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht, The
has higher levels with larger, slowly changing units Hague area), Japan (Tokyo, Yokohama, and perhaps
(entities), and lower levels with smaller, fast-changing southward) (Hanes, 1993), and China’s Pearl River
units (O’Neill et al., 1986; Farina, 2006; Alberti, 2008; Delta (Guangzhou, Foshan, Dongguan, and perhaps
Wu 2008). Large objects have more inertia and are Shenzhen and Hong Kong). With the possible excep-
harder to change than are small ones. Thus, stability tion of the Ranstad area linking the major Dutch cit-
and predictive ability are greater at the higher level or ies, the megalopolis seems to have been little studied
broad scale. Small units normally fluctuate more and by ecologists. Spatial patterns seem to be of particu-
are less predictable. lar interest. For example, what ecological and human

33
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

functions do the low-population locations play, and Godron, 1981; Forman, 1995). Apparently the
and how are they distributed? How much sharing of only two-dimensional situations without patches are
resources and facilities occurs among a cluster of cit- homogeneous, or a space with only corridors (like
ies with overlapping urban-region rings? Where are a photo of spaghetti), or gradients (gradual changes
the ecologically best and worst places for future devel- without boundaries). Technically, homogeneity does
opment, and for future parks? Is the city cluster more not exist on land. I have never seen an only-corridor
stable or less so than the equivalent cities dispersed, or case. Spatial ecological gradients are scarce on the land
indeed a single megacity? In what ways is a megalopolis and may be absent in urban areas intensely molded by
good, or bad, ecologically? humans. Corridors (strips) and networks of intercon-
Like roses or people, there are fractals and then nected corridors are widespread in the urban environ-
there are fractals (Milne, 1988; Batty and Longley, ment, but always intermixed with patches. The matrix
1994). A fractal is a geometrical shape repeated over is discussed below. Many other patterns introduced in
different scales of measurement. this section are widespread and might be universal.
Three fractals may have use in understanding urban First, consider the horizontal natural processes
areas.: that effectively produce nature’s pattern on land
1. The self-similar fractal, illustrated by a typical fern (Figure 2.2a). Wind and water (including ice) flows,
leaf or dendritic stream network, refers to a basic plus animal movement by walking and flying, are the
form repeated in similar form at a series of spatial processes. All trace curvy routes. High-velocity lin-
scales. ear flows produce straighter routes, while convoluted
2. A boundary or edge fractal is illustrated by routes result from slow linear movements or from tur-
a boundary composed of several large lobes bulence. Groundwater flowing through sand, and fire
alternating with large coves. Focusing in on one moving in high wind, tend to trace relatively straight
lobe reveals that it also is composed of similarly routes. Animals foraging for food follow quite convo-
shaped smaller lobes and coves, and then focusing luted routes.
in on one of them in turn reveals roughly the same A rich array of distinct interesting spatial patterns
pattern. The sequential forms in nature normally results from the combination of these natural pro-
are not identical but similar. cesses (Figure 2.2b, left). Nature’s patterns are predom-
inantly irregular, curvy, elongated, composed of coves
3. A route or trajectory fractal effectively measures
and lobes, fractal or dendritic, aggregated, variable in
the convolutedness of a route in geometrical
size, and/or finely textured. These patterns appear at all
dimensions. A straight line between two points has
scales.
a fractal dimension, D = 1, a squiggly route might
What aspects of nature do ecologists normally con-
be, for instance, D = 1.3. A back-and-forth route
sider to be most important, and of relevance to urban
that covers an entire surface area has D = 2, and a
areas? Typical priorities for natural vegetation protec-
route extending throughout an entire volume has D
tion are (1) a large area; (2) a remnant representing
= 3. Nature tends toward curviness or convolution,
former conditions; (3) a rare example; (4) a representa-
commonly illustrated by a fractal D = 1.1 to 1.5.
tive example; and (5) a species-rich patch or area. The
Consequently, it requires energy or a maintenance
same priorities apply to vegetation-protected water
budget to maintain straight routes against natural
bodies (stream, lake, estuary, etc.), as well as their head-
processes.
waters and fish habitats and movement routes.
Such fractal patterns are generally considered to be So, how do we affect nature (Forman, 2012)? We
scale-independent. Nevertheless, until we know more simplify. We linearize and geometricize. We attempt to
about possible scale-independence, current research control. We reduce variability, and therefore adaptabil-
should specify the particular scale observed. ity. We multiply, and we sprawl. We pollute, and con-
taminate. We eliminate, and impoverish. We degrade
Nature’s patterns and human patterns patterns. We disrupt processes. We perforate, and we
Whether any pattern is present in all landscapes dissect. We fragment, and we shrink. We consume, and
and urban areas remains a mystery. My candidates over-consume.
for universality are patches and corridors (and per- Consequently, human-created patterns imprinted
haps networks and a background matrix) (Forman on the land appear dramatically different than the

34
 Scale, human, and nature patterns

(a) Figure 2.2. Horizontal natural

processes and four types of spatial
patterns on the land. (a) Typical routes
of flow or movement. (b) (left) Wooded
areas surrounded by agriculture (barchan
dune, left center); (center two diagrams)
built areas with streams, woods, and
lawn parks; (right) farmland with woods,
crops, pastures, meadows, streams, and
farmsteads (based on central Toscana,
Italy). Adapted from Forman (2012); see
also Forman (1995) and Forman and
Hersperger (1997).

(b)

natural patterns. Motivations for creating our forms normally highly “planned” as a whole and “designed”
involve control, protection, access, efficiency, and com- in detail at spots.
munity. Squares, grids, smooth curves, straight lines, Two types of land patterns, both unplanned as a
dual lines, and circles with radiating lines cover built whole, appear to be widespread in the complex inter-
areas (Figure 2.2b). Rectangles with length-to-width mediate suburban or peri-urban areas. One spatial
ratios of 1.5:1 to 4:1 are especially widespread (Forman, arrangement results from long-term trial-and-error
1995). These patterns or objects are mainly regular (Figure 2.2b), where the individual human processes
geometric forms, which together produce urban areas have reached a dynamic equilibrium with natural pro-
with a distinct Euclidian geometry. cesses based on “what works.” Both natural processes
Urban ecology focuses on the combination of nat- and human activities continue apparently with few
ural and human patterns. The former predominate disruptions. The range of both natural and human pat-
in outer portions of the urban region and the latter terns is truncated.
in city center. In outer areas the predominant nat- The second suburban pattern, in contrast, results
ural forces are typically supplemented by planning from relatively new human activities imprinted on the
and management of large areas for, e.g., wood har- natural land (Figure 2.2b). Early piecemeal activities
vest, water protection, and recreation. City center is with a short-term anthropogenic perspective inevitably

35
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

degrade nature in spots. The subsequent sequence develop, plus their underlying structure. Five human
of such activities results in a landscape with severely needs seem particularly important:
degraded nature and a poor arrangement for people. 1. Clean fresh water is a daily human necessity. Water
In effect, the urban region contains planned built geo- is heavy to transport so cities are close to water
metric landscapes, natural landscapes, and unplanned supplies. Commonly Roman aqueducts extended
landscapes. The unplanned portion combines natural for kilometers and today’s pipelines extend for tens
and built areas that are either stable products of trial- of kilometers. Restoring a water supply is normally
and-error or changing recent-development landscapes the first priority after a disaster.
with markedly degraded nature. 2. Food, required every day or few days, comes in
Spatially measuring the varied ecological patterns diverse forms, is light weight, and many but not
in urban areas is a challenge indeed. One author sug- all forms can be cost-effectively transported long
gests four particularly informative dimensions that distances. Perishable foods and those with slow or
also link ecology to human patterns (Alberti, 2008): expensive transport may be mainly grown locally
form, density, heterogeneity, and connectivity. Urban in urban agriculture or market-garden farming.
form commonly indicates the centrality of objects This requires ample good agricultural soil for
(e.g., from tightly aggregated together to dispersed cultivation within kilometers or tens of kilometers.
or polycentric; Anas et al., 1998), as well as the regu- Pastureland for livestock is normally slightly more
larity (or irregularity) of their distribution. Urban distant, since considerable land is required and
population density refers to the number of people either the animals or their products can be readily
per unit area, though density could refer to number moved to the city.
of buildings, parks, industries, successional habitats, 3. Minerals and wood fiber are very heavy, non-
and so forth. Ecological or habitat heterogeneity (habi- perishable, and transported long distances by
tat diversity) refers to the degree and concentration of water, boat, train, or truck. Their proximity may
differences in vegetation or habitats (hydrological and have been important to a village, but usually not
socio-cultural heterogeneity may also be measured; for the later city. Mineral and fiber are either
Pickett et al., 2001). Connectivity measures the degree transported directly to the city for manufacturing
to which species, people or resources are facilitated goods, or to factories elsewhere producing light-to-
or impeded in movement across an area. Corridors heavy goods transported to the city.
or stepping stones are visible structural connections 4. Transportation providing efficient access to
whereas, even in their absence, species and people resources and other communities depends on
may still perceive an area to be functionally connected plains, valleys (through mountains or hills), rivers,
(Tischendorf and Fahrig, 2000). Usually the distance harbors, or sea.
between patches or habitats is a useful way to measure
5. Security or defense against competitors focuses
connectivity (Goodwin and Fahrig, 2002). Other ways
on distinctive arrangements of land and water,
to measure or model urban landscape pattern will be
such as the base of mountains; wetlands; the sides,
introduced below.
intersections or mouths of rivers; and coastal
Geomorphic framework with cities added harbors, bays, peninsulas, and islands.
People living for decades, plus buildings lasting dec- Villages exist in many locations across the land, some-
ades-to-centuries, are aggregated in cities, which teeter times appearing, other times disappearing. However,
on the mighty backbone of nature. The rocks of moun- a place providing the five human needs in proximity
tains and hills and ridges stand strong for millions of illustrates where and why villages grow into cities.
years. Even the unconsolidated earthen deposits of In essence, most cities are located where three fea-
sand, silt, or clay cover the valleys and plains below for tures come together: (1) clean freshwater, (2) good agri-
hundreds, thousands, or millions of years. Persistent cultural soil, and (3) a distinctive land–water interface
microclimatic conditions also often last for centuries. location providing transportation and security (Platt,
To reveal the urban backbone, i.e., the underlying 2004; Pacione, 2005). The two prime city locations are
geomorphic pattern for a metro area, consider the (1) seacoast areas around bays, harbors, river mouths,
basic human needs as a village becomes a city. That and coastal mountains/hills; and (2) riversides, com-
should lead us to the special locations where cities monly where rivers join and near mountains/hills.

36
 Scale, human, and nature patterns

Designers have designed cities (Brasilia, Canberra) 4. Two land–water interface locations: riverside,
where the three central attributes did not come together. river intersection, and river by mountains/hills;
Another example are some recent Chinese cities (e.g., and seacoast bay/harbor/river-mouth often by
Ordos, Inner Mongolia) built mainly to attract invest- mountains/hills
ment and employment. Such cities depend heavily on 5. At least two types of wetlands: marsh (grassy) and
importing resources. Future cities emerging away from swamp (wooded)
clean freshwater, good agricultural soil, and a distinct-
These urban backbone components are long term.
ive land–water interface location providing transpor-
However, nature’s short-term flows and movements –
tation and security may be unsustainable, at risk of
high wind, flooding, sinking, shaking, and slides – con-
major shrinkage.
tinually threaten the uneasy city.
Less common locations for cities are by large lakes
Consider the key long-term microclimatic patterns
[Toronto, Chicago, Salt Lake City (USA), Irkutsk
(see Chapter 5), which are strongly linked to topo-
(Russia), Baki (Azerbaijan)]. Also some cities have
graphic land-surface forms and the urban backbone
emerged at the intersections of major travel routes
(Geiger, 1965). Such microclimatic patterns are also
[Berlin, Indianapolis (USA), Denver (USA)].
readily mapped in urban regions:
The idea of a convergency point, where three or more
habitats or land uses come together, is useful in under- 1. Five mountain/hill microclimates: the top (with
standing city location (Forman, 1995). Wildlife gener- 10–20% higher wind velocity); north- and south-
ally require food, water, a protected nest or den site, and facing slopes (reflecting solar angle, energy
escape cover. Some species prefer convergency points received, and snow/ice conditions); and upwind
that provide ready access to diverse resources, and also (windward) and downwind (e.g., rain-shadow)
stability during tough times. slopes
Coastal cities have adjoining land and sea resources. 2. Cool-air drainage on slopes and in valleys: vegetated
A city by a river where mountain and plain come unbuilt slopes as sources of cool air moving
together benefits from the convergence of river, moun- downslope on still summer nights, with the
tain, and plain resources. Such resources include crop moving air continuing along valleys (without
and livestock production, water for transport and for high-rise buildings), result in significant cooling of
hydropower, wood and mineral building materials, the heated city and ventilating of the polluted air
manufacturing resources, diverse recreational oppor- upward
tunity, and habitat diversity and rich biodiversity. Cities 3. The coastal-strip microclimate: modified
on boundaries between two land types, and especially temperature, moisture, fog, windspeed, salt
at convergency points, probably also cause particularly transport, and storm effects, usually within about
high environmental degradation. 4–7 km of the sea
The land surface where cities appear is sculpted and Mapping these basic geomorphic and microcli-
deposited by flowing wind, water, and glaciers. The matic patterns is fundamental for planning, building,
characteristic locations of cities on land mean that a pinpointing hazards, and providing solutions in metro
distinctive set of nature’s urban-backbone components areas. The map is an urban-backbone mosaic. Each
is present (see Figure 4.3). Thus, a basic map can use- piece of the mosaic provides different benefits and is
fully differentiate: subject to a different set of threats. Therefore, the map
1. Two rock types: limestone and silica rock (e.g., provides a clear view of suitable land uses, potential
sandstone, granite) disasters, damage, maintenance/repair costs, public
2. Three types of unconsolidated earthen deposits: clay health, management, planning, and policy.
(commonly derived from limestone, and subject An array of geomorphic (and microclimatic) back-
to shrinkage/expansion); silt (good for agriculture bone patterns strongly affects the fine scale of build-
and septic systems when well-drained; also as ings and neighborhoods within a city (Spirn, 1984;
wet alluvial river deposits); and sand (especially on Waldheim, 2006; Marsh, 2010). For example, indi-
a flat coastal plain or coastline beach/dune strip) vidual locations may have a high water table (Mander
3. Four topographic land surfaces: mountain/ridge/ and Kimmel, 2008), be flood-prone from river or sea,
hill top; steep slope; gentle slope; flat valleys/plain be subject to high winds, be subject to mudslides or
covered with unconsolidated earthen material river-sediment deposits, or suffer subsidence such as

37
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

sinkhole formation. Slope issues are especially well are spatial, and in most cases are simple for clarity and
known, so optimum and maximum slope angles have easy use.
been identified for different land uses (Berke et al.,
2006; Marsh, 2010): house sites (maximum 20–25%; City, suburb, exurb/peri-urb, farmland,
optimum 2%); mowed lawns (max. 25%; opt. 2–3%);
septic system drain-fields (max. 10–15%; opt. 0.05%); natural land
sidewalks (max. 10%; opt. 1%); 20-m//h streets/roads Geographers have long highlighted the urban–rural
(max. 12%); 40-mi/h roads (max. 8%); 60-mi/h roads divide, both the contrast and the linkage between an
(max. 5%); factory sites (max. 3–4%; opt. 2%); and urban area and its surrounding rural area. Movements
parking lots (max. 3%; opt. 1%). and flows of all sorts go both ways (Douglas, 2006;
In effect, a sustainable city should fit within its Kruger, 2006). People migrate to the city (Hardoy
broad geomorphic backbone and nature’s processes. et al., 2004; Pacione, 2005; Tacoli, 2006; Kruger, 2006).
Furthermore the pieces of a city should fit within the Agricultural products and other goods flow to the city.
geomorphic and microclimatic mosaic. An obvious Natural resources flow to the city. Manufactured goods
example is market-gardening urban agriculture, which and recreationists flow to the rural area. Solid wastes,
only works on good soil close to the city (Mougeot, liquid wastes, and gaseous wastes flow to the rural
2005). Wise planning, or common sense, avoids pla- (Hardoy et al., 2004). With cheap oil and abundant
cing a major sewage treatment facility in a tsunami-risk vehicles, commuters move both directions. Change is
location, important buildings in a low site threatened especially prominent in the rural, where new devel-
by sealevel rise, or someone’s home on or beneath a opment may be concentrated (Hardoy et al., 2004;
mudslide-prone slope. Browder and Godfrey, 1997). Also, natural resources
are degraded or lost in the rural, such as depleted
freshwater and woody vegetation lost to firewood use
Urban–rural gradient as spatial model (Hardoy et al., 2004).
Models provide comfort in the face of a giant com- Empirical observation of land-use patterns in dif-
plex world composed of infinitely varying mosaics. ferent cities effectively highlights the value of spatial
Modeling focuses on a few key characteristics, sim- models. Thus, major land uses in many cities of the
plifying and providing insight into this complexity. USA exhibit a similar distribution relative to four spa-
Thus, a model simplifies a complex system to gain tial areas: city center; inner half of city radius; outer
understanding. half of city radius; and major transportation corridors
Consider an extremely simple model containing (Hartshorn, 1992). While these patterns were described
only two components, nature and people. Four flows in 1992 for cities, they seem to apply equally well or bet-
are present in the nature-and-people interaction model ter for all-built metro areas.
(Figure 2.3): nature positively affects people; nature 1. General business: city center plus scattered
negatively affects people; people positively affect nature; locations mainly in the inner half of city radius
and people negatively affect nature. The first two flows 2. Retail business: same as the preceding plus clusters
on the effects of nature are typically of moderate import- near the city border
ance. The third interaction, people positively affecting 3. Industry: along major transportation routes from
nature, overall has been of minor importance. The giant city to border
interaction in the model is people negatively affecting 4. Public and semi-public land: small greenspaces
nature. Conspicuous examples are everywhere. in city center and inner half of radius, and larger
The nature-and-people model is non-spatial. greenspaces mainly near the border
However, its spatial implications, e.g., for how to opti- 5. Apartments: concentrated in the inner half of
mally arrange people on the land, are especially valu- radius, with fewer in the city center and outer half
able. Thus, knowing that the negative effects of people of radius
on nature are the primary interaction highlights the 6. Single-family homes: concentrated in both the
importance of large natural protected areas, and com- inner and outer half of the radius
pact rather than dispersed development. Economic
models are largely non-spatial, one reason their pre- Inner and outer suburbs (see Figure 1.3) within the
dictions are so often inaccurate. The following models metro area are typically distinguishable. Usually they

38
 Urban-rural gradient as spatial model

Figure 2.3. Nature-and-people

interactions model. Examples listed of
positive and negative effects. Adapted
from Forman (2010a).

differ in the abundance of single-unit houses, multi- residential housing rather than multi-use land com-
unit low rises (and high rises if present), greenspace, monly creates a car-dependent transportation system.
and number and size of shopping areas. In many ways, Water quality and air quality degrade. Physical inactiv-
suburbs are a tension zone between city and rural. The ity, vehicle crashes, mental health problems, and more
urban–rural flows pass through suburbs going both public health issues emerge.
ways. Meanwhile, suburbs are often densifying with Peri-urban refers to the zone containing some
buildings and population. urban-related structures just beyond the continuous-
Some residents have a strong “sense of place” and built metro area (McGregor et al., 2006; Allen, 2006;
community (Donahue, 1999), while many others are Tacoli, 2006). Peri-urban areas, as widely analyzed in
temporary residents for nearby employment. As sub- Africa, Australia, and parts of Europe, Asia, and Latin
urbs rapidly change, some people stay, work to protect America, usually seem to have an agricultural matrix
their place, and suffer, as seemingly endless densifica- characteristic of most urban regions worldwide. In
tion changes the place. Meanwhile, others like a par- North America, where sprawl has sometimes spread
ticular type of suburban milieu rather than a specific beyond a city’s surrounding farmland into forest or
place, and simply move outward as urbanization rolls desert, the approximately equivalent term seems to be
onward (Forman, 2008). exurban. Thus, exurban seems to be a similar or slightly
Suburban wildlife reflect the tension zone, being broader concept referring to a zone with urban-related
a combination of native biodiversity, non-natives structures just beyond the all-built metro area, and
and pests (e.g., too many deer, beaver, raccoons, wild peri-urban, the predominant case, where the zone
boar, and so forth) (De Stefano and DeGraaf, 2003). is mainly farmland. Generally in this book the con-
Outer suburbs often have low-density housing sprawl cepts are considered to be synonymous. Commonly
with associated environmental degradation and pub- the structures are new groups of houses in a farm-
lic health problems (Frumkin et al., 2004). Single-use land landscape, though shopping centers, industries,

39
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

and highways related to the city may characterize the especially valuable trees, sand removal, spreading rub-
exurban or peri-urban area. bish dumping, and plastic bags blowing “everywhere.”
Residential spread within a few kilometers of the Twenty tree species provide economic and other func-
Manchester (UK) metro area border (even within tional values to the residents (see Figure 8.4). With
sight and sound of it) has fragmented the landscape, firewood scarcer and in increased demand, residents
reduced cropland, reduced semi-natural vegetation, progressively shift to fossil fuel use.
and increased recreational (leisure) sites (Ravetz, Soil texture, organic matter input from vegetation,
2000). Some have called this peri-urban zone the and soil fertility are degrading in the Kano peri-urban
“battleground” for conservationists versus develop- zone (Maconachie, 2007). As soil erosion increases and
ers. Examples of environmental issues in diverse peri- soil fertility and nutrient cycling decrease, residents
urban areas are instructive. A new highway bypass increasingly add various fertilizers (Figure 2.4a). These
becomes the center of a peri-urban area outside Hubli- are commonly composed of partially decomposed
Dharwad (India) (Shindhe, 2006). A peri-urban area organic materials from solid-waste dumps, sometimes
outside Accra (Ghana) focuses on new development with ashes added.
near five existing villages (Gough and Yankson, 2006). Unfortunately, heavy metals and other chemicals
Loss of irrigation water and certain crops occur in the (see Chapter 4) are commonly at very high levels, often
peri-urban area of Mexico City (Diaz-Chavez, 2006). well above the recommended maximum concentration
Plant colonization and succession have been stud- for crop production (Figure 2.4b). For instance, based
ied in peri-urban woodlands in Germany and other on 40 soil samples (average pH 7.8, range 5.6–10.6)
European nations. Wildfire, logging, and conservation from three peri-urban agricultural sites outside Kano,
of exurban forests represent challenges in exurban areas scientists discovered the following:
of Florida (Vince et al., 2005). Sprawl and its environ- • Pb (lead), 40% of the samples exceeded the 5.0
mental effects are especially visible in some peri-urban mg/l maximum recommended concentration
or exurban areas (Frumkin et al., 2004; Burchell et al., (samples ranged from 0 to 46 mg/l)
2005). • Cd (cadmium), 40% exceeded the 0.01 mg/l max.
An urban-to-rural concept has long been related to (0–29)
human population density. For example in the USA,
the Census Bureau defines urban as having >3.86
persons/ha (1.56/acre). After reviewing literature on (a) (b)
the subject, one author recommends the following
(Theobold, 2004): urban, >3.86 persons/ha; suburban,
0.4 to 4; exurban, 0.02 to 0.4; and rural, <0.02 persons/
ha (0.8 persons/100 acres). Such numbers would not
work in South Asia, East Asia, and many other regions
with extensive areas exceeding 4 persons/ha. Outside
the metro area in North America, population dens-
ities vary in exceedingly complex patchy patterns,
which are interesting but remain analytic challenges.
Several authors have noted that population density is
a poor measure of urban conditions. Nevertheless, the Figure 2.4. Fertilizers and chemical pollutants in soils of
city-to-rural gradient remains a simple useful analytic peri-urban/exurban farm fields. (a) Animal manure (taki) from
framework. local livestock. Urban solid-waste (shara) (composed of street
sweepings, household refuse, and animal manure, with most
A detailed analysis of soil and land use outside of stones, rubble, metal, glass and polyethylene bags removed) is
Kano (Nigeria) is particularly interesting (Maconachie, sorted and transported. Animal-manure data at each site are based
2007). Described as the overlap of urban and rural, or on three fields (plots) mostly 0.1–0.6 ha (0.25–1.5 acre). Urban-
solid-waste data are based on a survey questionnaire. (b) Numbers
rural but under the influence of urban processes, the in parentheses are the maximum soil pollutant concentration
zone is effectively moving outward, as development (phytotoxic threshold) recommended for crop production. Soil
occurs both adjacent to the metro area and dispersed in texture and 21 chemical components measured show considerable
spatial and/or temporal variability but, with few exceptions, do not
the peri-urban zone. Land degradation is conspicuous, correlate with distance from city. Kano, Northern Nigeria. Based on
with reduced water quality, degraded woodland, loss of Maconachie (2007).

40
 Urban-rural gradient as spatial model

• Cr (chromium), 40% >0.10 mg/l max. (0–49) it are overwhelmingly human, with puzzlingly few eco-
• Ni (nickel), 85% >0.2 mg/l max. (0–272) logical dimensions.
• Mn (manganese), 90% >0.2 mg/l max. (0–9) Finally, all the areas from city center to exurb/peri-
• Co (cobalt), 93% >0.05 mg/l max. (0–23) urb fit the dictionary definition of urban (of or pertain-
• Fe (iron), 98% >5.0 mg/l max. (1–45) ing to a city), and therefore are considered as urban
• Cu (copper), 100% >0.2 mg/l max. (range 0.5–3.5) areas in this book. The urban-to-rural concept now
should be more clearly specified, such as city-center-
These consistently high levels suggest that toxic soils to-exurban, city-to-farmland, and so forth. The most
are widespread. typical gradient for a large city is: city center; outer city
The use of ashes and decomposed dump material district (s); inner suburb; outer suburb; exurban or
for fertilizer and crop production close to the city recy- peri-urban; farmland; and natural land (forest, wood-
cles wastes and may be cost-effective. However, per- land, shrubland, grassland, or desert) (see Figure 1.3).
haps unknowingly, consumers of the food produced One or more of these specific sequential areas may
are most likely getting a heavy dose of health-impairing be missing on a particular radius or direction. For an
chemicals. Soil animals and microbes, as well as her- urban region, the most general gradient concept would
bivores consuming the plants, are doubtless severely be metro area to inner urban-region ring to outer ring.
impacted by such high levels of toxic chemicals.
A general city-to-natural-forest gradient around
Seattle (USA) highlights relatively gradual changes in Ecological gradients
both human and ecosystem patterns (Alberti, 2008). Since the 1950s, the concept of environmental gradi-
As distance from the central business district increases: ents indicating a linear sequence of environmental con-
population density decreases, elevation increases, ditions has been widely used in ecology to understand
percent impervious surface decreases, vegetation the horizontal patterns of communities and species
cover decreases, land uses change, average parcel size (Whittaker, 1967, 1975; McIntosh, 1967). By arranging
increases, building density decreases, and the aggrega- the diverse vegetation types found in Wisconsin (USA)
tion of built areas decreases. Meanwhile, forest cover along linear axes of, e.g., soil, temperature and mois-
increases, aggregation of forest patches increases, bio- ture, relationships among vegetation types and their
diversity changes, microclimate changes, hydrologic development became clearer (Curtis and McIntosh,
flows change, and nutrient cycling increases. Such a 1951; Curtis, 1959). Analogously vegetation types het-
sequential gradient provides a preliminary overview, erogeneously distributed across the Caribbean, and
which in turn leads to analyses of the essential mosaic over the mountains and valleys of the Great Smoky
or polycentric patterns on the ground (Alberti, 2008). Mountains (southeastern USA), were compared along
Numerous ecological patterns and processes correlate axes representing environmental gradients (Beard,
with land use revealed in satellite images and GIS ana- 1955; Whittaker, 1956, 1962).
lyses (Luck and Wu, 2002), though many other pro- These pioneering studies were effectively indirect
cesses operate at finer scales “invisible” in most GIS gradient analyses, where environmental conditions in
analyses. the field may be patchily distributed, but are placed in a
Urban designers also have used the city–suburb– linear sequence on the axis of a graph (Whittaker, 1975;
rural gradient in architectural and urban planning Austin, 1987; McDonnell et al., 1993; Pickett et al., 2009).
conceptions (Calthorpe and Fulton, 2001). A detailed On the other hand, a direct gradient analysis uses meas-
and highly constrained example used by a group of urements taken at regular (or random) intervals along
“new urbanists” relates essentially everything planned a straight line or transect crossing a series of environ-
to a “typical rural–urban transect” with six sequen- mental conditions, such as from dry upland to wetland,
tial “transect zones,” plus a “special district” category or proceeding up a mountain (McDonnell et al., 1993).
(De Chiara and Koppelman, 1984; Watson et al., 2003; Direct gradient analysis with regular linear sampling
Duany et al., 2008). These zones are idealized and con- removes observer bias, both in selecting sample sites felt
sidered to be representative or average, though they to be representative or to support a hypothesis, and in
may not exist in a linear sequence in a particular city. ordering samples along an axis. Selecting and arranging
Although the transect idea was built on, or parallels, samples from the vegetation mosaic in urban regions
that in ecology, the numerous characteristics related to should be done objectively and carefully described.

41
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

Sometimes an environmental gradient is consid- along a broad landscape modification axis from urban
ered to be “simple” if a single factor, such as temperature to suburban to cultivated to managed to natural land
or soil moisture, is the major change (Whittaker, 1975; (Forman and Godron, 1986). Thus, striking changes
McDonnell and Pickett, 1990). More typically, a “com- were evident in the origin, size, shape and number of
plex” gradient involves a number of factors that change vegetation patches along the gradient. In addition,
together, or co-vary, such as temperature, precipitation different corridor types, networks, habitations, and
and soil when going up a mountain (McDonnell et al., matrix attributes change markedly from urban to nat-
1993; Medley et al., 1995; McIntyre et al., 2000). ural land. A similar approach was taken in suggesting
In recent decades, an urban-to-rural gradient, par- patterns for naturalness, human use, human and eco-
alleling ecologists’ gradient analysis techniques, has system functions, biodiversity, climate and land cover,
been widely used. Apparently the first major use was and nutrients and hydrology along an urban gradient
for lichen distribution around cities. From 1866 to (Hough, 1990; Alberti, 2008).
1972, a period including the industrial revolution, city- Numerous specific ecological characteristics
to-rural lichen distributions were analyzed around 84 have now been measured along gradients from city
cities, mostly in Eastern and Western Europe, but also to rural or natural land for many cities (Figure 2.5).
for Caracas, Christchurch (New Zealand), and New Apparently no synthesis of the results yet exists. Thus,
York, as well as Montreal, Arvida, Sudbury and Wawa the following list highlights the range of characteris-
in Canada (Le Blanc and Rao, 1973; Schmid, 1975). In tics, along with some illustrative studies as entrees into
general, from center city to surrounding rural farm- the literature.
land, species diversity increased, dominant species 1. Ecosystem. (McDonnell and Pickett, 1990; Pouyat
changed, and the very few “urban” species often disap- and McDonnell, 1991; Pouyat et al., 1995; Zu
peared. The gradient patterns were usually curvilinear and Carreiro, 1999; McDonnell et al., 1997;
(non-linear). Apparently the patterns were due to both Carreiro, 2008)
decreasing urban desiccation and air pollution. 2. Soil and chemicals. (White and McDonnell, 1988;
In the early phase of modern landscape ecology, Pouyat and McDonnell, 1991; Pouyat et al., 1994,
patch and corridor characteristics were compared 1995; McDonnell et al., 1997; Groffman et al., 2004;

(a) (c) (e)

(b) (d) (f)

Figure 2.5. Landscape ecology and soil patterns along urban-to-rural gradients. (a) to (d) Forest soil variables from New York City (city
center = Central Park) northward to exurban (rural) sites in Connecticut. Based on Pouyat and McDonnell (1991), McDonnell et al. (1993),
Pouyat et al. (1995). (a) Measured as logarithm of meters length of hyphae per gram dry weight of litter (R2 = 0.82). (b) Measured as percent loss
of original litter mass placed in nylon mesh bags in the forest litter for 24 weeks (R2 = 0.71). (c) Net mineralization in micrograms of N per gram
dry weight of soil, based on laboratory incubation (R2 = 0.73). (d) Heavy-metal Cu concentration in mg/kg. Dashed line = organic litter/humus
layer; solid line = mineral soil. (e) and (f) Phoenix (Arizona, USA). West-to-east gradient from natural land (desert) to city center to natural land
(desert). (f) Coefficient of variation of patch size plotted. Based on Luck and Wu (2002).

42
 Patch–corridor–matrix and other spatial models

Wollheim et al., 2005; Carreiro, 2008; Carreiro studies. For example, one study highlighted specific
et al, 2009) land uses with decreasing daytime human population
3. Air. (McDonnell et al., 1997; Gregg et al., 2003; (business district; office park; residential; golf course;
Ziska et al., 2004) open-space recreational; and nature preserve) (Blair,
4. Water. (Limburg and Schmidt, 1990; Arnold and 1999). The end points were polar contrasts, whereas
Gibbons, 1996; Forman et al., 2003; Walsh et al., each of the intermediate types may vary widely in
2005; Kang and Marston, 2006) vegetation and other bird-related features, so the over-
5. Plants. (Le Blanc and Rao, 1973; Kowarik, 1990; all results reflect the particular sites selected. Indeed,
Medley et al., 1995; Sukopp, 1998; Porter et al., the ecological characteristic studied may primarily be
2001; Burton et al., 2005; Ochimaru and Fukuda, determined by finer-scale patterns within the broader
2007; Zipperer and Guntenspergen, 2009) levels chosen for an urban gradient. These methodo-
6. Animals. (Jokimaki and Suhonen, 1993; Blair, 1996, logical issues are familiar to researchers in the field, but
1999; Blair and Launer, 1997; Clergeau et al., 1998; are introduced to improve and widen the base of urban
Zhu and Carreiro, 1999; Marzluff, 2001, 2005; gradient studies.
Germaine and Wakeling, 2001; Crooks et al., 2004;
Desender et al., 2005; Huste et al., 2006; Hodgson Patch–corridor–matrix and other
et al., 2007; Evans et al., 2009; Garaffa et al., 2009)
spatial models
The urban-to-rural framework has been particularly The urban-to-rural gradient is often a useful start for
useful for understanding ecological patterns around understanding urban region ecology. Sampling along
New York (Figure 2.5a), Phoenix (Figure 2.5e and f), many radii or directions is needed to determine rep-
and Baltimore (McDonnell and Pickett, 1990; Pickett resentativeness of results. Still, many key questions
et al., 1997, 2009; Luck and Wu, 2002; Carreiro, 2008; require a two-dimensional approach, i.e., a land mosaic
Carreiro et al., 2009). A Seattle study suggests sev- model for urban areas. For example, viewing a satellite
eral spatial measures that may be especially useful for image of an urban region will emphasize the import-
understanding ecological patterns along city-to-rural ance of comparing things along multiple radii. Moving
gradients: percent cover of a habitat or land use type, through space along a distance gradient, such as down
average patch size, perimeter-to-area ratio, edge dens- a mountain or from center city to remote area, nor-
ity, fractal dimension, interspersion, juxtaposition, mally crosses a mosaic with relatively distinct patches,
and aggregation (Alberti, 2008). corridors, and boundaries. Thus, a large semi-natural
Analyzing urban gradients is a simple and useful park may adjoin a central business district, and a high-
way to gain broad insight. Yet they offer challenges. For rise residential/shopping neighborhood may adjoin
example, measuring enough radii or samples in differ- an outer forested landscape. The two-dimensional
ent directions is important to gain an average and an land mosaic perspective, rather than one-dimensional
estimate of variability around a city. The area of a city radius, adds the importance of patterns perpendicular
affects the shape of curves generated along a gradient to the radius. For example, suburbanites commonly
(Garaffa et al., 2009), as for example comparing the commute, shop, and recreate in many surrounding
very vertical Shanghai with the extensively spread-out directions. Water and wildlife move in all directions.
Sao Paulo. Oddly, urban gradient studies rarely include
villages, towns, and satellite cities that are abundant
and important in most urban-region rings (Forman, Land as patches, corridors, and matrix
2008; Prados, 2009). Patches, as wide areas or “blobs” differing from their
The end points chosen have a strong effect on final surroundings, appear to be universal in landscapes.
results. For example, starting in city center or in one of Also corridors (strips).Also the background matrix.
the districts around it has an important effect on any Theoretically it is possible to have areas covered only
overall curve along the gradient. Ending the gradient by patches, but in practice corridors always seem to
in a peri-urban area, cropland, satellite city, forest or be present. An area could resemble spaghetti – only
desert also has a major effect on the shape of curves corridors – but this may not exist on land. A relatively
along the gradient. In addition, the specific land uses homogeneous matrix without patches or corridors
chosen, and their order, strongly affect indirect gradient may also be non-existent.

43
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

(a) (b) Figure 2.6. Patch–corridor–matrix

and structure-function-change
characteristics of a land mosaic. See
Turner (1989), Forman (1995), Burel and
Baudry (1999), Ingegnoli (2002), Farina
(2006), Coulson and Tchakerian (2010).

(c)

(d) (e) (f)

The basic characteristics of individual patches are having important ecological significance. For example,
simple (Figure 2.6a). They vary in type (e.g., pond, for a forest, edge width, edge height, and the linear
dump, housing development), size (large, small), and form along the edge help control species distributions,
shape (squarish, elongated, convoluted) (see equa- wildlife densities, soil nutrient levels, animal move-
tions, Appendix B). Corridors are wide-to-narrow, ments along and across an edge, and wind-transported
long-to-short, straight-to-convoluted, and so forth seeds, soil and snow. Similarly, the edge of an urban
(Figure 2.6b). The matrix is connected-to-discon- neighborhood may differ from the interior in tree
nected, extensive-to-limited, and perforated-to-con- density, crime, traffic noise, land use, and maintenance
tinuous (Figure 2.6c). Definitions of these terms fit the intensity. Edges are present in objects from buildings
dictionary so this spatial language of landscape ecol- to desert, forest, and lake. In short, patches, corridors,
ogy readily enhances communication among diverse and edges are nearly universal in landscapes and urban
interests. areas at any scale.
All three elements described have boundaries or Over the past two decades the patch–corridor–
edges, also ubiquitous. The boundary may be consid- matrix model has emerged as the prime model for
ered to be a line. A narrow strip of edge, usually recog- understanding natural and human patterns on land,
nizable on each side of the line, differs from the interior and in applications for societal problem-solving. Every
portion of the patch or matrix on each side. An edge point on land is within either a patch, a corridor, or a
is effectively three-dimensional, with each dimension matrix. Their attributes introduced above are handles

44
 Patch–corridor–matrix and other spatial models

for study and for application. The model permits direct natural dendritic networks. Humans make dendritic
comparison of diverse mosaics and their components. forms such as irrigation and drainage canals, and pipe
The patch–corridor–matrix model has been widely systems for water and sewage. We also make rectilinear
and successfully used for scientific analysis, scholarly networks, including street and hedgerow networks, with
interpretation, and society’s environmentally related predominantly straight lines and many right angles.
solutions. An enhanced version of the model is needed Anastomosing networks, typically with gently curving
to address two land patterns, though they are rare in lines and sharp acute angles, are also common, such as
urban areas: (1) gradual environmental gradients (no most railway systems and animal-trail networks.
distinct patches, corridors, or boundaries across an Many attributes, easily understood but little stud-
area); and (2) distinct patches or corridors but indis- ied ecologically, describe networks (Forman, 1995).
tinct boundaries (various “soft” boundary types) Consider, for instance, the effects of attached node size,
(McIntyre and Hobbs, 1999; McGarigal and Cushman, corridor hierarchies, linkage density, connectivity, cir-
2005; Lindenmayer and Fischer, 2006). cuitry (abundance of loops), linkages per node, and
The land mosaic, like any system containing life, has mesh size. Numerous ecological phenomena should be
structure, function, and change (or pattern, process, highly sensitive to such network attributes.
and dynamics) (Figure 2.6d). An area’s structure is its
spatial pattern, i.e., its components and their arrange-
ment. Function or functioning refers to the flows, move- Richness of spatial models
ments and interactions present of wind, water, animals, The models following tend to be highly spatial, empha-
people and transport. Change refers to the alterations sizing that the arrangement of organisms, people, built
in structural pattern (and functioning) over time, as in structures, and the physical environment is central to
a changing mosaic. understanding urban areas and urban ecology. Simple
These three central characteristics of a land mosaic spatial models (which, however, avoid oversimplifica-
are intimately linked in feedback systems. Structure tion) generally have the advantage of easy understand-
very much determines function. In fact, a key way to ing and communication among parties, as well as ready
improve how an area works is to change patches or application or implementation.
corridors in some way. But functioning in turn often Maps are models. The map-maker shows certain
alters or creates structure. Furthermore, structure and features and filters out others, such as only showing
function both cause changed conditions, which con- major highways and medium-to-large parks, thus
sequently alter structure as well as function. Those eliminating small roads and small parks. Geographic
are feedback loops, where one thing affects a second, information system images (GIS, both raster and vector)
which affects the first. Feedbacks provide for both sta- are also models that include some features and elimin-
bility and dynamics. They also illustrate the old adage, ate others. Hundreds of small but important features in
“everything is connected.” A change here and now quite a landscape are filtered out by most GIS analyses (see
understandably leads to a change there and then. Figure 1.5). Random (or stochastic) models are often
Corridors may exist singly but connected corridors used by ecologists as a type of control to detect sub-
of a particular type, forming a network, seem almost tle spatial patterns. In urban areas where humans have
universal. Road networks, stream networks, hedgerow used energy to create and maintain patterns, indeed
networks, trail networks, and pipe networks are nearly a heavy human imprint, random models may be of
ubiquitous (Figure 2.6d). All function as systems, with limited use. “Mental models” where one qualitatively
flows from node (intersection) to node along their cor- or quantitatively estimates how things work based on
ridors. Furthermore, networks are barriers and filters previous experience are widely used, though the lack
that substantially interrupt and disrupt other flows of objectivity limits their usefulness (McCarthy, 2009).
across the land. A distance-decay pattern or model, whereby objects
Three types of networks characterize urban dispersing from a source decrease exponentially with
regions. Nature creates tree-like dendritic networks, increasing distance, is particularly useful in both ecol-
such as stream and river systems with flowing surface ogy and urban studies (Pacione, 2005). Dispersing
water. Ridge networks in rugged mountains, under- seeds, animals and people commonly decrease in num-
ground rivers in limestone, and the reverse-network of ber with the square of the distance (d−2) from a source
a mountain stream flowing out onto an arid valley are location.

45
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

Input–output or “black-box” models are concep- The following “models” are listed in four somewhat
tually simple and useful. Though usually non-spatial, overlapping categories: (1) early models; (2) donut
they can readily be made spatial thus increasing their model; (3) ecological pattern models; and (4) urban
value. In essence, a component or black box contains X form models.
amount of the prime item of interest. Input to the box is 1. Early models
Y, and output from the box is Z. If the rates Y and Z are (a) Zones of influence. Also known as von Thunen
equal, the content of the box remains stable. If Y < Z, bands, this early spatial model highlighted
then X shrinks. However, if the internal production of three major concentric bands around a
X in the box increases and Z increases at the same rate, city, intensive cropland, pastureland, and
X in the box remains constant. But Z could change lit- woodland (which provided wood products
tle, so X in the box grows. Even the growth (or shrink- and game) (Losch, 1954; Cronon, 1991).
age) of X could alter Y.
(b) Central place theory. Largely an economic
Input–output models are the normal foundation
approach, this model highlighted population
of systems models, which effectively are composed of
centers as markets, with goods being sold
a few or many components interconnected by flows.
at increasing distances proportional to
Thus, the size of a particular component is dependent
population size (Christaller, 1933; Hartshorn,
on production or loss in the box, as well as the direct
1992; Pacione, 2005). Population centers
inputs and outputs. But the component is also normally
across the land competed, which resulted
affected by the size (and changing size) of other indir-
in a hexagonal zone of market influence
ectly linked boxes. Moreover, the component is sensi-
around each center. Villages, towns, and
tive to the rates of flow (and changing rates) between
cities had different-sized zones of influence,
indirectly linked boxes. Systems with many changing
hence conceptually producing a hierarchy
components and flows can be complex, though read-
of hexagonal patterns on the land, though
ily amenable to computer analysis. Engineers routinely
actual hexagons were hard to detect in aerial
use systems analysis. In the flow of mineral nutrients
photographs. Many modifications of the
and other chemicals (biogeochemistry), ecologists also
model have been made.
commonly use a systems analysis approach.
Lots of complex models are used to understand 2. Donut model
urban areas. Cellular automata, complexity models, and The donut model highlights the urban region
self-organization approaches are examples (Berling- (as the donut) composed of the all-built metro
Wolff and Wu, 2004). Geostatistical techniques or area (the central “hole”), plus the surrounding
models (including semi-variograms, autocorrelation urban-region ring upon which the metro area
indices, and interpolation) statistically analyze data mainly depends (Figure 2.7) (Forman, 2008).
at defined points to provide spatial insight (especially At this broad scale, one readily recognizes the
where the assumptions of normality in parametric sta- major types of city: (1) with no major water
tistics are a problem) (Gustafson, 1998). Many “land- body (complete donut); (2) on a river (sliced
scape metrics” have been used to measure patterns and donut); (3) at a river intersection (Y-sliced
interpret ecological processes in natural and agricul- donut); (4) on a straight coast (half donut);
tural landscapes (McGarigal and Marks, 1995; Leitao (5) coastal city with bay or harbor (indented
et al., 2006), though it is unclear which of these would half donut); (6) coastal city with river and
be useful in the heavy-human-imprint urban area. A bay/harbor (indented sliced half donut),
bit of mathematical graph theory has been used to con- and (7) city with river set back from a coast
vert specific spatial patterns at many scales to a “uni- (asymmetric sliced flattened donut).
versal currency” of nodes and linkages (Cantwell and Looking more closely within the donut
Forman, 1994; Urban and Keitt, 2001; Freyermuth, provides additional insights into key urban
2010). Such an analysis was used to detect the presence region patterns and processes (Figure 2.7).
of widespread spatial patterns independent of scale, These include (Forman, 2008): (1) zone with
land use, population density, and geographic region. coastal microclimate (onshore breeze, etc.);
Some economic land-pricing/value models use a similar (2) zones subject to coastal storms, cyclones/
approach. hurricanes, and tsunamis; (3) overall degree

46
 Patch–corridor–matrix and other spatial models

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Figure 2.7. Donut models highlighting
major land-use patterns in urban
regions. Metro area = continuous
built area containing city and (usually)
suburban land. Agricultural land = active
or recent farming, usually cropland.
Natural, recreational, and industrial
lands = hypothesized optimal locations.
Narrow arrows = major water flows (river,
streams, windstorms, tsunami). Wide
(f) (g) (h) (i) arrows = air flows. (m) Elongated urban
region squeezed by a coast, mountain
range, or another adjoining urban
region. See Forman (2008).

(j) (k) (l) (m)

of interaction between metro area and urban- the nesting site of most bird species (and the
region ring; (4) transportation corridors highest species diversity) correlated with
(radial, around a coastal city, and connecting landscape pattern at two spatial scales, i.e., the
satellite cities); (5) topography and water flows; 5 ha (12.5 acres) right around the nest and a
(6) flood-prone areas; (7) industrial location broad 250 ha (625 acres or 1 mi2) area (Arnold,
and plume zone; (8) nearby competing city; 1983; Forman, 1995).
(9) satellite cities and their zones of influence; (c) Habitat arrangement models that emphasize
(10) probability of cropland/former cropland; the interspersion of habitat, total boundary
(11) probability of natural land, including near length between habitats, the relative lengths
the metro area; and (12) recreational zones. In of each type of edge present, and convergency
effect, the donut model provides a convenient points where three or more habitats converge
visual tool in wise planning for the future of a (Hunter, 1990; Forman, 1995).
city in its urban region. (d) Environmental gradient or species continuum
3. Ecological pattern models model, both in the direct and indirect
(a) Dispersion model for the distribution of gradient-analysis form, was described above
individuals of a species indicates that most (Curtis and McIntosh, 1951; Whittaker, 1975;
species have an aggregated or clumped Austin, 1999).
distribution, some are regularly or evenly (e) Ecosystem models focus either on ecological
distributed, and very few approach a random energetics, i.e., the one-way flow of energy
distribution (Smith, 1996; Cain et al., 2011). through feeding or trophic levels, or on
(b) Habitat selection model in its spatial form mineral nutrients (biogeochemistry), which
highlights home range characteristics around may cycle within or more often flow through
a site selected for nesting or denning by an an ecosystem (Odum, 1971; Odum and
animal, and probably also relates well to Barrett, 2005).
people choosing an apartment or home. For (f) Island biogeography theory or model
example, in farmland around Oxford, UK, graphically and mathematically relates species

47
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

richness on islands to island size and distance 1999; Alberti and Waddell, 2000; Ingegnoli,
from the mainland (species source), resulting 2002; Farina, 2006; Alberti, 2008).
from the processes of species colonization and (n) Many other models have been used in ecology
extinction (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). On including spatial stochastic, process-based,
land the model was gradually replaced by the fuzzy-logic, and neural-network models
patch–corridor–matrix model because (1) a (Turner, 1989; Turner and Gardner, 1991;
patch is surrounded by diverse habitats, each Sklar and Costanza, 1991; Wu and Levin, 1997;
being a source of effects on the patch, a species Berling-Wolff and Wu, 2004).
source in its own right, and differentially 4. Urban form models
suitable for movement between patches, and (a) Greenbelt model and urban growth boundary
(2) the roles of specialist and generalist species pattern are circular constraints to city
plus the interior-to-edge ratio of a patch expansion, the former a designated band of
seem to be quite important. Urban habitats protected land (e.g., around London) and the
normally are much closer to the land model latter a line beyond which development is
than the island model. limited (Portland, Oregon, USA) (Howard,
(g) Patch–corridor–matrix model or land mosaic 1902; Elson, 1986; Parsons and Schuyler, 2000;
model was described above (Forman, 1979a; Forman, 2008).
Forman and Godron, 1981, 1986; Collinge and (b) Metro area border models focus on “spokes”
Forman, 1998; Farina, 2006). (radial transportation routes), circular/orbital
(h) Boundary or edge model relates vegetation transportation routes, or edge cities/nodes
density, herbivore density, predator foraging, (Ravetz, 2000; Garreau, 1991; Pacione, 2005).
species richness, and other ecological (c) Land market value model relates land uses and
attributes to the three-dimensional urbanization to distance from city center and
form (width, height, and longitudinal other key locations (Alonso, 1964).
heterogeneity) and the hardness/softness (d) Environmental constraints and urban form
(straight abrupt, curvy/convoluted, gradient, emphasizes how metro areas do or do not
or strip of micro-mosaic) of edges between fit well with natural patterns, and how
habitats (Forman, 1995). mountains, rivers, water bodies, and so forth
(i) Metapopulation models analyze the dynamics shape cities (Whitehand and Morton, 2004;
of local colonizations and extinctions on Pacione, 2005).
patches for a species with sub-populations on (e) Urban-to-rural gradient model was described
separate patches, but connected by occasional above (McDonnell and Pickett, 1990; Hahs
movements of individuals between the patches and McDonnell, 2007).
(Cain et al., 2011; Morin, 2011). (f) Concentric, sector, and multiple nuclei models,
(j) Fractal models were introduced above (Milne, which have long been standards in urban
1988). geography, indicate major land-use (land
(k) Ecological network refers to the distribution cover) distributions around a city center as
and suitability of habitats as perceived and either concentric zones, pie-section-shaped
used by animals in movement through a land sectors, or dispersed districts (Hartshorn,
mosaic (Jongman and Pungetti, 2004; Opdam 1992; Pacione, 2005). Many modifications
et al., 2006; Dalang and Hersperger, 2012). and elaborations have been made,
(l) Emerald network, as a group of large natural recognizing differences in geography and
or semi-natural patches interconnected by mechanisms.
corridors or effective stepping stones, may be (g) Orthogonal grid models often reflect the
the optimum ecological network (Forman, central imprinting role of transportation
2004b, 2008; Massa et al., 2004). within a city (Platt, 2004).
(m) A suite of landscape ecology models is (h) Pattern perception models highlight generic
summarized in various reviews (Forman, features perceived and used by people in an
1995; Waddell, 2002; Klopatek and Gardner, urban area, such as lines, nodes, edges and

48
 Neighborhood mosaics and their linkages

so forth (Alexander et al., 1977; Lynch, 1981; universal patterns exist. Tailoring societal solutions to
Lynch and Hack, 1996; van Bohemen, 2005). such patterns offers promise.
(i) City as ecological system model goes well Another way to evaluate universality is to convert
beyond specific ecosystem characteristics everything to the same currency or units. Some econo-
to provide a broad multi-dimensional mists use market values to give everything a monetary
approach for understanding an urban area value permitting direct comparisons. Analogously,
(Alberti, 2008; Newman and Jennings, everything from toothbrushes and labor to soil and
2008). The model may include: principles of religion has been converted to the currency of calories
form and function; diversity; adaptiveness; or “energy” (Odum, 1983).
interconnectedness; resilience; regenerative
capacity; symbiosis; holism; systems Neighborhood mosaics and
interactions between parts; processes;
complexity; hierarchical and context factors; their linkages
flows of energy, materials and information To create a stunning patchwork quilt that lasts a fam-
(Grimm et al., 2000); city-shaping relative ily for generations, the quilter envisions clusters of
to transportation patterns; self-organization colors and shapes, and sews the pieces of cloth together
(zero waste, self-regulating, resilient/ tightly. A unique “crazy-quilt,” composed of diverse
self-renewing, flexible) (Bossel, 1998); patch sizes, shapes, materials and textures, requires
and ecological succession. This array of particular attention to linkages along the irregular
characteristics of course represents a wish list boundaries. So it is with neighborhood mosaics. Land
or a recommendation for future study and uses (land covers) and habitat patches are strongly
modeling. interconnected.
We explore this idea in four steps: (1) land mosaic
The preceding list of spatial, mainly ecological, models
concept; (2) effect of the surroundings; (3) adjacencies
highlights the richness of models available, and offers
and dependent pairs; and (4) neighborhood mosaics.
ideas for selecting appropriate modeling approaches
To glimpse the big picture at the outset, we consider
for urban ecology research. Some are major and others
a land mosaic to be the spatial pattern of elements in
minor; some descriptive, others quantitative; some lie
a large area, an interwoven mosaic refers to elements
dormant, others are actively used. Some investigators
tied together by strong interactions, and a neighbor-
recommend using at least two model types to generate
hood mosaic focuses on a cluster of nearby elements
valuable hypotheses and to approach understanding.
with mainly positive interactions.
In a search for universal spatial patterns present in
any landscape, a bit of graph theory from mathemat-
ics provides interesting insight (Cantwell and Forman, Land mosaic concept
1994). Twenty-four aerial photographs of areas vary- As two-dimensional patterns of diverse usually small
ing in size by five orders of magnitude, and also vary- adjoining elements, “mosaics” occur at any scale from
ing widely in population density, land use, climate, and sub-microscopic to the globe. Land mosaics on the
worldwide geography were examined. These aerials Earth’s surface generally represent the broader range
were directly compared (a la graph theory) by convert- of scales from perhaps meters-wide upwards (Forman,
ing all photographed patterns into simple networks of 1995). Thus, habitats and land uses predominate as the
nodes, and linkages between nodes. Perhaps surpris- key elements or components present. A perfect grid has
ingly, five specific spatial patterns were found in 85% or all elements the same, equal-sized squares. But nature’s
more of these extremely diverse land mosaics. One pat- processes and human activities normally produce
tern, for example was an area of matrix with scattered mosaics with elements varying in size, shape, and type.
patches embedded within it, like a residential area with Indeed, many ecological factors have been related to
dispersed schools or a coniferous forest containing the properties of land mosaics (Turner and Gardner,
scattered bogs. Although only five simple patterns were 1991; Lindenmayer and Fischer, 2006; Bennett et al.,
widespread, other repeated patterns were detected in 2006; Farina, 2006; Haslem and Bennett, 2008).
the diverse set of landscapes. Probably more wide- Although corridors or strips are normally present in
spread basic patterns await discovery. Perhaps even land mosaics, patches predominate. The arrangement

49
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

The strength of an interwoven mosaic is analogous

to the concept of a natural plant or animal community
(Austin, 1999; Cain et al., 2011; Morin, 2011). Most
ecologists consider a natural community to be a group
of species coexisting at a site. The species in the com-
munity may be tightly interlinked with abundant inter-
actions, e.g., of nutrient flow, herbivory, predation,
competition and symbiosis. However, if few or low-
level interactions occur among the coexisting species,
the group may be referred to as a “species assemblage.”
Corridors within the mosaic typically play espe-
cially important functional roles. As conduits they
Figure 2.8. A center city urban mosaic. Skyscraper area (lower channel flows, both positive and negative, along their
right and right center); adjacent parks (Boston Common and length (Forman, 1995; Bennett, 2003). As barriers
Garden; lower center); low-rise residential areas (left and center); or filters, flows and movements across corridors are
Charles River above dam (left); Cambridge business and residential
areas (upper left); transportation and industrial area (upper blocked or reduced. Consequently, the arrangement
center); mixed-use area (upper right). Road, rail, and river corridors of corridors within and around a land mosaic strongly
interconnect the land-use patches. Boston. R. Forman photo. affects the direction and rate of flows. For instance, cor-
ridors parallel versus perpendicular to a boundary, and
of the patches and corridors is a unique structure, a gently curving versus convoluted corridors, have quite
core characteristic of each land mosaic. different functional effects.
Furthermore, whole landscapes have properties These patterns and principles permit us to estimate
that can be quantified and compared (Bennett et al., the size or extent of an actively functioning, tightly
2006; Radford and Bennett, 2007). Structural proper- interwoven mosaic on land. One approach is to iden-
ties of particular interest identified so far are: extent of tify the major barriers or filters in the land. Corridors
habitat; composition of the mosaic; spatial configur- such as rivers, railways, ridges, and busy highways are
ation of elements; and geographical position. familiar barriers separating both animal home ranges
The network of interactions tying the elements and human neighborhoods. Another common case
together is the other core attribute. Flows and move- determining the edge of an interwoven mosaic is a
ments of objects, materials and energy link the group hard abrupt boundary between highly contrasting
or cluster of patches. In effect, these processes deter- land uses. In both the corridor and hard-edge cases,
mine how the land mosaic works, how it functions. estimates of flows crossing are valuable, since more
Flows among the elements also indicate how stable or interactions than expected may occur. For example,
long-lasting a mosaic is. informal squatter settlements (favelas) in Sao Paulo
Thus, the strength of interactions, i.e., amount and and Rio de Janeiro are often quite close to, and actively
rate of flows/movements, among mosaic components is tied by employment to, wealthy neighborhoods. Or,
a key (Figure 2.8). Strong rather than weak interactions wildlife may regularly move in foraging and seasonal
indicate: (1) a tightly interwoven mosaic, with depend- migration between north and south sides of a ridge.
ence of one element on another, or interdependence A second approach to determining the extent or
between or among patches; (2) an actively functioning boundaries of an interwoven mosaic results from iden-
mosaic; and probably (3) stability for the future. tifying the organizing force, if any, for the area. This
An interwoven mosaic, as a group of landscape elem- may cover an area somewhat equally, such as govern-
ents tied together by strong interactions (flows and ment, religion, or ethnic identity, with a relatively dis-
movements), highlights an active functioning unit of tinct drop-off at the outer edge. The edge-to-interior
tightly interacting land uses and habitats. Stronger inter- ratio may be usefully estimated, since small mosaics
actions suggest flows or movements that cover much of have mostly edge conditions affected by the surround-
the surface of patches, rather than simply in a narrow ings, while a large mosaic may have a significant interior
zone along patch borders. Indeed, although some flows portion with few interactions with the surroundings.
go along borders, strongly interweaving a mosaic implies Alternatively, the organizing force may be at a
mainly perpendicular flows across boundaries. somewhat central location, such as a major resource,

50
 Neighborhood mosaics and their linkages

employer, civic/cultural plaza, pond, or transportation force provides a long life. Dependence of one compo-
hub. With a central location, the distance-decay rela- nent on another, such as homes depending on a well
tionship helps determine the extent of an interwoven or other water source, adds stability. Interdependence,
mosaic. Thus, an exponential or d−2 decrease in flows such as homes depending on a grocery store, and
or interactions typically occurs with distance from a vice versa, adds still more stability. The other side of
source. interdependence is that if one major component is
“Self-organizing principles” have been used to degraded or eliminated, the mosaic system as a whole
understand spatial patterns, and especially their simi- may degrade, even unravel. Industrial interdepend-
larity across the land. Farms and villages in a landscape ence, or symbiosis, where one industry uses the output
often appear surprisingly similar. Housing develop- of a second, and vice versa, is an example. Providing
ments around Orlando (Florida) or Calgary (Canada) redundancy, diverse resources, multi-modal transpor-
do as well. An organizing force (such as farmers or tation, alternative routes, and so forth provides stability
developers), a mix of elements, and ample time often (Forman, 2008). A sense of place by residents, resulting
lead to similar results in a landscape. from familiarity and affinity, leads to care and steward-
Urban regions are large land mosaics where the city ship. That also provides mosaic stability.
or metro area is the central organizing force (Forman,
2008). In effect, the city and its ring-around-the-city
functionally interact, and seem to be interdependent. Adjacencies
The mosaic pattern and conditions of the urban-region Rarely can we escape being strongly affected by what
ring are strongly determined by flows from and to the is next to us. “Adjacency” refers to an object (e.g., land
central organizing force. use or habitat) that adjoins (is in contact with) another
At a finer scale, a locality-centered mosaic or “region” object. An adjacent land use may surround the entire
was determined in a different way for a suburban town boundary of a patch, or at the other extreme, be in con-
near Boston (Forman et al., 2004; Forman, 2008). tact only at a point (point adjacency). Most adjacencies
Surrounding towns were involved in a significant adjoin a portion of a patch’s boundary. An adjacency
portion of the issues regularly faced by the town (e.g., effect is where one element significantly affects an
education, airport, clean-water supply, wildlife move- adjoining element.
ment, railway, rare species, vernal pools, large natural In a study of 40 urban/suburban woods in
habitats, hospital, biking/walking trails, state forest, Springfield (Massachusetts, USA), bird species rich-
national park, and much more). Based on an extensive ness decreased as the density of buildings adjacent to
list of such issues, the towns involved were listed, and it woods increased (Tilghman, 1987). In a Finland study,
was clear that 14 other towns regularly interacted with adjacent building density surrounding a park affected
the central town. From the central town perspective, avian nesting outside the park, as well as foraging by
the group as a whole functioned in a town-centered or the birds inside the park (Jokimaki, 1999). Adjacency
locality-centered region. effects are doubtless widespread, such as factory air
The third approach for estimating the size of an pollutants degrading an adjacent semi-natural park,
interwoven mosaic is to focus on the set of basic needs fires in a fire-prone woodland destroying an adjoin-
(or uses) of the species and humans present. The “home ing housing development, and stormwater runoff and
range,” i.e., area used in daily movements by an animal, summer heat from a large tarmac/asphalt parking area
is helpful here (Hunter, 1990). The basic needs or uses of affecting an adjacent downslope and downwind area.
the animal are food, water, nesting/denning cover, and However, adjacent land uses may also have little inter-
escape cover (from predators or danger). Analogously, action (Moran, 1984; Mesquita et al., 1999).
urban people typically require or frequently use a resi- In the Barcelona Region, where wooded patches are
dence, food store, goods shopping, school, employ- adjacent to urban areas, the species richness of plants
ment, park or other leisure space, restaurants, and thriving in human-disturbed habitats (synanthropic
entertainment spots. Mapping the set of frequent-use species) is higher in large woods than in small woods
locations helps identify not only flows and movements, (Guirado et al., 2006). Also the richness of common for-
but the extent of an interwoven mosaic. est species, as well as all forest species, is higher close to
Interactions also indicate much about the persist- the edge, and lower in the interior, of the woods. Edges
ence or stability of a land mosaic. A stable organizing of woods are visited by people more frequently than are

51
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

interior portions. However, where woods are adjacent of Calgary (Alberta, Canada), woodland patches of
to crop fields, the synanthropic plant species richness is quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) are often sur-
higher in small woods than in large woodland patches. rounded by grassland and/or shrubland. Along a gra-
Overall, forest size and adjacent land use type are the dient from 0% to 100% adjacent shrubland (i.e., all to
two most important variables affecting the plant spe- no grassland), plant species composition in the woods
cies diversity. changed from many weedy and introduced species to
In exurban/peri-urban areas, especially in sprawl many moist-environment species as adjacent shrub-
areas of North America, several terms have been used land increased (Figure 2.9b). The proportion of native
to describe the mix of housing and natural or semi- species, perennial species, and shrubland species in
natural (non-agricultural) land – interface, interdig- the woods increased linearly, while the proportion of
itation, intermix, interspersion. The natural land has grassland species decreased linearly. Total plant species
sometimes been called “wildland,” which is wild rela- richness in the woods remained essentially constant as
tive to the center of a housing development but typic- the adjacent habitat types changed.
ally is much used, degraded, and not very wild relative A modeling study using graph theory attempted to
to more-distant natural land. People use the adjacent see if adjacency arrangements were predictable for dif-
semi-natural areas for recreation/leisure, dumping, ferent types of land uses, irrespective of spatial scale and
resource extraction, and other activities that degrade worldwide geography (Cantwell and Forman, 1994).
the ecological value (Matlack, 1993; Radeloff et al., House plots usually had four (or two) adjacent land
2010). Meanwhile, nearby natural areas are sources of uses irrespective of landscape context. Crop fields and
water flows, clean air, biodiversity and, in dry climates, hedgerows each typically had four adjoining land uses
wildfire entering the adjacent housing development. anywhere. In contrast, roads and rivers normally had
The interface has been described as the area where many adjacent land uses (8+ in the study). Five adja-
natural vegetation and urban encroachment coexist, cency arrangements of different land uses were found
but neither predominates (Ewert et al., 1993; Theobold, in ≥85% of the landscapes studied. In short, adjacency
2004). “Interspersion” suggests land uses being inter- arrangements appear to be an important and promis-
mixed or scattered at intervals, whereas “interdigita- ing basis for understanding land and neighborhood
tion” suggests an interfingering of lobes. One study, mosaics.
related to exurban wildfire, estimates that 1.9% of the
contiguous USA has housing [>1 unit per 16 ha (40
acres)] near large continuous vegetation areas (Vince Dependent pairs and the surroundings
et al., 2005). However, housing intermingling with Animals that regularly use two or more habitats are
small areas of non-agricultural vegetation may cover effectively multi-habitat species. Common examples
about 7.4% of the land. are a deer or hawks moving between woodland and
In the fire-prone Mediterranean Basin, often the meadow, geese between water body and grassy area,
most hazardous fire conditions are where patches and common pigeons between built structure and open
of built area cover 20–40% of the land and are inter- park. Active frequent usage of both sites suggests that
mixed with large areas of natural land (Forman, 2004; the animals may depend on or require the sites to sur-
Francisco Rego, personal communication, 2003). Large vive or thrive. However, without an experimental study,
vegetation areas tend to have fewer but bigger hotter the usage may simply reflect preference. That is, if a site
fires, whereas smaller wooded areas intermixed with disappeared, the animal is genetically flexible enough
housing normally have more but smaller fires, which to switch usage to a different site or type of site.
are more easily extinguished. Fire management that In many cases the presence or survival of a com-
protects buildings, protects forest growing wood prod- ponent in a site depends on another site, which may
ucts, and protects the set of rare or fire-adapted species be adjacent to the first. A reservoir’s water quality
is especially challenging in such intermixed areas full and quantity depend on the surrounding drainage
of adjacencies. basin. Wetland or stream level depends on the degree
A closer look at adjacencies reveals the importance of pumping by an adjacent well. The well may lower
of adjacency arrangement effects, where the configur- the water-table, thus drying out any water body in its
ation of nearby elements significantly affects a par- “cone of influence.” A beaver pond and dam depends
ticular element (Hersperger and Forman, 2003). South on the beaver having sufficient suitable woody plants

52
 Neighborhood mosaics and their linkages

(a) Figure 2.9. Biodiversity

patterns in differing land-use
adjacency arrangements. (a)
Based on measurements and
(c)
modeling of 3 butterfly species,
12 forest-bird species, and 1
large-mammal (deer) species in
The Netherlands (Knaapen et al.,
1992; Forman, 1995). (b) Based on
measurements in aspen (Populus
tremuloides) patches (averaging
about 0.4 ha = 1 acre) in a rural
area south of Calgary (Canada)
(Hersperger and Forman, 2003).
(b) (c) Expected patterns based on
(a) and (b).

to cut in the adjacent woodland. Bat activity (probably the surrounding residential area, and vice versa. An
proportional to bat number) was found to be greater elementary school and the residential area are symbi-
in industrial/commercial areas when they are next to otic. Blackbirds foraging in residential areas depend
greenspace (Gehrt and Chelsvig, 2003). On the other on a wooded park for night roosting, while the park-
hand, bat activity in industrial/commercial areas was roosting birds depend on residential areas for feeding.
less next to farmland, but greater next to farmland con- Rather than being clumped together, the thousands of
taining a water body. More familiar is a city apartment high-rise residential buildings in Sao Paulo are often
or shop that depends on the adjacent street. separated by small greenspaces (see book cover). These
Some apparent dependencies are for a non-adja- spaces, required by regulation, around high rises pro-
cent element. A market-gardening area depends on, vide playground, parkland, walkways and meeting
but is often slightly separated from, the nearby city. places for the residents above.
A cranberry-growing bog depends on a water body, Other linkages between elements or land uses occur
either adjacent or nearby. An area of warehouses for in mosaics. A matrix surrounding a patch is a major
storage and trans-shipment of goods often depends source of flows affecting the patch. A surrounding resi-
on, but may be separated from a municipal airport. dential area depends on a park, but sometimes not vice
In some well-functioning “metapopulations,” the sus- versa. As described above, central place theory high-
tained presence of a species on a small patch depends lights the mutual interactions between a population
on a nearby large patch as a source of dispersing indi- center and its surrounding land or zone of influence
viduals (Forman, 1995). (Pacione, 2005). A strategic point is mainly depend-
Indeed, some patch pairs are interdependent elem- ent on characteristics of the matrix, either the rarity
ents, or at least mutually beneficial to each other. A of a site or its location relative to shape of the matrix
sewage-treatment facility pipes its outflow to a water (Forman, 1995).
body, which in turn depends on the water and effect- Various empirical ecological studies highlight the
iveness of the facility. Visitor/tourist sites and hotels important effect of “the surroundings” on a site (Luck
benefit each other. A small shopping area depends on et al., 2004). Invertebrates in a UK shrubland (Calluna

53
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

heath) differ and change according to patterns in the (Addicott et al., 1987; Chaskin, 1995; Hersperger,
surroundings (Webb and Hopkins, 1984; Webb et al., 2006). Flows and movements of wind, water, heat,
1984). Intensive conifer plantations increase preda- seeds, animals, noise, people and other objects among
tion on bird nests in adjacent habitats (Villard, 2012). the land uses may vary from high to low. The contrast
Surrounding land uses affect forest birds (Dunford or difference between adjacent habitats and the por-
and Freemark, 2004). Avian diversity and movement osity of boundaries affect flow rates tying the mosaic
depend on the proportion of woodland in a built area together. In effect, an “interwoven mosaic” refers to
within 500 m of the edge of a park (Ichinose, 2005). elements tied together by strong interactions, while a
In each case, further study might reveal that a spe- “neighborhood mosaic” focuses on a cluster of nearby
cific element in the surroundings, rather than the sur- elements with mostly positive interactions.
roundings as a whole, is mainly responsible for the The preceding sections have highlighted the roles
effect reported. of adjacencies, adjacency arrangements, dependent
Degrading a non-adjacent area in the surroundings habitat pairs, interdependent habitat pairs, and the
of a park in the Greater Yellowstone Region produces surroundings (Figure 2.9). These spatial arrangements
four major results (based on known mechanisms and help integrate the neighborhood mosaic. Other types
ecological theory) (Hansen and DeFries, 2007). (1) The of spatial arrangements inter-linking the site cluster
“effective size” of the protected park area is reduced. doubtless exist and warrant study. Also, as described
(2) Ecological processes and flows are disrupted. (3) above, several types of flows are spatially dependent.
Critical habitats, such as species sources and move- Distinct corridors, and often networks, are typically
ment routes, in the surroundings are lost or degraded. present in a neighborhood mosaic. Such linear features
(4) Edge effects from the degraded site ripple outward represent conduits and barriers for flows. Perceptual
into the park. or functional connectivity emphasizes that animals or
people may move through varied habitats or land uses
Neighborhood mosaics without using visible structural corridors. In Australia,
The idea of “neighborhood” focuses on nearness or some Aborigines create a fine-scale mosaic on the land
proximity, and usually includes the idea of positive using “fire-stick” burning, and women gather food by
interactions among components (Webster’s College ever-changing routes through the finite well-known
Dictionary, 1991; Chaskin, 1995; Moudon, 1997; mosaic (Forman, 1995). Other examples of flows and
Oxford English Dictionary, 1998; Fainstein, 2000; effects on flows in a neighborhood mosaic are “bound-
Steiner, 2002). Nearby residents with friendly associ- ary-crossing frequency,” “diverse-habitat crossing fre-
ations are characteristic. Often this is a product of, or quency,” “follow-the-leader traplining,” and “species
leads to, similar conditions across a neighborhood. dispersals in a metapopulation.”
A neighborhood mosaic links the human and the Guidelines for the typical distance that flows go
ecological dimensions by focusing on land uses or habi- have been determined in certain regions, as follows.
tats as the components (Addicott et al., 1987; Forman, More flow types could be added, but such data would
1995; Engstrom and Mikuminski, 1998; DeAngelis and seem to vary by region and locality.
Petersen, 2001). The idea has been pinpointed as a local • Most people will walk up to 1 km or 0.5 mi in
assemblage of landscape elements linked together with commuting to work.
strong interactions (Hersperger, 2006). A slightly broader
• Elementary schools in suburbs average about 1.5
neighborhood mosaic concept is a positively interacting
km or 1 mi apart.
cluster of nearby land uses or habitats. Positive interac-
• Urban parks are also commonly planned for that
tions highlight the friendliness aspect of a human neigh-
distance apart.
borhood. Negative interactions could disrupt the cluster
of sites. Thus, although negative interactions between • Zones around streams and rivers are typically
components may normally be present, positive linkages mapped for the average 50-year and 100-year floods.
predominate in a neighborhood mosaic. • Traffic noise disturbance from a busy highway
often extends outward 1+ km.
Interactions tying a neighborhood together • The cooling effect of a medium-large urban park
The strength of interactions measures the tightness typically extends from the edge 0.5–1.0 km (see
of a neighborhood mosaic or site cluster (Figure 2.8) Chapter 5).

54
 Neighborhood mosaics and their linkages

Suppose, instead of mapping land uses and habitats, radial flows and movements may predominate in the
we mapped the flows between them (Figure 2.6d and site cluster. Yet the organizing force may also be a corri-
e), and made the thickness of arrows proportional to dor such as a riverside park or coastal walkway.
flow rate. This rarely done flow-map would highlight A convergency point, where three or more habitats
areas of both major and little interaction among sites. A or land uses converge, is a particularly interesting case
cluster of nearby sites is likely to be a concentrated area of a central organizing force contributing to a neigh-
of flows. In cropland of Southern Ontario, rather little borhood mosaic (Forman, 1995). In the US Midwest
movement of small mammals and birds occurs between and Rocky Mountains, the optimum location for resi-
woods and fields (Wegner and Merriam, 1979). Also dent quail (bobwhite, a small game bird) is reported
little movement occurs between hedgerows and fields. to be where four habitats converge: woodland, shrub-
Most inter-site movement of the animals is between land, meadow, and cropland (Leopold, 1933). A com-
woods and attached hedgerows, highlighting a hot spot bination of the same four land uses is also considered
of movement at that point of attachment. Such studies to be optimum for cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus), ring-
of flows and movements in a neighborhood mosaic or neck pheasant (Phasianus), wild turkey (Meleagris),
site cluster would be valuable for spatial planning. and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Indeed,
The home ranges of terrestrial vertebrates helps quail populations seem to be highest when these four
tie together neighborhood mosaics. In “habitat selec- habitat types each cover about a quarter of the area.
tion,” animals choose a nesting/denning spot where Three close-by land uses may be optimum for moose
the immediate surroundings are suitable, away from (Alces americana), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus),
disturbance, and with ample cover to hide from preda- elk (Cervus canadensis) and grizzly bear (Ursus arctos).
tors and people. But in selecting the spot the animals The different land uses in proximity provide a diver-
also look for suitable broader surroundings, e.g., with sity of food, and also provide stability in the face of dis-
ample food available, access to water, seasonal changes, turbances. Those are the same main reasons so much
and perhaps a refugium to survive severe disturbances of the human population lives near seacoasts. Yet two
such as fire or intense hunting (Lake et al., 2007). other functions occur at convergency points. The point
Habitat selection by birds in Oxford (UK) farmland is effectively the tip of a lobe for each adjoining land
mainly focuses on both the immediate 5 ha (12.5 acres) use or habitat (Forman, 1995). This means that much
and broader 250 ha (1 mi2) (Arnold, 1983). movement occurring in the habitat may be funneled to
“Multi-habitat species,” those that regularly use or the lobe, with some movement continuing across the
require two or more land uses/habitats, move in a clus- point and into the next habitat. In effect, the point is
ter of sites. If several or many such species use the same a narrows through which some animals are funneled.
or similar habitats, the neighborhood is likely to be Furthermore, the convergency point is an ideal spot for
tightly integrated by these frequent movements. a predator to hunt for food. Thus, a hawk perched on
Another widespread case (occasionally called a tree at the point has different habitats visible in per-
“landscape complementation”) is where many spe- haps a 270-degree arc. In short, the convergency point
cies, especially some insects, require different habi- is another key component of neighborhood mosaics.
tat types to complete their life cycles (Dunning et al., A mixed use neighborhood may have residential,
1992; Taylor et al., 1993; Pope et al., 2000). Where the shopping, food-producing, small manufacturing, and
habitats are in proximity, the movements contribute to recreational sites intermixed. Such a place is likely
the tightness of a cluster. Yet another example is short- to be effectively an interwoven neighborhood (see
distance seasonal migration, illustrated by many birds Figure 11.1) (Yokohari et al., 2000).
and ungulates moving between summer high-eleva-
tion forest/meadows and winter grassy valleys in the Patch-centered and corridor-centered mosaics
Alps or Rocky Mountains. In Southern California, deer A “patch-centered mosaic” has a key central patch
migrate between winter south-facing slopes and sum- interacting with the surrounding land uses. Several
mer north-facing slopes. spatial characteristics familiar in landscape ecology
Many neighborhood mosaics seem to be centered and conservation biology affect, even control, the cen-
on an organizing force, such as a central plaza, small tral element (call it patch X) in the mosaic: size; shape;
park, shopping area, or government/cultural center. distance to nearest large patch of type X; and the dis-
Probably this central place is the epicenter of flows, and tribution of stepping stones (Primack, 1993; Forman,

55
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

predominate. Therefore, species richness in patch X

may increase with the number of adjoining patch
types. The rate of increase would progressively lessen
as the species pool (total number in the landscape)
is approached. Thereafter species richness can be
expected to decrease, as only generalist species remain
when adjoining patches are simply slivers touching
patch X at points. Somewhat analogously, patch X spe-
cies diversity increases and then drops as the number
of types of adjoining patches increases. In this case of
patch types, the peak is higher since each adjoining
patch contains a different set of species. Increasing
the size of adjoining patches also raises patch X spe-
cies richness, because the larger patches typically con-
tain more interior species. Points of contact, or short
Figure 2.10. A distinct urban neighborhood with low-rise boundaries, with patch X, as mentioned above, indi-
residential housing and shops on the ground floor. Extensive cate the presence of lobes of adjoining patches and thus
walking, plus tiny “squares” with outdoor tables and chairs for
eating and sitting. Las Letras, Madrid. R. Forman photo. funnels of species to patch X.
A “corridor-centered” neighborhood adds its own
attributes to the adjacency model variables. Again
1995). However, an adjacency arrangement model or familiar variables from landscape ecology and related
pattern highlights the surroundings and their con- fields include corridor width, connectivity, habitat
figuration as potentially of equal or more importance quality, and straightness/convolution (Primack, 1993;
in affecting patch X (Hersperger and Forman, 2003). Forman, 1995). The key adjacency-related characteris-
Adjacency patterns focus on the: (1) number and tics seem to be (Figure 2.6b): (1) curvilinearity; (2) dir-
boundary lengths of adjoining patches; (2) number of ectionality of movement along a corridor (i.e., upwind/
types of adjoining patches; (3) sizes of the adjoining downwind, upslope/downslope, toward/away from
patches; and (4) number and type of corridors along- high quality habitat or land use); (3) density and type of
side, or attached at a point. convergency points along the boundary; and (4) bar-
Thus, aspen woods in Alberta (Canada) differed rier or filter effect. Corridor-centered neighborhoods
in plant species richness and composition depending apparently have not been studied ecologically, but may
on whether one or two habitat types were adjacent, as be important in many urban areas.
well as the relative boundary length of the two types Convoluted boundaries tend to have considerable
along the woods margin (Figure 2.9b) (Hersperger movement between adjoining habitats, but almost
and Forman, 2003). For woods in Southern Ontario no movement along the boundary (Figure 2.6a). This
cropland, increasing the number of attached hedge- is illustrated in the USA by plants and small mam-
rows (connected to other patches) from zero to four mals around Great Smoky Mountains National Park
progressively improved habitat conditions for a small (Tennessee/North Carolina) and by ungulates at grass-
mammal species in the woods (Fahrig and Merriam, land-woodland boundaries in New Mexico (Ambrose
1985; Henein and Merriam, 1990; Merriam et al., and Bratton, 1990; Forman, 1995). In contrast, straight
1991; Forman, 1995). Also the quality of the corridors boundaries have relatively limited movement between
affected movements of the woods animals. adjoining habitats, but tend to channel the movement
Empirical literature on the other components of of animals and people along boundaries.
the adjacency arrangement model is scarce. Thus, we Flow directionality is illustrated in the “road-effect
hypothesize a series of patterns. Adjacent patches may zone,” where three factors control flows outward from
be a source of excess heat, floodwater, wildfire, or herds roads (Forman and Alexander, 1998; Forman et al.,
of overgrazing herbivores, or alternatively, a source of 2003). (1) Wind transports airborne dust, road salt,
rare species, pollinators, much-needed water or scarce noise, and so forth. (2) Gravity underlies water-borne
nutrients. Although some interactions in a neigh- transport of water, sediment, pollutants, and floating
borhood mosaic are negative, positive interactions plankton. (3) Habitat quality highlights locomotion

56
 Neighborhood mosaics and their linkages

and animal or human behavior in moving from low- riverside are quite different and seem relatively uncon-
to high-quality habitats. Convergency points occur in nected to the four river-related strips.
lines along a corridor, reflecting every change in type Many key characteristics of an urban human neigh-
of adjoining habitat. Finally, a barrier or filter adjoin- borhood are encapsulated as potentially instructive for
ing the boundary of a corridor eliminates or reduces understanding an ecological neighborhood mosaic.
interactions in that direction. The neighborhood of Las Letras in city-center Madrid
Clearly the land uses and habitats surrounding a is about 2.5 km2 (1 mi2), roughly triangular, and bor-
patch or corridor are of major ecological importance dered by busy streets (Figure 2.10). The surrounding
in a neighborhood mosaic. The adjacency arrangement five neighborhoods are each quite different. Las Letras
model or hypothesis is currently based on scraps of has narrow streets, little vehicle traffic, much pedes-
evidence. The relative importance of the familiar land- trian usage, frequent shops on ground level of mostly
scape ecology variables versus the adjacency model 4–5-level residential buildings, a few religious struc-
variables is unknown, and awaits research. tures and government buildings, about two schools,
The perceptive eye sees mosaics everywhere, a near- relatively few children outside playing, many restau-
universal pattern. They dazzle, and they draw in the rants and ample bars, and a relatively distinct history as
inquisitive mind. A first glance reveals mosaics to be home to writers and artists. Two open paved plazas and
simply a combination of patches, corridors, and matrix a few more tiny ones have outdoor/indoor restaurants
… little more. Yet no twins live in the world of mosaics, and serve as magnets for tourists, city residents, and
each view is unique. We have to, and can, model mosa- neighbors. The plazas, schools, religious structures and
ics, but still the basic widespread types, presumably government buildings are well used, but do not appear
encountered repeatedly, remain a puzzle to solve. to be major organizing forces for the neighborhood.
Most daily shopping is walkable, especially along the
Two neighborhood mosaics busy border streets. Two adjoining neighborhoods, one
Finally, some neighborhood mosaics seem to hang of which is a major commercial shopping area, are also
together by numerous tight interactions rather than by much used by Las Letras residents. Also two adjoin-
a central organizing force (Figure 2.6e). For an urban ing neighborhoods are major magnets for city tourists
riverside area, the river is an organizing force. Yet other who spill into the neighborhood for restaurants and
forces in four somewhat-parallel strips also tie the wide entertainment.
zone together: river, floodplain, infrastructure, and Ecologically, relatively small trees line a few of the
adjacent terrestrial land uses (see Chapter 7). (1) The streets. Three shops sell flowers and small nursery
river flows at normal flow stage, it floods, and it has shrubs. Most buildings have small window balconies,
low flows typically in drought periods. (2) The flood- with the first-level balconies averaging perhaps three
plain has rich habitat diversity, soil, vegetation, and or four plants of 2–3 species, and with fewer balcony
often agriculture; it is periodically covered with water plants higher up. Based on my observations during a
that deposits rich sediments; and it may have a low typical spring, birds show relatively little interest in the
water-table during drought. (3) Infrastructure, such as balcony plants, which seem to have almost no insects.
oil, gas, sewer and water pipelines, electric powerlines, A few buildings contain some roof plants. Buildings
railways and highways, typically connect city center usually have small interior courtyards, some contain-
with rural areas by running along riversides. These ing a few planted and maintained plants. One of the
structures are often in the floodplain, riverbank and two largest courtyards has extensive ivy cover, a hand-
adjoining upland, and frequently cross over or under ful of small trees, planted flower beds, and tiny spots of
the river. (4) The adjoining riverside upland frequently ecological succession. Six bird species and rather few
has a sequence of sections with residential types from individuals of each were observed in the courtyard.
single-unit homes to high-rises, somewhat linear park- Two species, magpie and house sparrow, seemed to be
land, and large and medium industry. residents in the vegetation.
This sequence of land uses in the upland is usu- City personnel sweep up trash and dirt from streets
ally affected by the river, floodplain and infrastruc- every day and frequently sweep-wash the streets with
ture along most of the corridor length. However, often a truck. Constant sweeping seems to eliminate plants
access from upland to river and floodplain is limited to from the numerous cracks in sidewalks and cut-stone
relatively distinct locations. Urban areas away from the streets. Rainwater rapidly infiltrates through the cracks

57
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

Figure 2.11. Urban regions and

metro areas for four cities. Dotted line
= boundary of urban region; dark blob
near center = essentially all-built metro
area. Black with lines = sea; medium-dark
areas = wooded; lighter-gray area around
East London = grassland; light-speckled
area = agriculture. Metro-area boundary
determined from satellite images; urban-
region boundary enclosing a functional
area based on many criteria. Tiny icons
mainly represent diverse small features of
importance for natural systems and their
human uses. See Forman (2008).

to the substrate below, though infrequent heavy rain and Planning Beyond the City (Forman, 2008), this
causes water to flow into stormwater drains. Garbage key subject is briefly explored with three perspectives,
from residents, restaurants and hotels is removed from broad to specific: (1) regions: geographic, coastal,
every day. Restaurant dumpster bins and their sur- mountain, urban; (2) urban regions and metro areas
roundings are kept noticeably clean. Large street-side as ecological mosaics; and (3) cities and ecological
bins for recycling materials are frequently emptied. characteristics.
Rodents must be present but were not observed by the
author. Cockroaches were occasionally seen at ground
level but not in an upper-floor kitchen area. Outdoor Regions: geographic, coastal,
restaurant tables and food seemed dust-free, and leg- mountain, urban
watching there revealed no sign of rat nibbling. The Geographic regions cover 100% of a continent or the
characteristic sprinkle of urban bird droppings was land surface. Two broad features characterize a geo-
barely noticeable. The preceding array of human and graphic region (Forman, 1995, 2008): a common mac-
ecological characteristics tied Las Letras together as a roclimate and cultural-social pattern. Atmospheric
neighborhood mosaic, which contrasted with its sur- “cells” form in the global air circulation due to solar
rounding urban neighborhoods. energy differences and the arrangement of continents,
mountain ranges and seas. Each cell exhibits a com-
Urban regions, metro areas, cities mon macroclimate, that is, the history of weather pat-
Finally we focus on whole urban regions, metro areas, terns covering a relatively large area and differing from
and cities as ecological mosaics. Drawing heavily on the that in surrounding areas. A geographic region such as
preceding companion book, Urban Regions: Ecology the USA Southwest or Mediterranean Region spatially

58
 Urban regions, metro areas, cities

corresponds with a macroclimatic cell, whereas the the coastline are mainly long distance, whereas those
Southern England and Northeastern China regions are originating in the coastline are predominately short
subsets of larger macroclimatic areas. distance. With these coastal-region patterns, flows,
Culturally determined human activities on the land, and changes, conflicts between people and nature are
mirrored in the idea of regionalism, also help deter- targeted in the narrow coastline zone (Forman, 2009,
mine a geographic region (Forman, 2008). A common 2010b; Marsh, 2010). That is where biodiversity and
culture or cultures covers the land, as evident in town natural flows are concentrated, and where human rec-
and village forms, architecture, language and arts. reation and diverse economic activities are centered.
Also a transportation network often connected with Mountain regions exhibit the common macroclimate
a single large city hub ties a region together socially and cultural-social dimensions of a geographic region,
and economically. The combination of the macrocli- but are characterized by an abundance of high ridges
mate and cultural-social dimension means that geo- and peaks. The region may include a number of large
graphic regions (e.g., Canada’s Maritime Provinces, flat valleys and large cities, or none. Major transporta-
Southwestern Australia) may be smaller, or larger (the tion networks are limited in extent, and relatively iso-
Balkans, Central America), than a nation. lated small communities are common. The mountain
Coastal regions increasingly represent the glo- region is usually fine-grained, with small rather sharp-
bal conflict between people and nature. Here human boundary landscapes, such as alpine, coniferous forest,
populations squeeze in, recreational and industrial and valley bottom (Swanson et al., 1990; Forman, 1995).
demands skyrocket, distinctive biodiverse ecosystems Gravity carries groundwater and piped water down-
concentrate, rich seafood resources are emptied, and ward, as well as water and sediment over the surface and
climate change most threatens (Grove and Rackham, in streams. Wind carries seeds and spores downward,
2001; Forman, 2009). For instance, all 29 of the world’s upward, and along ridges. Animals carrying seeds also
“ecoregions” more than one-third urbanized are coastal move downward, upward and along ridges. Fires race up
or on islands, and these areas contain 213 endemic and creep down slopes. Mountain regions, like coastal
terrestrial vertebrates, all threatened with extinction and agricultural regions, are quite distinct.
(McDonald et al., 2008). A coastal region is an elon- An urban region is the area of active interac-
gated strip of land and adjoining sea tied together by tions between a city and its surroundings (Chapter 1)
land transportation and marine activities, both usually (Geddes, 1914, 1925; Forman, 2008). This functional
linked to a single large coastal city and port. concept focuses on the flows and movements both
Some three-quarters of the land-and-sea spatial toward the city and outward from the city. Indeed, the
patterns are generally parallel to, and at relatively pre- outer boundary of an urban region is determined by a
dictable distances from, the coastline (Forman, 2009, drop in the rate of inward-and-outward flows, as one
2010b). Most of the remaining patterns are terrestrial proceeds along a radius from the city.
and perpendicular to the coastline. These patterns form Many criteria were used to map urban regions for 38
a mesh or grid-like pattern with diverse corridors and small-to-large cities (>250 000 population) worldwide
highly diverse enclosed cells across the region. The (Forman, 2008). The primary criteria for determining
main diagonals radiate from the city (Figure 2.7 and l). urban-region boundaries ended up being: (1) moun-
In contrast, the coastline (normally hundreds of meters tain ranges and the sea; (2) major political boundaries;
to a few kilometers wide) has a fine-scale highly hetero- (3) another nearby major city (with distance scaled to
geneous pattern of small sites packed together, such as the population sizes of both cities); (4) distance to one-
towns, convex rocky headlands, concave beaches, stream day recreation and tourism sites; (5) major biodiversity
and river mouths, and coastal wetlands. Often the sites areas; and (6) drainage areas around major water sup-
of each coastline type are relatively equidistant. plies. Radii were usually 70–100 km (about 40–60 mi)
Flows and movements in the coastal region also for the urban regions analyzed.
are overwhelmingly parallel or perpendicular to the Urban regions with a dominant central city there-
coastline. Most are parallel and go both ways. Most fore differ markedly from geographic, mountain,
perpendicular flows on land are one way, and on sea coastal, and other region types including “bioregions”
either landward or both ways. On land, each flow or and “ecoregions” (Forman, 2008). Quite predictable
movement usually appears as a narrow band that in radial patterns and flows predominate. Simple spa-
effect targets specific sites. Land-and-sea flows far from tial models, such as urban-to-rural gradient, land

59
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

mosaic, and donut models, are especially promising et al., 2003). Unlike most cities, Shanghai, Hong Kong,
for ecological understanding and for urban planning and Singapore mainly grow upward. All-built metro-
(Figures 2.5 and 2.7). politan areas include a considerable area of lower-
Four urban regions, Rome, Beijing, Philadelphia density suburbs. The population density of an urban
and East London (South Africa), illustrate many of the region is much lower still, though quite heterogeneous
patterns present (Figure 2.11). From the eye of a satel- or patchy, since city, suburbs, exurban/peri-urban
lite, all have a conspicuous central all-built metro area, areas, satellite cities, and numerous towns and villages
within which city and at least some suburbs exist. All are included along with extensive unbuilt land.
four urban regions are dominated by agricultural land, For 38 cities (>250 000 population) analyzed world-
especially close to the metro area. Natural or semi- wide, both area and perimeter length of the metro area
natural land is mostly in the outer portion, and coastal ranged from tiny Abeche (Chad) to huge Chicago
regions include the near-shore zone. Rome has a ring (Forman, 2008). The perimeter-to-area ratio is also eco-
highway mainly outside the metro area. Philadelphia’s logically important, because more convoluted bound-
urban region is small, squeezed by those of surrounding aries normally indicate more human effects on the
cities. The Beijing Region contains two large reservoirs surroundings. Some cities in the Amazon Basin (popu-
near the boundary and is sliced by a mountain range. lation about equal to that of a Shanghai apartment
East London is a small somewhat-isolated coastal city complex, though much more spread out) have quite
at a river mouth and surrounded by grassland. All the convoluted margins with lobes and coves (Browder
urban regions have major highways radiating outward and Godfrey, 1997). Residents, especially in the built
to other regions. lobes, doubtless have extensive impacts on surround-
Consider the arrangement of regions surround- ing rainforest. The perimeter-to-area ratio for a metro
ing a particular urban region and the consequent area tends to be inversely proportional to city popula-
interactions (Forman, 2008). Typically two to four tion size. Large population cities tend to be more com-
regions adjoin an urban region, fewer for coastal cities pact than small ones.
and more where broad-scale topographic diversity is Ten contrasting forms or types of metro areas seem
marked. If adjoining regions are mainly other urban to represent the range of those worldwide (Figure 2.12).
regions, much competition and some collaboration To ecologically compare these, I qualitatively evalu-
may be prevalent. If nearby regions are mainly remote ated each one for 23 ecologically related variables (i.e.,
and rural, access to resources and room to expand analogous to Table 7.1). Negative roles or functions
the urban region boundary may be important. Issues (relative to habitats, plants, animals, soil, air, water)
near urban-region boundaries may cause rapid effects strongly outweigh positives in two cases (Figure 2.12h
within, or in an adjoining, region. Inputs from, or out- and j). Positives also predominate in two cases (e
puts to, an adjoining region also may be beneficial or and g). Each metro area form contains both positive
damaging. Indeed, an urban region is affected by dis- and negative variables, and their overall distribution
tant changes, from beginning a major highway to a new between habitat/plant/animal variables and soil/air/
immigration policy, livestock disease spread, or fluctu- water variables is about equal. Ecologically the two best
ation in migratory bird populations. metro area designs provide potential airflow into city
center, plus cooling by greenspaces, and ready access
Metro areas and urban regions as of species from the surroundings, into and across the
metro area.
ecological mosaics Consistent with the first spatial models of the land
Human population density is especially important eco- (e.g., von Thunen bands), today’s urban regions typic-
logically, in part because concentrated people have ally have agricultural land surrounding the metro area
major impacts on adjoining and nearby areas. The and natural lands in the outer portion (Figure 2.11)
highest densities of course are cities, such as: Shanghai, (Cronon, 1991; Forman, 2008). The agricultural land
with 30 328 people/km2 on average (7.4 million people of the inner urban-region ring is mostly for crops, but
in 244 km2); Moscow, 18 085/km2 (8.5 million in 470 usually includes some little-used former farmland.
km2); Paris, 8847/km2 (7.9 million in 893 km2); London, Often some of the area is irrigated, especially market-
6215/km2 (6.6 million in 1062 km2); and New York, with gardening areas with high food production for the
4039 people/km2 (10.8 million in 2674 km2) (Watson nearby built area. Extensive floodplain areas may be

60
 Urban regions, metro areas, cities

(a) (b) (c) Figure 2.12. Ten alternative forms of

metro areas. Six forms are conceptual
based on many cities; four are illustrated
in (a) London, (b) Seoul, (f) Brasilia,
(g) St. Paul/Minneapolis (Minnesota,
USA). Based on Potter and Salau (1990),
Bosselman (2008), Forman (2008), and
other sources.

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(j)

extensively irrigated, such as for rice culture around is to be sustained throughout a city or metro area, it
Bangkok. Pastureland is typically limited in urban depends on a continuous input of seeds, spores, and
regions because livestock require large areas and land animals from the surroundings. Nearby rather than
prices are relatively high. distant large natural lands are by far the most effective
Large natural lands in the inner urban-region ring species sources (as indicated by d−2, decrease in disper-
are of prime ecological importance as sources for the sal with the square of the distance). Natural lands in
“species rain” across a metro area. Thus, if biodiversity an urban region may be desert/grassland [e.g., Cairo,

61
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

Tehran, Phoenix (USA)] or woodland/forest [Iquitos see Forman, 2009). Interestingly, very few of the
(Peru), Seattle (USA), Samarinda (Indonesia)]. Large numerous nature-and-people variables correlated
natural lands in the outer urban-region ring are espe- with either city population size or geographic region
cially important for nature protection, water supply, worldwide. This result suggests that the “inherent
wood production, wildlife, and recreation. geometry” or spatial pattern created by a growing city
Urban form has long been of interest to urban geog- is the major determinant of natural systems and their
raphers and planners (Lynch, 1981; Hartshorn, 1992; uses in an urban region. An expanding node creates a
Whitehand and Morton, 2004; Pacione, 2005; Berke strong radial and secondarily circular imprint on the
et al., 2006). Ecologically form is most important in land and its ecology.
affecting function, the flows and movements, or how While local planning is common and city planning
a place works. For instance, as described above, typic- often done, surprisingly little urban-region planning
ally little movement crosses hard boundaries, whereas seems to have been done. In the 38-city analysis, ten
considerable movement crosses various soft boundar- diverse attributes were identified that are likely to result
ies between two habitats or land uses. Thus, a compact from planning beyond the metro area (Forman, 2008).
metro area has less impact on or interaction with its Attributes described the metro-area form and the
surroundings [e.g., Bucharest (Romania), Edmonton urban-region land use configuration. Only two urban
and Winnipeg (Canada)]. On the other hand, a diffuse regions, both with planned cities (Canberra, Brasilia),
border indicates considerable movement from metro exhibited four of the suggested urban-region plan-
area to surroundings [Atlanta (USA), Milan (Italy), ning attributes. Four more regions (London, Moscow,
San Antonio (USA), San Jose (Costa Rica)]. Beijing, Rome) exhibited three planning attributes.
The degree of convolution (abundance of coves and Seventeen cities exhibited one or two attributes.
lobes) of a metro area border, represented by the “inner Surprisingly, 15 cities (40% of the total) (Tehran,
edge and hole” in the donut model (Figure 2.7b), also Chicago, San Diego/Tijuana, Philadelphia, Nairobi,
suggests the amount of interaction between metro area Kuala Lumpur, Bamako, Iquitos, Cuttack, Kagoshima,
and its surroundings. Moscow, Stockholm, Brasilia, Erzurum, Ulaanbaatar, East London, Rahimyar Khan,
Santiago and Kuala Lumpur have several major lobes Abeche) showed no evidence of regional planning.
and coves that indicate considerable impact on the sur- At a finer scale, lots of spatial features within an
rounding urban-region rings. urban region have been pinpointed for having over-
The urban-region ring contains many large land all positive, or negative, effects on natural systems and
uses (land covers), such as forests, farmland areas, and their human uses (see Appendix A). These attributes
satellite cities that form the predominant cover in maps are grouped into four categories: (1) city, metro, and
and GIS images. However, certain tiny objects are pre- region; (2) nature, forest, and food; (3) water; and (4)
sent by the hundreds or thousands, yet are filtered out transportation, development, industry. Additional
of maps and GIS images (Forman, 2004b; Hersperger negative attributes are listed under (5) hazards. The
et al., 2012). Tiny streams, small roads, farmsteads, ham- positive spatial features can be fit together, and negative
lets, maybe villages are typical examples. Cumulatively ones avoided, in creatively developing much-needed
each of these has a large and widespread ecological urban-region plans. Indeed, the ten alternative metro
effect on the urban region. Also together they pro- areas (Figure 2.12), and their ecological comparison
vide rich habitat diversity in the region. Furthermore, described above, highlight the importance of planning
because they are unevenly spread, these tiny objects in for the big picture.
abundance mold many of the flows and movements A city’s region of course is also linked to other
across the urban region. regions, both adjoining and distant. The arrangement
A detailed analysis elucidated spatial patterns of other regions strongly affects the flows and move-
for natural systems and their human uses in the 38 ments across the urban-region boundary (Forman,
urban regions (Forman, 2008). More than 75 spatial 2008). Some flows originate in the boundary zone,
correlations were made for characteristics related to: some mainly affect the outer edge portion of an urban
nature; food; water; built systems; built areas; and region, and perhaps most affect much of the urban-
whole regions. Many ecologically important spa- region area. While distant changes are commonly
tial patterns and also principles were pinpointed in ignored, periodically they strongly affect an urban
the preceding companion book (Forman, 2008; also region, such as transmission of a disease, major change

62
 Urban regions, metro areas, cities

in immigration policy, proposed new railway, or new 1982). Most species are either regionally common,
economic markets or incentives for nature-based or are rare and localized. Species richness increases
tourism. with village size, and decreases with village isolation.
Certainly a metro area has a strong impact on The similarity in species composition decreases with
nearby and distant landscapes, as highlighted by the distance between villages. Overall these patterns sug-
ecological footprint concept (Rees and Wackernagel, gest that species composition is rather stable in small
1996, 2008; Beatley, 2000a; Luck et al., 2001). Indeed, communities.
this concept leads to a promising way to consider Much has been written about planned towns (Duany
urban sustainability, or at least a better land and city. In et al., 2000, 2003; Bohl, 2002; Forman, 2008; Forsyth
essence, the prime footprints of a city or metro area are and Crewe, 2009). The Woodlands (Texas) remains my
the primary specific landscapes providing inputs and favorite, especially in its solutions for stormwater and
receiving outputs, and are tied to the city by transpor- flooding (Morgan and King, 1987). But overwhelm-
tation corridors (Forman, 2008). This integrated giant ingly, planned-town plans focus on the human dimen-
network (represented by the prime-footprints model) sion, with minimal concern for ecological dimensions
is composed of city, corridors and landscapes, and is (Steiner, 2000; Forman, 2008). For example in descrip-
the object to plan for sustainability or a better future for tive materials for the plans, look at the key features
nature and people. largely ignored, overlooked, minimized or missing: (1)
A principle emerges from the preceding patterns habitat, species diversity, and rare species; (2) environ-
and concepts. Strong reciprocal interactions between mental monitoring, management, and improvement;
the metro area and its surrounding ring sustain both (3) hydrologic groundwater protection and habitat res-
human and natural conditions in the urban region. toration; (4) habitat connectivity for regional wildlife
movement; (5) ecological impact of traffic noise and
pollutants; and (6) adaptive management for water
Towns, cities, ecology conservation, stormwater runoff control, energy use,
A few key spatial and ecological insights are selected and water and air pollution. Existing communities
here from this huge topic. Nearly 50 nations have no have to address such issues by retrofitting. But when
city with a population >500 000 (Hardoy et al., 2004). planning a town from scratch, how could the giant on
Still, each small city has to protect its water supply, the site remain unnoticed?
provide for sewage wastewater and solid waste, deal Cities provide protection, industry, employment,
with stormwater runoff and pollutants, provide pub- specialized features, and “the place to be.” Cities
lic health services, manage parks and public spaces, expand outward and densify or transform inward (see
protect valuable natural land, and avoid settlement on Chapter 3). Outward expansion is largely unplanned as
hazardous land. Environmental dimensions permeate a whole, though may be intensively planned locally. An
towns and small cities. extreme case may be a new satellite city, Aguas Claras,
Towns and small cities are home for much of the close by Brasilia. Numerous dense high rises, appar-
world’s low-income population, and are also expected ently individually built by developers with little overall
to be 25 years hence (Satterthwaite and Tacoli, 2006; government planning, have created a chaotic place.
Forman, 2008). In China, towns/small cities are the Rarely cities use central planning to transform an
main centers for the extensive farm population, gov- existing district. Two famous examples are a large resi-
ernment and service functions, and centers for trade dential and commercial district with circles and radial
(Kirkby et al., 2006). Half of the world’s urban popu- streets in Paris (Figure 2.1), and a large residential/
lation (and a quarter of the total population) lives commercial area of square-block buildings with court-
in urban centers of less than a half million people. yards and truncated corners for neighborhood shops
Megacities of >10 million contain <5% of the world’s in Barcelona (see Figure 11.5f). Bombing in Tokyo
population, and are concentrated in nations with the destroyed large areas that were rebuilt. A 1996 bomb
largest economies. devastated about a quarter of city-center Manchester
The ecology of towns is surprisingly little known (UK), which continues to be rebuilt (Ravetz, 2000).
(Thayer, 2003; Forman et al., 2004; Forman, 2008; Recent abandonment of a military base in Seoul gener-
McDonnell et al., 2009). A study of human-dispersed ated plans for on-site building, as well as linkages widely
plants in Finnish villages may be indicative (Hanski, extending through the city. Gradual degradation of a

63
 Spatial patterns and mosaics

large area in city-center Detroit (USA) awaits its next covered with built structures. Wetlands are filled,
planned stage, hopefully not missing the “on-site giant” and low-elevation areas subject to periodic flooding
as in the planned towns above. or sea-level rise sometimes dominate new districts
Several ecologically important patterns emerge (Boston’s Back Bay; Pudong in Shanghai). Streams are
from constructing new districts. The land use elimi- eliminated by channeling water into pipes (Eixample
nated is normally either low- or high-density housing in Barcelona). Ecologically important nearby nat-
for the poor, and may include some small-plot farm- ural land may be eliminated [desert by Albuquerque
ing. The new district generally does not provide for the (USA); grassland by Calgary (Canada)]. Even large
people displaced who must move elsewhere (Hooper city-center areas change (Berlin’s Tiergarten park com-
and Ortolano, 2012). The preceding small-farm urban pletely replanted following 1940s wartime devastation;
agriculture provided some food locally, though was not Detroit’s downtown “urban removal” awaiting a new
intensive high-production characteristic of market- future).
garden farming. Yet normally new districts have not created new
A new regular geometry of streets and buildings large greenspaces. None of the cases has focused on
replaces the mainly unplanned mixture of nature, agri- connecting greenspaces. None restored a floodplain,
culture, streets, and buildings. New or much-improved though a city-center stream restoration daylighted a
infrastructure covers the area. New transportation small river. None primarily reduced disaster risk, such
may connect the city with its region (as in New York). as from mudslide, flood, or fire. Cities need new visions
Nature’s backbone or framework is almost entirely seriously recognizing nature.

64
 Part I Framework

Flows, movements, change

Chapter

3
Thanks to the automobile, cities no longer have to flow of water, erosion, sedimentation, fish movements,
­dispose of tons of horse manure every day. and animal foraging, dispersal and migration (Turner,
Virginia I. Postrel, Reason magazine editor, speech 1987; Harris et al., 1996b; Forman, 1999; Fischer
for City Club of Cleveland, Ohio, 19 June 1990 et al., 2006). Unlike human-driven flows, the routes
of natural processes are overwhelmingly curvilinear.
And then the tidal wave appeared as a high wall of
Groundwater flow may be slightly curvy, whereas ani-
foam rushing towards them, and soon it was on them,
mal foraging and dispersal usually trace highly con-
on everyone, crashing onto the land, crushing houses,
voluted routes. Still, our rectilinear networks tend
sweeping huts away, drowning cattle and people … Yet,
to straighten natural flows and movements around
a kind of miracle, most trees – the palms, the bunches
cities.
of pandanus with great stalking roots, the sweeps of
Flows and movements essentially describe how the
mangroves – were left undisturbed by the same wave
urban area works. In effect, they are the interactions,
that swept away fortress-like walls and paved roads.
the linkages, the connections, and the processes that
Paul Theroux, Ghost Train to the Eastern Star, 2008
link urban habitats and land uses. They tightly tie the
urban mosaic together. Let’s explore the subject from
The nature of flows and movements three perspectives: (1) flow and movement patterns;
Imagine a walk in the city and suddenly reaching a spot (2) animal and plant movements; and (3) system and
where nothing moved. People, leaves, birds, air, water, ecosystem flows.
vehicles, and clouds are absolutely still. Weird, even
scary. Better stop and look sharp. Flows and move-
ments around us are universal, never stop. Flow and movement patterns
Processes in urban areas are in effect flows, move- Four basic types of flows and movements are especially
ments and transport through space (Forman, 1999; important in urban areas: (1) air flows; (2) water flows;
Ball, 2009). Some are mainly vertical, including rain- (3) self-locomotion; and (4) motor-powered move-
fall, evapo-transpiration, tree falls, and ecological suc- ment using outside energy. These flows carry or trans-
cession. Horizontal flows, the focus here, generally port energy, materials and objects. Transported items
cross heterogeneous space thus linking different land vary in the direction, route, rate, amount, and distance
uses and habitats (Wegner and Merriam, 1979). carried.
Some flows and movements are basically human Airflows are based on energy differences in the
driven, such as cycling, motor vehicles, trains, elec- atmosphere, that is, from warm to cool areas (see
tric transmission, and piping of water, sewage and oil. Chapter 5) (Geiger, 1965; Ball, 2009). Streamline airflow
Most human-driven processes tend to be constrained moves in smooth parallel layers, such as wind moving
to relatively straight lines. Straight routes have two the- across an extensive corn field or flat open golf course
oretical advantages: efficiency for getting from here (Forman, 1995). Turbulent airflow has circular eddies
to there; and protecting the surrounding matrix from normally with small up-and-down flows, characteristic
degradation by transport. of wind moving through a housing development with
Natural horizontal flows and movements occur scattered trees and buildings. Vortex airflow is typically
everywhere in urban areas – wind, dust and gas- in a cylindrical form, such as on the downwind side of
eous transport, surface water runoff, subsurface and a flat-roof building or beyond the downwind edge of a
groundwater flows, pollination, seed dispersal, sheet high-rise building (see Figure 5.9).

65
 Flows, movements, change

Breezes due to temperature differences at a finer-

scale local level are also important in urban areas (see
Figure 5.1). Warm air normally rises to the colder
upper atmosphere over a city on still nights. Cool air
on hills and mountains flows downslope at night, for-
cing the warm valley air to rise vertically. An onshore
breeze from the sea occurs in early fall when the water
is warmer than the land. Similarly an offshore breeze in
spring moves from the warmer land to the cooler sea.
Nearly horizontal water flows are based on gravity,
going from upslope to downslope. Surface water flow
over extensive impermeable surfaces, especially of roofs
and roads, predominates in urban areas (see Chapter 6).
Some of the water that infiltrates through surface cracks
and soil with vegetation then runs nearly horizontally Figure 3.1. A major radial road connecting city center and rural
area. Vehicle headlights heading inward at dusk; skyscraper lights
in subsurface water flow. However, the typical fine- a hazard to migrating songbirds. Street tree corridor lines the road.
scale heterogeneity of soil and fill in urban areas (see Calgary, Canada. R. Forman photo.
Chapter 4) often interrupts subsurface flow. Water that
infiltrates deeply, e.g., in sandy fill areas, and encounters
the water-table then moves horizontally, and often slowly, or gravity represent “mass flow” (mass transport). (2)
as groundwater flow. Especially in hilly and mountainous Animals and people walking are self-locomotion based
terrain, drinking water, stormwater, and sewage waste- on energy from the food chain. And (3) transportation
water normally flow by gravity in pipelines and ditches. and infrastructure movements today are mainly based
Self-locomotion by animals and people is based on fossil fuel, which represents long-ago solar and fos-
on energy derived from the Sun and then transformed silized plant energy.
by photosynthesis into organic compounds. These in The energy-driven flows and movements are
turn are consumed as food and then metabolized pro- vectors that transport objects (including materials
ducing energy for movement. People walk and bicycle. and energy). Trains carry people, freight, and seeds
Terrestrial animals walk and run, flying animals fly, and (Figure 3.2). Motor vehicles carry people, goods, seeds,
locomoting aquatic animals swim. To sustain move- insects, and even vertebrate animals. Wind transports
ment, the animal requires food, water and rest. heat and moisture. It also carries noise, dust, aerosols
Movement by outside energy is characteristic of and gases, including heavy metals, sulfur dioxide, and
human-constructed and maintained infrastructure. toxic organic substances. Furthermore, airflows carry
Most trucks, buses and cars run on roads currently seeds, spores, algae, and “parachuting” spiders. High
using petroleum from oil (Figure 3.1). Trains, subways, winds spread wildfire.
and trollies run on tracks using energy directly or indir- Flowing water transports floating algae and zoo-
ectly from fossil fuel, i.e., oil or coal. Water, sewage, oil, plankton. It frequently carries tiny clay particles to the
and natural gas are pumped through pipelines, mainly sea, silt to river bottoms and deltas, and sand for short
using fossil fuel, especially oil. Electricity is trans- distances. Water flows carry a wide range of water pol-
mitted in powerlines, often high above the ground. lutants from nitrogen and phosphorus to sediment,
Electric generation depends on hydropower, or on oil-, toxic chemicals, and rubbish. Floodwater transports
natural gas- or coal-fired power facilities, which may nearly anything from rolling stones to rolling cars,
be centralized or widely distributed over the urban washed-out bridges, and toxic-waste accumulations
area. Renewable energy, especially from wind and solar from industries. The mass flows of wind or water, plus
sources, provides a small but growing portion of the the objects they transport, accelerate through narrow
outside energy for movement. spots (the Venturi effect).
These flows of wind, water, locomoting animals,
people walking, motor vehicles, and infrastructure Animal and plant movements
conduits fall into three groups based on energy. (1) Almost all of the preceding mechanisms also oper-
Wind and water flows due to temperature differences ate for the movement of plants and animals. Yet some

66
 The nature of flows and movements

Figure 3.2. Probable major routes and

vectors for non-native and native species
movement. Dotted oval = a metro area.

additional mechanisms are important for understand- Urban areas both inhibit and facilitate these move-
ing species movement in urban areas. ments. Residential development disrupts patterns of
Most terrestrial vertebrate species have a small many species, particularly those of butterflies (Knaapen
area close to the nest or den called the territory, which et al., 1992; Forman, 1995). Busy roads and highways
is defended against intruders, especially of the same also block movements (Forman et al., 2003).
species. The routes taken by an animal in its territory On the other hand, the network of stormwater
radiate out from the relatively central den, often tra- drainage pipes is especially effective in facilitating
cing short somewhat-linear loops. Overall, territorial- the movement of rats, for instance around restaurant,
ity is less prominent in urban than in natural land. The hotel, and dump areas. Stormwater pipe networks are
animal’s home range is a larger area typically used in also great for cockroaches to enter apartment buildings
daily movements, especially foraging for food. These and many other buildings with basements (Robinson,
movements trace larger irregular loops radiating out 1996). Pipes are well connected and grates or grilles
from the nest. A third movement type, animal disper- over the pipes in basements have plenty of room for
sal, refers to sub-adult males and females that leave the fat cockroaches to enter and leave. Such animals can
den or nest, heading off to find a mate and establish move rapidly in this unobstructed system to find the
their own home ranges at some distance away. Finally, best and oft-changing food sources. Termites readily
many species migrate seasonally to access suitable food move from building to building due to the abundance
conditions and avoid unsuitable environmental condi- of wooden foundations and buildings in many urban
tions. This cyclic migration may be latitudinal between areas, plus readily traversable sandy fill next to the
tropical and temperate areas, altitudinal between high buildings (Robinson, 1996).
and low elevation in mountains, or locally between Non-native species introduced into urban areas at
north and south sides of a ridge. Except for animal dis- ports, rail yards, and warehouse areas may then spread
persal, the routes taken in the diverse movements are widely (Figure 3.2) (Trepl, 1990; McNeill, 2000; Song
relatively predictable. et al., 2005). Railways appear to be major, though

67
 Flows, movements, change

spatially constrained, routes through the city. Despite and recycling; (3) decrease inputs; and (4) decrease
severe water pollution, marine and aquatic species outputs.
doubtless spread directly from a shipping port into The input/output black-box approach has been used
marine ecosystems, though recreational craft and fish- to provide an overview or gain preliminary insight for
ing boats may also play a role. several cities. Best known is Hong Kong (Boyden et al.,
Trucks loading and unloading materials at stor- 1981; McNeill, 2000; Beatley, 2000a; Golley, 2003),
age warehouses may be an especially important vector though Rome (Pignatti, 1995), Manchester (Ravetz,
for widely spreading non-native species in the urban 2000), London (Beatley, 2000a; Pacione, 2005; Benton-
region. Such trucks trace irregular yet often radial Short and Short, 2008), and Toronto (Sahely et al.,
routes outward from warehouses near ports and air- 2003) have also been studied.
ports. The other major spread of non-native species Ecosystem analysis focuses on energy flows and
to “everywhere” in the urban region probably radi- chemical flows. Urban areas have been related to eco-
ates from sites such as plant nurseries, florist shops, systems from varied perspectives (Bradshaw, 2003;
pet stores, botanical gardens, zoos, veterinary facil- Newman and Jennings, 2008; McDonnell, 2011). “City
ities, and some biological research facilities. Except for as ecosystem.” “Urban ecosystem.” “Ecosystems of or
railways and certain highways, the non-native species in cities.” “Modeling cities on ecosystems.” Most of
spread probably mainly represents radiations from these have been used as metaphors or for economic or
nodes at different spatial scales. social goals, though each case can be usefully analyzed
scientifically.
System and ecosystem flows Familiar maxims such as the following often
The metaphor, urban metabolism, has been used some- accompany the reference to ecosystems. Everything
times in referring to the overall flows of energy, mate- is connected. Materials don’t disappear but go some-
rials and chemicals between an urban area and its where. Recycle like nature. The second law (of thermo-
surroundings. For instance, oil, gas, water, air, food, dynamics) is after us. Entropy will win. Like Mother
and raw materials enter a city, while manufactured Earth or motherhood, ecology is good. And so forth.
goods, heat, air pollutants, sewage wastewater, water Such phrases limit understanding if blindly used, but
pollutants, and solid wastes leave. Much like an eco- can be useful if critical analysis follows.
nomic or financial budget, inputs and outputs are cal- Overall, “urban energy flows” are mainly character-
culated providing insights into ways to improve the ized by inputs of fossil fuel, followed by its use and dis-
system (Wolman, 1965; Rees and Wackernagel, 1996; sipation to heat across the urban area (Pignatti, 1995).
Hardoy et al., 2004; Wittig, 2008). Although mainly of Meanwhile “urban chemical flows” are the incoming
socioeconomic interest, the analysis can be ecological streams of materials, goods and water of varied chem-
in the case where organisms significantly affect, or are ical composition that are mainly dispersed into smaller
affected by, the input/output flows. For example, some units, and then largely chemically changed and reag-
inputs are affected by upwind or upslope vegetation gregated into outgoing air, water, and transport waste
conditions. Considerable urban vegetation or activity streams. Normally little cycling or recycling occurs
of nitrogen-cycle bacteria could affect certain outputs, within the urban system.
and outputs often have strong effects on surrounding Biogeochemical or mineral nutrient flows of chemi-
ecological conditions. cals within or through an ecosystem have been exam-
Ecological engineering or systems ecology pro- ined in urban areas, generally based on the traditional
vides key insights for inputs/outputs, internal system ecological model of nutrient cycling within a natural
attributes, network structures, flow rates, and stability ecosystem (Smith, 1996; Odum and Barrett, 2005;
(Odum, 1983; Ma, 1985; Mitsch and Jorgensen, 2004; Cain et al., 2011). The urban carbon “cycle” has been
van Bohemen, 2005). As perhaps the simplest systems described (Ravetz, 2000; Carreiro et al., 2009), though
model, a metro area (or city) is considered to be a the urban nitrogen “cycle” is most studied (Craul, 1992;
“black box,” with inputs and outputs of energy, water, Alberti, 2008; Carreiro, 2008; Carreiro et al., 2009;
materials and people. Such simple systems highlight Pouyat et al., 2009).
four ways that may increase the stability or sustainabil- So many characteristics of urban areas differ from
ity of an urban area and its surroundings: (1) increase those in natural land that a new chemical-flow model
internal production and storage; (2) increase efficiency or paradigm is likely to evolve and be more useful (Kaye

68
 Flows around boundaries and mosaics

et al., 2006). Such an “urban chemical-flow model” will The edge portion of a natural habitat typically has
probably have foundations in network patterns, spatial denser vegetation with more species packed together,
heterogeneity contrasts, spatial hierarchies, chemically often referred to as the edge effect (Figure 3.3) (Hunter,
subdividing-altering-and-reaggregating patterns, 1990; Forman, 1995). Such edge conditions may inhibit
and linkages with the heterogeneous surroundings. movement across a boundary. If nothing crosses, the
Another research frontier lurks. edge is a barrier but that is rare. Typically the edge is a
Linking input–output ecological flows to the spa- filter, which slows and reduces flows across. This filtra-
tial pattern within a metro area seems to be an espe- tion effect changes over time, just as do flows through
cially valuable next step. The urban region is distinctive a semi-permeable membrane. In urban areas, edges
due to its strong radial source-sink flows of people, tend to be heavily affected by people (Matlack, 1993;
vehicles, goods, seeds, wildlife, microbes, dust, gases, Guirado et al., 2006) Park edges may be quite open,
water, chemicals, and so forth. In early evening, ser- encouraging people to enter. Alternatively, a dense
pents of white lights and red lights moving in oppos- shrub layer (“mantel,” meaning overcoat in German)
ite directions along radii link city and surroundings may be present that helps in protecting valuable
(Figure 3.1). Still a hierarchy of secondary non-radial resources within the park. A small nature reserve near
ecological flows and movements remains little stud- Cambridge (UK) was ringed by a wide dense thicket
ied. These varied flows and movements mainly occur of thorny plants (Rubus, Crataegus) and cut branches
in prominent anthropogenic networks, which are around its edge, thus nearly eliminating human access
designed for both human and ecological flows in and except at a designated entrance. Numerous options
around urban areas. Road, rail, pipe, powerline, and exist for minimizing human overuse of a protected
waterway systems channel, accelerate and interrupt area by managing the strip outside, the boundary
urban chemical flows. itself, and especially the edge portion of the protected
area (Forman, 1995).
Flows around boundaries Movement across a boundary also depends on its
form (Figure 3.3) (Forman, 1995; Andreassen et al.,
and mosaics 1996; van Bohemen, 2005; Hodgson et al., 2007).
Hard boundaries are abrupt and relatively straight. Soft
Flows and movements by boundaries boundaries, which are some combination of gradual
The flows and movements of objects in effect may be and curvy, seem to occur in four forms: (1) a gradual
along, parallel to, or perpendicular to a boundary. transition or “gradient” from one habitat to the other;
Straightness facilitates movement along a bound- (2) a “convoluted” or curvy boundary with “lobes and
ary, including wind, water, and animal movements coves”; (3) a heterogeneous “patchy strip” between
(Forman, 1995). Some animals move parallel to a habitats; and (4) fractal or fine-textured. The form of
boundary, as suggested by a deer path in a Swiss beech many boundaries changes over time.
(Fagus) woods ca. 8 m in from the boundary, or rac- Observations of tracks and scats of elk (Cervus
coon (Procyon) tracks paralleling a New Jersey (USA) canadensis), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and
hedgerow. However, parallel movements are little stud- coyote (Canis latrans) around straight, curvy, and
ied and may or may not be common. Movements per- convoluted boundaries between woodland and
pendicular to a boundary may reflect patch-interior grassland in New Mexico (USA) suggest important
animals moving toward or returning from the edge of movement patterns (Forman, 1995). For the two
a patch. More frequent though may be perpendicu- herbivores, hard boundaries are major conduits
lar flows crossing the boundary from one land use to for movement along, whereas convoluted bound-
another, and therefore represent interactions or con- aries have essentially no animal movement along
nections between the elements. them, either from tip-to-tip of lobes or follow-
An animal approaching a boundary basically has ing the convolutions. In contrast, convoluted soft
three options: continue on across; turn and go along boundaries are the prime areas for animals moving
or parallel to the boundary; or turn back. The first and between habitats. Rather few animals seem to cross
third options seem to be most common, and probably straight boundaries. Boundary-crossing frequency
depend largely on habitat/land use suitability on the might be proportional to the ratio of actual bound-
other side of the boundary. ary length to straight-line length, or the boundary

69
 Flows, movements, change

(a) Figure 3.3. Habitat edge and interior,

plus hard and soft boundaries. Based on
Forman (1995).

(b)

fractal dimension. The predator, coyote, also mainly

moves along the straight boundaries. A few sec-
Flows in mosaics of land-use pattern
Direction, route, and rate are three central dimensions
tions of the convoluted boundaries contained tiny
of flows and movements in heterogeneous land mosa-
wooded patches in the grassland lobes, reminiscent
ics. Understanding these flows portrays how any area,
of a patchy-strip soft boundary. Based on track and
from neighborhood to urban region, works.
scat densities, these boundary sections are among the
Certain spatial patterns particularly indicate flows
highest in herbivore usage and in herbivore crossings
(Figure 3.4). Specialist species from surrounding nat-
between woodland and grassland habitats.
ural and agricultural lands arrive, but relatively few
Individual lobes and coves are important in chan-
survive or thrive. Most species present are and will be
neling movements around boundaries (Forman, 1995;
generalists. For the goal of maintaining a high diver-
Belisle and Desrochers, 2002). Flowing water and wind
sity of wildlife throughout the urban area, apparent
with transported sediments or snow seem to mainly
priorities are: (1) to enhance continuous movement
cross boundaries at the ends of coves. Also, turbulence
of species form surrounding habitats into and across
patterns around boundaries are relatively predictable
the urban area; and (2) to enhance habitat diversity and
from the lobe-and-cove pattern. Microenvironmental
amount within the urban area.
heterogeneity, such as cool, warm, windy and protected
Several principles provide insight into direction-
spots is high in lobe-and-cove boundaries, suggesting
ality of flows. “Diffusion” of objects such as industrial
considerable localized wildlife movement. Animals in
and commercial products tends to go from higher
a suitable habitat or land use often seem to depart from
concentration to lower concentration (Tacoli, 2006).
it at the tip of a lobe. However, animals approaching
Although the passive diffusion of molecules is familiar
a convoluted boundary may head toward a projecting
in science, in urban areas diffusion is mainly a social-
lobe of the habitat ahead, but enter diagonally some-
science concept (Hartshorn, 1992; Pacione, 2005). A
where between the ends of the lobe and cove. These
net movement of products goes from urban to rural.
patterns are suggested by limited evidence and remain
Yet raw materials for those products go in the opposite
a research frontier.

70
 Flows around boundaries and mosaics

(a) Figure 3.4. Suggested ecologically

optimum greenspace patterns for a city.
(a) to (f) Key spatial attributes affecting
urban flows and movements.

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

direction, from rural to urban. Inputs and outputs In metapopulation dynamics (see Chapter 9), a
indicate directionality, as do sources and sinks (Vink, net movement of species from large natural patches to
1983; Pulliam and Danielson, 1991). Regional “goods- small natural patches occurs (see equations, Appendix
and-services flow models” estimate flows into, within, B). A small habitat patch near a large one seems to
and out of cities. function as an attractant for animal movements in and

71
 Flows, movements, change

out of the large patch (Opdam, 1991; Verboom et al., such as seeds from a mother tree or people dispersed
1991; Forman, 1995). along a beach from a carpark. The rate of movement
Attractants and repellents also indicate directional- across a boundary presumably depends on two factors:
ity in the landscape. Thus, wildlife are attracted to parks, the abruptness of a boundary, and the relative diffe-
water, and food sources, while people are attracted to rence of land uses on opposite sides. Movement along
museums, restaurants, and tourist sites. Both wildlife a corridor increases with the level of connectivity and,
and people are typically repelled by traffic noise, fac- perhaps often, the width of the corridor (Henein and
tory air pollution, and sites considered dangerous. Merriam, 1990; La Polla and Barrett, 1993; Andreassen
As described above, air moves from warmer to et al., 1996). Connectivity for flows and movements
cooler areas, and water mostly moves downward by among the land uses of a mosaic probably includes
gravity. Regional winds blow toward cooler atmos- most of the directionality, route, and rate patterns
pheric areas, and local breezes toward cooler air over mentioned.
different land uses. Rainwater may infiltrate downward Even a preliminary mapping of features often easy
from soil surface to groundwater. Streams, rivers, and to estimate provides a surprisingly insightful map
floodwaters flow downslope. of flows and movements in a heterogeneous area.
In addition to directionality, various patterns in the Consider mapping the following: (1) wind direction,
land indicate the primary routes of movements and (2) local warm-and-cool areas, (3) slopes, (4) streams/
flows (Forman, 1995). Corridors are most conspicu- rivers, (5) corridors, (6) gaps and narrows, (7) stepping
ous, and act as conduits typically for concentrated stones, (8) small habitat near large one, (9) conver-
movements in both directions (Tigas et al., 2002). gency points, (10) unusual patch shapes, (11) hard and
Highway corridors for commuters and trail corridors soft boundaries, (12) apparent sources and sinks, (13)
for recreationists are characteristic. For perpendicu- large natural patches, (14) attractants, and (15) repel-
lar flows, corridors such as fencing and busy roads are lents. These should provide a surprisingly insightful
often partial barriers, reducing and deflecting move- map of flows and movements for a heterogeneous area.
ment. A gap or narrows in a corridor is commonly a The map effectively pinpoints how the mosaic works.
movement route for crossing between two land uses. A Since corridors are important in all urban areas,
row of habitat “stepping stones” functions as a conduit, combining them into networks provides still more
though less effectively than does a corridor (Saunders insight into flows and movements in a mosaic (Forman
et al., 1987; Zollner and Lima, 1999; Zollner, 2000; and Baudry, 1984). Three simple measures are gener-
Ichinose, 2005). Also the routes of animals, people, ally considered to be most important in understanding
and wind-transported objects are relatively predicable the functioning of networks (see equations, Appendix
around various patch shapes, ranging from elongated B) (Forman, 1995): intersection linkage; connectivity;
to convoluted. “Convergency points” (see Chapter 2), and circuitry. Intersection linkage (measured by the beta
where three or more habitats or land uses converge, index) is the average number of linkages per intersec-
tend to be attractants or funnels for movement. tion (in this case intersections might be called nodes).
Since animals and people have habitat and land-use Thus, a perfect grid has an intersection linkage of 4.
preferences, the distribution of habitats strongly affects Connectivity (gamma index) is the number of linkages
the directionality and route of movement (Forman, present between intersections divided by the maximum
1995, Hough, 2004). Thus, if several habitat types are possible number of linkages. Circuitry (alpha index), a
at equal distance from a source, the animal normally measure of alternative routes, is the number of loops
moves to the preferred or high-quality habitat. Indeed, present divided by the maximum possible number of
the sometimes quite-curvy route taken typically con- loops. In addition to the three basic network measures,
centrates on high-quality habitats, and especially many others have been calculated, especially for train
avoids low-quality or dangerous sites (Prevett, 1991). and highway networks.
Follow-the-leader or “traplining” is a particularly effi- Another major approach to understanding flows
cient way to move (Ball, 2009). and movements in networks is the gravity model,
In addition to directionality and route, the rate or which adds the size of nodes, such as cities, at inter-
amount of movement is important in a land mosaic. sections (see equations, Appendix B) (Hartshorn,
The amount of movement typically decreases expo- 1992; Forman, 1995; Berling-Wolff and Wu, 2004;
nentially or by the square of the distance from a source, Pacione, 2005; Alberti, 2008). This is analogous to a

72
 Change-over-time principles

bit of Newtonian physics and assumes a net diffusion Miller, 2000; Cain et al., 2011) briefly introduced here
of objects from large nodes to small nodes. Consider a are useful in urban areas.
typical distribution of large and small cities connected For a gradually changing ecosystem or site, we meas-
in a grid network. In its basic form, the gravity model ure the rate, amount and direction of change. Growth
simply uses the population sizes of nodes and their dis- is often modeled as linear, exponential (J-shaped), or
tance apart to estimate the amount of interaction, i.e., logistic (S-shaped, sigmoid) (see equations, Appendix
flows and movements, between nodes. Gravity models B). Stresses, such as limited water, high air tempera-
emphasize that distance is more important than node ture, or lawn-mowing that may change little or seldom
size in determining interaction. over time, often continue for long periods. Terms such
A suite of “traveling salesman” models has evolved as stability, equilibrium, sustainability, and persistence
in part from the gravity model to estimate the optimum describe aspects of a gradually changing system (van
route through a network connecting population cent- Bohemen, 2005).
ers. Similarly, “Lowry journey-to-work” models have Five alternative mechanisms seem to maintain sta-
been used to estimate the proportions of a work force ble trajectories: (1) inertia of a large system; (2) a strong
traveling various distances and routes to a workplace. control hierarchy; (3) negative feedbacks; (4) patch
“Graph-theoretic’ models create conceptual networks dynamics; and (5) mosaic stability. Thus, a large system
to reflect connectivity, for example, based on common or area is simply more stable than a small one, which
boundaries between land uses in a mosaic (Cantwell may be readily disturbed or transformed. A strong
and Forman, 1994; Urban and Keitt, 2001). hierarchy keeps components under control, limiting
the opportunities for alteration (O’Neill et al., 1986).
Change-over-time principles Negative feedbacks, where one component stimulates
a second, which in turn inhibits the first, maintain a
Is it better to live in a stable unchanging urban area,
cyclic trajectory, and tend to prevent major alteration
a gradually changing area, or one with a seemingly
(Wang et al., 1992). Patch dynamics indicates that dis-
unending sequence of major disturbances? Which is
turbed patches occur in different locations over time,
better ecologically for vegetation, wildlife, and water
yet the whole system remains stable (Pickett and White,
conditions? A constant environment is only tempor-
1985). Mosaic stability results from strong interactions
ary. A strong government or a surrounding wall that
among neighboring patches and corridors that in turn
tries to keep outside influences out at some point
limit the intensity and spread of disturbance (Forman,
comes crashing down, typically with a convulsion. In
1995, 2008). Some inter-patch interactions are effect-
contrast, unending major disturbances lead to contin-
ively symbiotic. Also, mosaic stability may increase
ual behavioral adjustments and probably numerous
with more heterogeneity present.
adaptations. But such an urban area is only suitable for
Disturbance is an event that causes a significant
a limited number of widely tolerant people and gen-
change in an ecosystem or urban area (Figure 3.5a).
eralist species. The intermediate case of a gradually
The events or driving forces causing such a response
changing urban area may change at the same rate (or
of course are diverse (Forman, 2008), and urbaniza-
faster or slower) as the surrounding land and society. In
tion often changes the disturbance regimes over time
this case, occasional disturbances with ongoing adap-
(Rebele, 1994). If the cause of change is protracted or
tations and behavioral adjustments theoretically may
continuous, it is usually considered to be a stress rather
continue forever.
than a disturbance or perturbation.
The sections following first outline basic concepts
Some changes are cyclic, such as tides, seasons, and
of change, especially as used in ecology. Then changing
commuter traffic (Figure 3.5c and d). Species easily
ecological components – soil, water, air, vegetation,
adapt genetically to frequent cyclic changes, whether
biodiversity – are highlighted.
large or small. An alternative response is for individual
animals or people to change their behavior to survive
Useful concepts from ecology and thrive. Such animals tend to be generalists with
Change has been a core subject in ecology at least since wide plasticity or tolerance. Infrequent disturbances
the early 20th century studies of succession in the such as rare fires or cyclones are the hardest to adapt
Chicago, Nebraska, and Minneapolis-St. Paul (USA) to, because the species may not have encountered and
areas. Many of the concepts (Smith, 1996; Ricklefs and responded to them before.

73
 Flows, movements, change

(a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 3.5. Responses of ecosystems

and species to disturbance patterns.

Some infrequent disturbances are intense or acute, city edge, but is replaced by apartment buildings to
causing major changes. So-called “disasters” (especially fill a housing shortage for the current city and inner
for people) include: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, suburb.
tsunamis, cyclones/hurricanes, floods and wildfires. To persist in a world of potential disturbances,
In urban areas these may be disastrous for people, but ecosystems and urban areas seem to have one of two
also typically cause major alterations in air quality, mechanisms, either high resistance or high resilience
erosion, water quality, trees, wildlife movement and (Figure 3.5b). In effect, resistance refers to the mecha-
survival, semi-natural communities, and much more. nisms that prevent an environmental or human factor
Dysfunctional wastewater sewer systems, building rub- from causing a significant alteration in the system. A
ble, spills of industrial chemicals, persistent stagnant high level of any of the five mechanisms listed above
water, and urban landslides produce an environmental provides resistance against change. These mecha-
nightmare. These dwarf the benefits of an increase in nisms create a high “threshold,” which the disturbance
successional habitats following disasters. intensity does not overcome (Bennett and Radford,
Disturbances also may be intense or acute enough 2003). Resilience, in contrast, is the ability to bounce
that the system or area does not return to approxi- back or quickly recover from a major alteration. Rapid
mately its preceding condition, but rather develops into plant recolonization, growth and reproduction, as
a different, even new, condition or state (Figure 3.5b). well as behavioral change by animals, and adaptation
Old park trees dying in an air-polluted city may have through natural selection, all provide resilience to an
begun growing in clean air, but are then replaced by ecosystem.
quite different vegetation tolerant of air pollution. The Semi-natural areas seem to have higher resistance
inner-suburb neighborhood destroyed by an earth- than do urban areas. Also, natural areas are usually
quake originated as single-family homes on the outer more resilient, bouncing back quickly from alteration,

74
 Change-over-time principles

than urban areas. Urban recovery is often a slow pro- outward in afternoon/evening. During these periods
cess, depending more on the confluence of political, an endless mass of moving vehicles creates barriers
economic and social conditions. to wildlife movement. Associated traffic noise creates
A broader perspective on “resilience” has been wide bands of land with little animal activity, since ani-
proposed that combines the traditional resistance mals may not hear prey or communicate with young.
and resilience concepts and adds an anthropogenic Particulate matter raised from road surfaces and varied
dimension (Holling, 1996; Alberti and Marzluff, 2004; pollutants from the vehicles themselves bathe adjoin-
Cumming et al., 2005; Newman and Jennings, 2008). ing areas twice a day (Carpenter, 1983). Associated
For this approach, resilience is effectively the ability of parking-lot activity peaks twice a day, so cats and rats
a system to maintain its identity in the face of and fol- adjust their behavior to be active at different times.
lowing disturbances. The system is described as going Noisy polluting truck traffic tends to precede the “rush-
through phases of exploitation (“birth”), conservation three-hours” of car commuters.
(“growth”), release (“death”), and renewal (“reorgan- However, urban changes vary markedly by time
ization”), and changing to a different state or condition. scale. Thus, urban traffic also varies on a weekly cycle.
Complex social and ecological conditions are coupled Commuter movement is scarce on weekends, yet the
(Liu et al., 2007; Alberti, 2008; Niemela et al., 2011). Friday and Sunday afternoon traffic of recreationists
Putting aside the confusing terminology, useful insight between city and natural land often clogs highways.
for urban ecology might emerge from the discussion. Weekend traffic and people in nearby recreational
Urbanization occurs synchronously, though often areas may be dense, with wildlife doubtless adjusting
differently, at different spatial scales (Harms, 1999). behavior to the weekend cycle. Furthermore, weekend
Thus, a neighborhood may either expand or contract traffic and people also vary seasonally. For example,
while the city is spreading outward. Conversely, the many people head to mountain ski areas in winter and
neighborhood may spread or shrink while the city coastal beaches in summer. Diverse seasonal changes
loses population. Densification and de-densification of in urban plants and animals are familiar to all urban
a site also occur while the surrounding area changes. residents (Houck and Cody, 2000; Saley et al., 2003;
For instance, changing ecological conditions at a site Murgui, 2007; Mitchell, 2008).
may be significantly affected by increasing or decreas- Time scales vary from very long to nearly instant-
ing vegetation cover and wildlife movement in the sur- aneous, with ecological responses equally varied.
roundings. Analogously the site may be a significant Evolutionary processes of forming species and grad-
source of seeds and animals for the surroundings. The ually changing them vary over essentially the whole
relationship of changes between scales seems to be lit- range, from millions of years to perhaps hours for
tle studied, at least ecologically. many microbes. Some urban plant and animal spe-
Finally, the legacies of former ecological condi- cies are genetically altered in centuries, decades, or
tions, or the “time lag” between a disturbance and its less (Palumbi, 2001; Yeh and Price, 2004; Shochat et al.,
major effect, are increasingly important in ecology 2006; Evans, 2010).
(Foster et al., 2003). Building foundations and stone Paleoecological studies of pollen deposits over
walls constructed 150–250 years ago in New England about 11 000 years since the last glaciation highlight
(USA) affect today’s soil conditions and wildlife move- major changes in the vegetation of the Berlin area
ment (Foster and Aber, 2004). The collapse of today’s (Brande et al., 1990). Hence significant increases and
fish stocks in some cases correlates with overfishing decreases in the relative importance of wetlands, grass-
patterns decades ago (Jackson et al., 2001). Plant and land, shrubland, forest, and ruderal (human-disturbed
vertebrate biodiversity in wetlands correlates better wasteland) plants occurred over these millennia. The
with density of the surrounding road network of three city itself only appeared some 700 years ago at the cross-
decades ago, than with today’s road-density network roads of two major trade routes. Vegetation changes
(Findlay and Bourdages, 2000). since then have been equally striking and presumably
much more rapid (Sukopp, 1990).
Many slowly changing (from a human perspective)
Time scales characteristics of urban areas seem to mainly occur
Twice a day commuter vehicle traffic between suburbs at the scale of decades or human generations (Hanes,
and city peaks, mainly flowing inward in morning and 1993; Forman, 1995; Brenner et al., 2001; Hong et al.,

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 Flows, movements, change

Urbanization
We begin with the spatial and temporal patterns of
urbanization, both internal and external. Then a brief
section follows on the effects of urbanization on habitat
loss, habitat degradation, and habitat fragmentation.

Spatial patterns of urbanization

Urbanization is the process of internal and external
urban land-use change. For the typical city growing in
population, the characteristic internal change is densi-
fication, while usually the outward change is expansion
over agricultural or natural land. Urbanization has
been measured in many ways useful for ecological ana-
Figure 3.6. Volcano towering over city in a zone of earthquakes lysis (Zonneveld and Forman, 1990; Theobold, 2004;
and volcanic eruptions. An Australian eucalpt on the right. Volcan
del Agua, Guatemala City. R. Forman photo.
Frumkin et al., 2004; Scheer, 2004; Ellis et al., 2006; Xu
et al., 2007; Schneider and Woodcock, 2008; Fialkowski
and Bitner, 2008; Forman, 2008; Mortberg, 2009).
2008; Brantz and Duempelmann, 2011; Forman and We explore urbanization from four perspectives:
Sperling, 2011). Biodiversity, major irrigation systems, (1) outward expansion; (2) outward urbanization mod-
farmland soil depth, desertification, transportation els; (3) internal changes; and (4) planning and optimal
infrastructure, technological change, culture, sedi- expansion patterns.
mentation of reservoirs, and urbanization around res-
ervoirs are examples. All of these human-generation Outward expansion
changes also occur at longer and shorter scales. In the fourth century BC, Plato pointed out that a city
Tides normally rise and fall twice a day, and very should not exceed 50 000 people, and that the next per-
high tides occur on a lunar cycle. Saltwater moves in son should found a new city. In the late 20th century, a
and out across mud blats, salt marshes and mangrove leading urban-design scholar indicated that the opti-
swamps. High-tide saltwater moves up streams and mum size of a city has a population between 25 000 and
rivers, and freshwater tidal fluctuations occur farther 250 000 (Lynch, 1981). Today numerous cities exceed a
up the rivers affecting coastal cities. These freshwater million and some exceed 10 million people, each cov-
tidal areas, often impacted by urbanization, normally ering a large land surface.
contain a concentration of rare species able to thrive in A four-decade (1936–76) study of the Southern
such an unusual environment. Ontario Region observed that the number of cities
Many so-called disasters mainly occur in days, tripled (from 11 to 33) (Dorney and McLellan, 1984).
hours or minutes. Hurricanes/cyclones are usually The number of largest-area cities changed from four
days-long events. Floods and lava flows from volcanic with a radius >50 km, to seven (>50 km) plus one with
eruption often persist for days or weeks (Figure 3.6). a >80-km radius (Toronto). The number of separate
Earthquakes typically are minutes-to-days events. In non-overlapping-radii cities changed little (from 5
desert cities, dust and sand storms are hours-to-days to 4), but the number of cities with overlapping radii
events and flash floods minutes-to-days (Allan and sharply increased from 6 to 29. In short, regional urban
Warren, 1993). Urban bombing typically is a minutes- growth produced more, larger, and more-overlapping
to-days event. For Manchester (UK), such bombing in cities. Effectively this created a megalopolis of coales-
1940 destroyed 4 ha (10 acres) of city center, including cing urban areas.
30 000 houses, and caused 1300 fires and 363 human Usually cities are not round, and of course would
deaths (Ravetz, 2000). Later a 1996 bomb devastated not be round in such a megalopolis of overlapping
a quarter of the city center. A nuclear-power facility population centers. In the USA, city shapes have been
explosion, such as at Chernobyl in 1986, seems to be an described as radial-centric, rectilinear, branching, lin-
hours-to-weeks event, which causes effects lasting cen- ear or ring-form. These shapes basically result from geo-
turies or more (Yatsukhno and Kozlovskaya, 1998). morphology plus urban growth patterns (Hartshorn,

76
 Urbanization

1992; Pacione, 2005; Forman, 2008). Cities tend to be Five outward urbanization models
abundant and elongated in coastal areas. Urbanization A study of 38 small-to-large cities in geographic areas
there seems to be especially damaging ecologically, worldwide initially highlighted four urbanization
because endangered species are often concentrated models of outward expansion (Figure 3.7) (Forman,
along coastal areas (McDonald et al., 2008). 2008). A fifth model, as a variant of one, also seemed
A landscape modification gradient, ranging from to be important.
urban to suburban to cultivated to managed to nat-
Bulges. Outward urbanization occurs in planned or
ural, was used to understand many characteristics
unplanned patches adjoining the urban fringe, and
of patches, corridors, and other features on the land
in different directions over time.
(Forman and Godron, 1986). For example, from urban
to natural along the gradient, patch density decreased Concentric rings. Urbanization from the urban fringe
(curvilinearly), regularity of patch shape decreased occurs at equal rates in all directions, forming an
(linearly), variability in patch size increased (curvilin- equal-width ring, and over time growth occurs in
early), number of wide green corridors peaked in the spurts, producing concentric rings.
middle, number of stream corridors increased (cur- Satellite cities. No growth occurs outside the main
vilinearly), and connectivity of the matrix increased. city, but instead concentric growth occurs
In landscape ecology such changing spatial patterns synchronously around a few satellite cities in the
reveal much about ecology outside a city. urban region.
Along a similar gradient from urban to suburban Transportation corridors. Urbanization progressively
to exurban to rural to “wildland,” it was found that extends out radial transportation routes forming
authors of different studies used the terms quite differ- ribbon or strip development, which progressively
ently (Theobold, 2004). The sequence of land-use types widens.
was consistent and useful. But differentiating the types Dispersed patches. As a type of sprawl, growth occurs
by human population density was extremely variable, in separate small sites that progressively become
and seemed not to be useful. denser and further out from the urban fringe.
The types of outward urbanization (suburbaniza- The bulges model describes the expansion of
tion) expansion have been described in different, though London from medieval time to 1830 (Figure 3.7). The
overlapping, ways. One study recognizes four types medieval city was oblong, with most of the subsequent
of spread (Schneider and Woodcock, 2008): compact expansion (excluding ribbon/strip development) by
with infill; fragmented development; widely dispersed bulges, each with a length-to-width ratio of about 1.5:1
development; and “frantic” outward land conversion. to 2:1. Compact cities (Beatley, 2000a) as present in
Another study recognizes six somewhat-overlapping Northern Europe reflect the bulges and/or concentric
types (Scheer, 2004): urban fringe growth, squatter set- growth models. Recent satellite-city growth has been
tlement, planned communities, edge cities (Garreau, important in the Barcelona Region, and led to several
1991), sprawl, and rings of growth. Some informal squat- somewhat-compact cities (Forman, 2004b; Catalan
ter settlements occur at the edge of cities, and “edge cit- et al., 2008). Planned satellite-city growth is particu-
ies” form as nodes near the fringe of a large city. Planned larly interesting, because urbanization can be tar-
communities are commonly well separate from a city. geted to particular satellite areas where environmental
A two-decade study (1979–2003) of urbanization impacts would be limited.
in the Nanjing Region (China) identified infilling, Transportation corridor growth is conspicuous out-
edge expansion, and spontaneous growth beyond the ward from small cities in the Amazon Basin (Browder
edge (Xu et al., 2007). Edge expansion accounted for and Godfrey, 1997). Dispersed-patch urbanization is
the greatest population growth, whereas spontaneous widespread in North America, but increasingly appear-
growth covered the largest area. Approximately 80% of ing in Europe and elsewhere, perhaps in part mimicking
the growth occurred within 1.4 km of the urban fringe. the North American pattern. Urban-related dispersed
Spontaneous growth beyond the urban fringe was patches far from the city that cause environmental
often followed by coalescence of the developed sites. effects on valuable parkland and other protected areas
Spontaneous growth sites showed a negative expo- (“naturbanization”) are an extreme example of the dis-
nential decline with distance from the edge of a large persed patch pattern (Prados, 2009). Since about 1980,
urbanized patch. these dispersed residential spots, often developing

77
 Flows, movements, change

Figure 3.7. Five models of urbanization

spread. Central circle = metro area. Three
stages of outward expansion illustrated.
Adapted from Forman (2008), largely
based on analyzing the urban regions of
38 small-to-large cities worldwide.

from recreational second-home nuclei, have become To determine which of the models above is best
common in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, as and which worst environmentally, the last four models
well as in North America. were applied to (superimposed on) the actual land-use
Probably no city mimics only one of the models. patterns in the 38 urban regions studied worldwide
Rather, outward growth in an urban region appears (Figure 3.7) (Forman, 2008). The effects of urbaniza-
to be a combination of the patterns, often with one or tion according to each model were estimated for 14
two patterns predominant. Four decades (1960–98) variables involving natural systems or human uses of
of Cairo expansion were mainly by adjacent (concen- natural systems (such as streams/rivers, tourist sites,
tric) growth, plus dispersed patches early and satel- large natural patches, and wildlife-and-walker corri-
lite growth later (El Araby, 2002). The urbanization dors). Based on 2128 urban-region patterns (4 mod-
of Phoenix (USA) over eight decades (1912–95) is els times 38 urban regions times 14 environmentally
particularly revealing. Early 1912–34 expansion was related variables), the concentric-rings and satellite-
mainly by outward bulges, plus some adjacent (con- cities urbanization patterns produce much less envir-
centric) growth (Jenerette and Wu, 2001). Then in onmental impact than do the transportation-corridors
1934–55, concentric growth, several new dispersed and dispersed-patch patterns. Little difference in over-
nodes, and one strip development corridor describes all environmental effect was evident between the first
the expansion pattern. Next during 1955–75, numer- two models, and also between the latter two models.
ous dispersed nodes and two strip-development cor- The bulges model was not evaluated, though its effect
ridors appeared, plus growth of a few satellite cities/ is probably almost the same as that for the concentric-
towns. Finally from 1975 to 1995, urban bulges, satellite ring pattern of outward expansion.
city expansion, and some dispersed nodes describe the The dispersed-patch model is particularly useful
urbanization of Phoenix. In this eight-decade period of because it reflects the predominant pattern of sprawl,
urban expansion, all five model types are represented. characteristic of North America, increasing in Europe,

78
 Urbanization

and present in developing nations (Potter and Salau, Throughout the eight decades very-large house
1990; Browder et al., 1995). A study comparing the plots predominated. Rather little change in plot sizes
ecological effects of compact versus dispersed growth occurred in the first 40 years, 1919–59. But from 1959 to
around Brisbane (Australia) recommended high resi- 1979, the proportion of largest house plots (5–22 acres)
dential density with small yards and large connected dropped sharply, while 1–5-acre plots doubled in per-
greenspaces (Sushinsky et al., 2013). While most stud- cent. Then in the last 20 years, the proportion of large
ies focus on patterns and problems within sprawl areas, 1–5-acre plots decreased while the smaller house-plot
the big-picture problem is poignantly highlighted by sizes increased. A different study indicated that over
Janice Pearlman (1998): the four decades (1960–2000) the relative proportion
If the entire land mass of the planet were divided into of housing in different plot-size categories (≤1, 2–10,
individual household plots, there would be no space left and 11–40 acre plots) changed little (Theobold, 2001).
for either agriculture or natural wilderness areas. The bulk of these house plots represents outward
urbanization described by the dispersed-patch model,
In essence, sprawl (unsuitable) is urban expansion
i.e., sprawl. Most of the sprawl has occurred on farm-
with a low density of people and/or buildings (Squires,
land, which is usually cheaper to develop and has soil
2002; August et al., 2002; Frumkin et al., 2004; Soule,
particularly suitable for septic systems normally used
2006; Forman, 2008). Since urban means city-related,
in sprawl areas.
the expansion of dispersed villages and towns here is
Where woodland or forest is close to a city, sprawl
not considered to be sprawl, nor is rural development
development often occurs in the forest (Figure 3.8). If
far from a city. Typically either housing developments
the woodland is on hill- or mountain-slopes facing the
or houses are dispersed (sometimes called urban dis-
city, development degrades the cool-air drainage pro-
persion or leap-frog development) on farmland or cess, useful for reducing urban heat and ventilating air
natural land in a zone beyond the metro area or urban pollution (see Chapter 5). In the USA about 65% of this
fringe. Many features are associated or correlate with sprawl-prone forest (wildland–urban interface) is con-
sprawl, including strip (ribbon) commercial develop- sidered to be subject to severe wildfires (Theobold and
ment along roads, large single-use rather than mixed- Romme, 2007). In 2000, this sprawl- and fire-prone
use residential areas, auto dependence by residents, forest covered 466 000 km2 containing 12.5 million
loss of farmland, loss of natural habitat, fragmented housing units. These threatened housing units are 52%
disconnected land, diverse public-health problems, more numerous than in 1970.
and commercial rather than civic and cultural centers
of communities. Internal changes
The distribution of different housing-unit plot (or Internally an urban area may become denser or less
parcel) sizes may be a good descriptor differentiating dense in population and buildings, or may be trans-
city, suburb, and exurb areas, irrespective of geography formed from one type to another without a change
(Fialkowski and Bitner, 2008). Thus, determining in density. Densification results from many processes
changes in the total urban area strongly depends, par- such as conversion from low-rise to high-rise apart-
ticularly in North America, on what housing density is ments, informal squatter settlement, infilling of vacant
included as urban (Theobold, 2001). Over eight dec- lots, and urban redevelopment. Classic examples of
ades (1919–99), the approximate percent of area of all continued densification are Shanghai, Singapore,
single-unit house plots in the USA changed over time and Hong Kong, where dense populations are packed
as follows (Gordon et al., 2005): together in high-rises covering a limited total area.
Most cities in the USA, known for outward sprawl, are
Year Plot size (acres)
also densifying (Katz and Land, 2003). Steep slopes,
≤0.5 0.5–1 1–5 5–22 floodplains, wetlands and other greenspaces are char-
1919 5 5 5 85 acteristic sites for densification by informal squatter
1959 6 4 10 80 settlements in many parts of the world (Matthews and
1979 7 5 20 68 Kazimee, 1994). Cities in the USA have several hun-
dred thousand homeless people who regularly use
1999 9 6 16 69
urban greenspaces.
(1 acre = 0.4 ha)

79
 Flows, movements, change

Figure 3.8. High-rise buildings, low

rises, patch of single-family units, and an
isolated house spreading up wooded
and agricultural hill-slopes on the edge
of a metro area. Barcelona. From R.
Forman photo.

Infill, by building on vacant sites, removes green- suburbs may de-densify. Long ago these suburbs were
spaces and tiny vegetated sites. But there is a limit to outward expansion areas of the city, often with indus-
the amount of infill appropriate for an urban area. That tries providing jobs. But now the areas may feature
infill threshold is the number and arrangement of parks poor-quality housing areas and contaminated-soil
and other greenspaces that optimize conditions for brownfields.
both people and nature. For people in low population- In some cases, land is transformed or converted from
density areas, infill may lead to enhanced public trans- one use to another without a major change in popula-
port, local services, even a sense of place (Frey, 1999). tion density (Altshuler and Luberoff, 2003; Lukez, 2007;
To sustain vibrant urban nature, greenspaces are essen- Bosselman, 2008; Brantz and Duempelmann, 2011).
tial and green corridors and stepping stones import- Or, while transformation is prominent, the population
ant. Some infill eliminates valuable remnant wetlands may increase. Portions of Paris in the late 19th century
(Dale, 1997; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007) and may and Barcelona in the early 20th century were trans-
cover contaminated-soil brownfields. formed from low-income to more-expensive planned
The threshold for infill also highlights the issue of a neighborhoods.
compact versus spread-out city. Compactness greatly Over history, Budapest has suffered floods from
reduces the total amount of land consumed by devel- the big Danube River, often destroying major portions
opment and its associated environmental degrad- of the city then followed by rebuilding. In 1990, after
ation. But an all-built city without greenspaces or tiny decades of foreign occupation, the military force left,
vegetated sites is nearly devoid of nature, and argu- leaving most of their equipment, almost all of their
ably does not sustain a healthy population of people. buildings, and many contaminated-soil areas (Enyedi
Thus, the infill threshold is a key measure for urban and Szirmai, 1992; Sailer-Fliege, 1999; Dent, 2007).
compactness. Since then the city has yet again been transformed, this
Urban areas also may become less dense (de- time for the extensive traffic of a car culture, associated
densification) in population and buildings (Haase air pollution, shopping malls, and so forth.
and Schetke, 2010). Population shrinkage is typically Internal change may be affected by outward expan-
accompanied by property abandonment and the crum- sion, and vice versa. Thus, extensive internal land aban-
bling and removal of buildings, leaving vacant plots donment approximately correlated with the outward
or areas. In the late 20th century, population loss and suburban expansion of Detroit. Analogously at a finer
land abandonment in the USA occurred in Detroit, St. scale, a neighborhood may densify or de-densify par-
Louis, Cleveland, Youngstown, Pittsburgh and Buffalo tially in response to growth or shrinkage of the broader
(Langner and Endlicher, 2007; Rink, 2009). War often city or suburb. Ecologically this is probably particularly
leads to an exodus of people and a less dense city. Even important, since context is so important for the flows
in the more common case of growing cities, the inner of species and water in urban areas. Ecological studies

80
 Urbanization

of such hierarchically changing urban areas would be (1973–97) in the Southern USA, urban tree-canopy
valuable. cover decreased 8–9% in Houston and Roanoke, but
Time-lapse photographs of a city over its history, as dropped 20–26% in Atlanta, Chattanooga, and Fairfax
if taken from a cloud or flying carpet, would be magical, County (Virginia) (Hermansen and Macie, 2005).
and quite informative. For instance, Amsterdam’s center For the five decades (1948–94) following atomic-
was transformed from a dense medieval structure dis- bomb destruction of Hiroshima City, the farmland and
sected by narrow ways: to a rich traders’ city with larger woodland of the city changed markedly (Nakagoshi
markets, buildings, streets and canals; then to count- and Moriguchi, 1999). Of this total greenspace, farm-
less four-level workers’ apartments in the 19th century; land area decreased from 19% to 10%, and woodland
next to an abundance of architect-designed block-size from 77% to 67%. Residential cover spreading on the
apartment buildings; then to numerous post-war high- greenspace areas increased from 4% to 23%. In 1998,
rise buildings; and more recently Amsterdam includes the city’s farmland and woodland cover was composed
many mega-block apartment buildings set within rela- of: rice paddy fields 5%; dry fields 2%; “natural” old-
tively continuous lawn (Habraken, 2000). growth forest 0.3%; second-growth pine-oak woods
The underlying pattern of roads and blocks tends 66%; and conifer plantations 20%. During the half-
to structure transformation patterns. City-center New century (1948–98) of internal growth and densifica-
York is a rectangular grid and Boston an irregular net- tion, half the residential growth was on woodland and
work (folklore says laid out by the early settlers’ cows), half on farmland. Yet since there was less agricultural
so sections of a city being transformed fit the regular area initially, half the farmland was lost.
or irregular network (Krieger and Cobb, 1999). Thus, Vegetation on greenspaces themselves is changed
sections of a city being transformed fit within the exist- as part of internal urbanization. For example, in a
ing regular or irregular street network. Over centuries 1940s urban-shrinking phase within Tokyo, exist-
the internal form of some cities has markedly changed ing greenspaces were transformed and new ones
(Hall, 2002; Busquets, 2003). In the late 19th century, constructed for wartime defense (Ishikawa, 2001).
radical planning changed the underlying road network Some greenspaces were converted to air defense
for wagons and carriages in a large section of Paris to a anti-aircraft sites and other military uses. After earl-
pattern highlighting circle intersections with radiating ier extensive hard-to-stop fires, open corridors were
streets. In the early 20th century Barcelona also under- constructed to limit the spread of fires. Analogous
went a major spatial transformation of transportation. “air strike defensive fire breaks” were constructed in
A particularly informative approach is to map the Seoul about 1940 (Rowe, 2010). Today’s Tokyo, again
rates of land-use change across the urban area, as done transformed, has removed many traces of wartime
for Denver (USA) (Berke et al., 2006). Such an approach greenspace uses. Now the city is characterized by a
in rural areas of Denmark over a century found that the large central Imperial Palace grounds, a fair number
most transformed features were ditches, paths, hedge- of medium-large parks, and numerous tiny vegetated
rows, and dry patches (Agger and Brandt, 1988). Thus, spots and symbols of nature associated with individ-
areas of rapid change contrast with stable areas. Again, ual buildings or residents.
the land-use change comparison is ecologically impor- A closer look at 11 residential areas in Merseyside
tant because of adjacency and context effects on a site (UK) over 25 years reveals different patterns. Only tiny
(see Chapter 2). barely noticeable changes occurred at individual spots.
Because vegetation is normally so limited in a city, Yet overall, 5% of the total area was converted from
vegetation change during internal urbanization is plant cover to impermeable surfaces of buildings and
especially conspicuous and important. The increase, pavement (Pauleit and Breuste, 2011). This change was
decrease, and rearrangement of urban parks, commu- greatest in wealthy neighborhoods. The maximum sur-
nity gardens, vacant lots, tree corridors, and other tiny face temperature for the total area increased an aver-
vegetated sites are seen and felt by nearly every resi- age 0.9°C. During a rainstorm of 1 cm/h, the surface
dent. The changes have a major effect on ecological runoff increased 4%. Biodiversity (at least as measured
conditions. During two centuries in Sydney, two of the by the Shannon index) decreased over the 25 years.
nine original forest types remain only slightly changed In short, the cumulative effect of tiny, barely noticed
in area, whereas another two types almost disap- changes in residential areas appear to be environmen-
peared (Benson and Howell, 1990). Over a generation tally significant.

81
 Flows, movements, change

Planning and optimal expansion patterns An analysis originally derived from logging pat-
Finally, a relatively small proportion of urbanization, terns of old-growth forest in the USA Pacific Northwest
especially outward spread, directly results from plan- (Franklin and Forman, 1987; Forman, 1995) provides
ning. Planning and design can create a much wider especially valuable insight for outward urban expan-
range of changing spatial patterns than is normally sion. Five spatial alternatives for cutting a forest over
produced by lack of planning, which breaks up the time were compared. The shrinking natural land is
land into relatively fine-scale human and natural pro- assumed to be more ecologically suitable than the
cesses. Ecological restoration in urban areas mainly expanding new land type. These are the five spatial-
focuses on small spaces but can address large areas sequence models:
(Harris et al., 1996a; Lee and Cho, 2008a; Hobbs and 1. Edge model. Development parallel to and
Suding, 2009). progressively expands from one boundary
Although planning is well beyond the scope of this 2. Corridor model. Development along a central
book, a few examples that include ecological dimen- corridor and spreading outward in both directions
sions are mentioned for illustration. At a broad scale, 3. Nucleus model. Expanding concentrically from a
the extensive Dutch planning traditions are particu- central point
larly useful for, and in, a megalopolis (van der Valk, 4. Few nuclei model. Expanding concentrically and
2002; Kuhn, 2002; Opdam et al., 2002, 2006). Urban synchronously from a few points
region planning is especially useful because, unlike a 5. Dispersed-patch model. Dispersing developments
huge megalopolis or the limited area of a city, much in a regular distribution (minimizing the variance
of the public regularly depends on an urban region in distance between patches)
(Yaro and Hiss, 1996; Forman, 2008). Also, planning
could make a semi-sustainable urban region. Metro For forest cutting, the edge model (Figure 3.9a) has the
area planning, for example in Asia, could build on least environmental impact, and is considered to be
the traditional mixture of urban and rural land uses, the ecologically best way actual forest cover is progres-
where farmland and woodland provide both key eco- sively decreased over time.
logical functions and cultural services (see Figure 11.1) However, three changes significantly improve
(Rowe, 2005; Yokohari et al., 2000). the edge model (Figure 3.9b). The late portion of the
Plans for whole cities typically focus on housing, sequence is improved by a “jaws-like” urbanization pro-
jobs, transportation and economic development. Very cess along two adjacent sides (Forman, 1995; Forman
few such city plans have environmental dimensions as a and Mellinger, 2000). The late portion is also enhanced
leading goal (Ravetz, 2000). New cities such as Canberra by establishing at the beginning tiny protected patches
and Brasilia have been planned and constructed and corridors that are maintained in place until finally
with varying environmental success (Reps, 1997; Le being removed at the end. The middle potion of the
Gates and Stout, 1996; Forman, 2008). Greenbelts, sequence is improved by retaining a few large patches
urban growth boundaries, and greenways are familiar or “chunks,” rather than a single very large one (i.e.,
planned patterns around metro areas (Howard, 1902; spreading risk), that are then sequentially rather than
Taylor et al., 1995; Pendall, 1999; Kuhn, 2002; Ahern, synchronously eliminated. The resulting “jaws-and-
2004; Forman, 2008). Transit-oriented development chunks” model seems to be the ecologically optimum
(TOD) highlights both urban and suburban develop- way to transform a more-suitable to a less-suitable land
ment around public transport stations (Cervero, 1998; (Forman and Collinge, 1996). This model sequence
Berke et al., 2006). may be optimum for outward urbanization.
Some broad-scale plans with valuable environ- A useful aspect of determining the optimum spa-
mental dimensions have focused on the ring area of tial sequence is that at any point in the time sequence,
outward urbanization. Compact development con- the best and worst location for the next change can be
trasts with sprawl (Benfield et al., 2001; Selman, 2006; pinpointed. For example, at the midpoint (50%-trans-
De Aranzabal et al., 2008). So-called smart growth formed phase), the best location (least ecological deg-
plans have attempted to solve some challenging issues radation) for the next housing development would
of exurban or peri-urban development (Szold and be along the edge of the large southwestern or north-
Carbonell, 2002; Squires, 2002; Garvin, 2002; Porter, eastern green patches (Figure 3.9b). The worst location
2002; Handy, 2005) for a new development would be just southeast of the

82
 Rates and trajectories of ecological change

(a) Figure 3.9. Proposed optimal models

of land transformation. (a) Edge model
describing real-world transformation
of ecologically more-suitable to less-
suitable conditions (Forman, 1995). (b)
Ecologically improved “jaws-and-chunks”
model. See text. (See Forman and
Collinge, 1996). Adapted from original
drawings courtesy of Kimberly Hill.
(b)

center of the large southeastern green patch. Inversely, buildings and other structures. This also means that
these locations would be the ecologically worst and sedimentation of the eroded soil particles in water bod-
best, respectively, for establishing the next protected ies increases. (2) Productive agricultural land is lost to
natural area or park. urbanization. Since cities usually originated on or by
good, even prime, agricultural soil, in many regions
the best soils are buried by urban spread (Amundson
Rates and trajectories of et al., 2003). (3) Soil quality is reduced by chemical pol-
ecological change lutants. Excess nitrogen blankets many urban areas,
For convenience we present these in four groups: (1) hydrocarbons from petroleum combustion reduce
soil, water, air; (2) vegetation and biodiversity; (3) water infiltration into soils (White and McDonnell,
urban land uses; and (4) habitat loss, degradation, and 1988), and toxic substances from arsenic to organics
fragmentation. limit the use of soil areas (Brown and Jameton, 2000;
Hough et al., 2004). Soil-contaminated brownfields
concentrated around cities are familiar examples.
Soil, water, air Mineral nutrient flows (biogeochemical cycling)
Environmental and urban changes occur long-term are much altered by urbanization (Groffman et al.,
but major alterations normally occur in discrete peri- 2004; Kaye et al., 2006; Carreiro et al., 2008; Alberti,
ods. The following illustrates the periods, their individ- 2008; Grimm et al., 2008). For example, nitrogen con-
ual lengths, and the sequence of major human effects centration may be higher than in many farmland areas.
on the environment in the USA (Turner et al., 1990): Phosphorus from stormwater pipes and septic systems
• Deforested area: 1690–1900 eutrophicates urban streams and rivers. Heavy metals
• Terrestrial vertebrate diversity decrease: accumulate in soils sometimes to toxic levels.
1780–1900 Urban air is commonly altered by densification and
• Carbon releases to atmosphere: 1810–1960 outward spread (see Chapter 5). Microclimate, includ-
• Human population size: 1850–1970 ing urban heat, changes over local built sites as well as
• Lead releases to air, soil, and water: 1910–1970 larger all-built metro areas. Air pollutant concentrations
• Water withdrawals from ground: 1930–1970 may increase or decrease. For instance, sulfur dioxide
• Sulfur releases to atmosphere: 1950–1970 (SO2) and particulate matter (PM) increase with coal
• Phosphorus releases to water and soil: 1960–1980 burning, and decrease with a switch to cleaner coal and
other fuels. Aerial nitrogen oxides increase with more
• Nitrogen releases to air, soil, and water: 1975–1980
vehicular traffic and other high-temperature-machine
Soil is degraded by urbanization in different ways use. Urban air pollution also affects microclimate, such
(see Chapter 4) (Bennett, 1948; Brown et al., 2000; as more particles and aerosols leading to more rainfall
Sieghardt et al., 2005 Sauerwein, 2011). (1) Erosion (Chen et al., 2007). Combined microclimatic and pol-
increases, associated with the construction of roads, lution changes affect both environmental conditions

83
 Flows, movements, change

and public health in the urban area (Frumkin et al., Changing greenspaces
2004). Sydney was founded for convicts, so tree cutting and
Water is affected by urbanization in much more vegetation removal started fast. The area of today’s city
diverse ways (Paul and Meyer, 2001; Brenner et al., was covered by nine forest types (Benson and Howell,
2006; Baker, 2009; Butler and Davies, 2011) (see 1990). Over two centuries, 1788 to 1988, urbanization
Chapters 6 and 7). Hard or impermeable surfaces and vegetation removal continued hand-in-hand. The
accelerate stormwater flow into stormwater drainage “river-flat forest” was targeted first. After 50 years, 90%
pipes leading to water bodies. The accelerated water of the river-flat forest was gone and 50% of another
may cause erosion. The large increase in water causes type had been eliminated. After a century, five forest
flooding, which inhibits septic system functioning, types were more than half removed. After two centur-
fills basements, covers roads and neighborhoods, and ies, eight of the nine forest types were >50% eliminated,
washes away bridges and buildings. Urbanized streams and five types were >90% gone. The two vegetation types
are straightened and channelized, stream-banks are remaining most intact after 200 years of urbanization
lined with rocks or concrete, and stream-water is piped had soils and trees of low economic value. Overall in
underground. Streams in suburbia may disappear, urban regions today, natural or semi-natural areas pro-
reappear, and disappear again, the water eventually tected for biodiversity tend to be on low-quality soils
pouring into a nearby water body. Stormwater and (Hunter, 1990; Forman, 1995). Ironically, richer soils
sewage wastewater are combined in pipes and channels often support more species.
in many cities, while in others the flows are separated in Considering specific features within an urban area,
different pipe systems, so the flows are only combined Boston’s “Emerald Necklace” was very valuable for the
(CSOs) in heavy storm events. Water quality usually city in the late 19th/early 20th century. A half-century
degrades, though planned projects such as wastewa- later the green-corridor-connected large green patches
ter sewage-treatment facilities improve water quality. were engulfed by urban land, cut in places, and modi-
Urbanization also leads to water shortages (Ma, 2004). fied by surrounding development activities. Today the
Six decades (1950–2010) of urbanization in Necklace is still valued regionally for its history, but its
China’s Changjiang Region, which contains several environmental and human features are mainly valued
large cities (Shanghai, Nanjing, etc.), is instructive. In by the local surroundings. Unlike Boston, Canberra’s
60 years the region lost a total 12.2% of four key envir- wide green corridors connect to woodland surround-
onmental resources: forests, wetlands, freshwater, and ing the city (Forman, 2008). As the city grew for a cen-
cash-crop farmland (for vegetables and fruits; not tury, urbanization has not greatly interrupted that
grain production) (Kim and Rowe, 2012). The total connectivity.
resource loss around each of four large cities was: 10% Thus, some greenspaces are mainly of local value
for Shanghai; 20% Suzhou; 20% Wuxi-Changshou; while others are of regional value. Protected vegeta-
and 20% Nanjing. Except for wetland near Shanghai, tion around the somewhat-distant water supply for
little variability from city to city and from resource Canberra was planned and established from the begin-
to resource was evident. These four very large cit- ning of urbanization. Maintaining market gardening
ies apparently contributed 35% of the total regional areas, large parks, large water bodies, and greenway
resource loss. However, 230 scattered small cities con- networks during an urbanization process provides
tributed a similar amount of total resource loss over ecological and societal value both locally and for the
the six decades. Per-person, the resource loss was whole metro area.
much greater around the dispersed small cities than In contrast, over five decades (1944–91) wood-
near the big cities. The loss of wetlands and freshwater land in Rome doubled (from 4.3% to 8.3% of the city)
to urbanization is especially significant, because they (Attorre et al., 1998). Most was due to successional
cannot be transported or replaced easily. habitats, especially shrubland, growing into wood-
land. During the period, a few large vegetation patches
Vegetation and biodiversity changed to more and smaller ones (12 to 23; average 287
These key characteristics of urban areas are explored in to 46 ha). Of this amount, woodland patches slightly
two ways: (1) changing greenspaces; and (2) ecological increased in both number and size (83 to 99; average
succession and species change. 3 to 5 ha). Meanwhile, separate urban built patches

84
 Rates and trajectories of ecological change

dropped sharply in number, and increased markedly and cherry trees (Acer rubrum, Betula lenta, Prunus
in size (73 to 17; average 11 to 191 ha). During the half serotina) dominated the canopy woods. The hemlocks
century, the predominant change patterns were: wood- and oaks were mostly large trees while the new domi-
land remained woodland; farmland either remained nants were small trees. In addition to tree growth and
farmland or became urban; shrubland became urban death, the prime reasons for the transformation were
or woodland, or remained shrubland; meadow became considered to be the stress of human trampling, plus
urban or remained meadow; and urban land remained hurricane, arson, and vandalism disturbances over a
urban. The total boundary length between land uses half century.
increased 10%. Thus, considerable vegetation dynam- Now visualize the action on a “vacant lot” or aban-
ics occurs during the urbanization process. Change doned parking lot over time. Rainwater infiltrates
represents a valuable opportunity to enhance ecologi- through cracks. Seeds germinate in cracks. Roots pene-
cal conditions across a metro area. trate. Roots thicken, especially those of woody plant
Shanghai over the past few decades also had a sig- seedlings, forcing the cracks to widen. Dust including
nificant increase in urban parks, lawns, and street trees silt and clay particles accumulates. Leaves and stems
(Zhao et al., 2006). Some increase occurred on former die, producing litter. Microbes turn litter into humus.
farmland. Negative effects of urbanization on green- Roots also die, adding organic matter lower down.
spaces of course also occur. For instance, intensive Taller plants increase the shade. Invertebrates colon-
firewood collecting for fuel around Lagos and other ize and multiply. Cracks form networks. Vertebrates
Central and East African cities has extensively elim- feed on invertebrates, as well as plants. In this way a
inated trees. Loss of tree products, soil degradation, vacant lot ecosystem with distinctive spatial patterns
soil erosion, and increased atmospheric particles are has formed and ecological succession then accelerates.
among the results. Informal squatter settlement on Urban successional processes have been described
urban greenspaces worldwide causes cascading envir- more generally as follows (Berkowitz et al., 2003;
onmental degradation. Bradshaw, 2003):
1. Plant immigration and establishment
Ecological succession and species change
2. Surface accumulation of fine particles and mineral
For the short term of months or years, early ecological
nutrients
succession (successional habitats) on urban sites is
3. Increase in organic matter and microbial
especially important. Relatively few sites support suc-
colonization
cession for decades. Considerable green cover occurs
4. Root expansion, soil changes, and some nutrient
in small sites on house plots. Suppose a house plot were
recycling
abandoned and protected for 30 years. In Leicester
(UK), it would probably become a mixed young birch- 5. Plant competition and facilitation
holly-ash-elder-hawthorn woodland (“scrub”) (Betula 6. Upward growth and more plant colonization
pendula, Ilex aquifolium, Fraxinus excelsior, Sambucus 7. Increase in herbivores and food web complexity
nigra, Crataegus monogyna) (Owen, 1991). Beneath 8. Some species and growth limited by urban stresses
these tree and tall-shrub species would be brambles 9. Disturbances at spots within the site
(Rubus fruticosus) and lots of herbaceous plants with This sequence of processes produces a micro-mosaic
diverse seeds continually arriving. Theoretically much over the site. Early succession seems similar across a
later, a mixed deciduous woodland would be expected. city. However, since seed input, plant species success,
This sequence almost never happens, because garden- urban stresses, and disturbances differ markedly,
ing by urban residents removes, plants, and manicures upon closer inspection successional habitats are quite
plants. different.
The later woodland stages continue to change, as Furthermore, initial site conditions as well as
seen in a 16-ha (40-acre) New York City woods over a the rates of succession differ from location to loca-
half century (Rudnicky and McDonnell, 1989). In 1937 tion (Figure 3.10). A high degree of unpredictability,
the woods was 70% covered by hemlock and oak (Tsuga though not necessarily randomness, is characteristic
canadensis, Quercus rubra), mainly in two large sepa- (Trepl, 1995; Niemela, 1999). Turbulence and vortices
rated patches. In 1985, hemlock and oak canopies only characterize urban winds (see Chapter 5). Sources of
remained in several small spots, while maple, birch seeds and animals may be near or distant in the highly

85
 Flows, movements, change

The preceding sequence produces “human-molded

vegetation” rather than vegetation from ecological suc-
cession. Costs are much higher. Predictability much
higher. Species richness normally much lower. And
stability, which depends mainly on a sustained main-
tenance regime, much lower.
Urbanization sprawl is widely known for reducing
habitat cover and biodiversity (Theobold et al., 1997;
Squires, 2002; August et al., 2002; McKinney, 2002;
Johnson and Klemens, 2005; Ray, 2005; Jaeger et al.,
2010; Berland, 2012). Yet sprawl is a time process and
species may adapt to it (Hitchings and Beebee, 1997;
Vos et al., 2001). Indeed, urbanization also creates hab-
itats, widening the options for some species to survive
Figure 3.10. Several years of ecological succession by an (Chapman and Underwood, 2009). Some bridges are
abandoned city building. Tall herbaceous vegetation with small
tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) in front; trees and shrub in prime habitats for bats and birds. Walls are key habitats
back remain from former yard plantings. Detroit, Michigan, USA. R. for some wall flowers. Lizards and flies, termites and
Forman photo courtesy of Jessica Newman. cockroaches, cats and mice, house plants and spices,
often thrive in buildings. Vegetable gardens with regu-
fragmented urban area. The communities or assem- lar soil disturbance, plus fertilizers and pesticides,
blages of species are not tightly integrated as in many provide fine conditions for many rapidly reproducing
natural areas. Human disturbances are often unpre- herbaceous plants (often called weeds). Noise-tolerant
dictable. Legacies of former stress or disturbance are animals can live near busy highways with fewer com-
often important. The trajectory of succession may be petitors to worry about. Even the urban concentration
altered at any stage. Consequently at any time, succes- of non-native species provides novel habitats for other
sional sites across a metro area support an immense species, such as bats in holes of planted eucalypt trees
richness of species, patterns, and processes. or fleas carried by Norway rats.
An alternative perspective on vegetation and species The ranges or distribution limits of many species
change in urban areas starts from the typical case of a site within cities have moved outward at the same time that
to be developed into a park or garden or lawn or other urbanization has expanded outward from the urban
vegetated land use (Gilbert, 1991). Both the sequence fringe. Six medium-and-small mammal species that
and rate of ecological succession are more dependent moved outward from the city-center area of Tokyo in
on human activities than on plant colonization, com- a half century (1924–72) (Obara, 1995) provide a nice
petition, soil development, and so forth as described example. All species ranges (raccoon dog, fox, weasel,
above. Five processes typically occur in stages: mole, hare, and bat) moved outward in spurts. This left
a large central area dominated by mice and rats (Mus
1. Site clearing (removing unwanted objects and
musculus, Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus). For the six native
reducing heterogeneity)
mammal species, three types of conditions were recog-
2. Subsurface construction (digging, removing soil nized in irregular concentric rings outside city center.
material, pouring foundations, adding sandy fill Animals in the inner ring were dependent on the urban
and topsoil) ecosystem. Animals in a narrow outermost ring were
3. Surface construction (laying walkways, dependent on natural ecosystems. Animals in the var-
constructing walls and any buildings, planting iable-with middle zone were dependent about equally
lawns, gardens, hedges and trees) on urban and natural ecosystems. These patterns may
4. External effects (wind patterns, input of seeds, be typical for urban animals in many metro areas.
weeds and animals; diverse human impacts)
5. Maintenance (mowing, trimming, tree/shrub
removal, chemical applications). Urban land uses
The first and fifth processes are considered to be most A glance at different locations in a metro area during
important in affecting vegetation. urbanization is interesting. Here we will quickly hop

86
 Rates and trajectories of ecological change

from street trees and neighborhoods to transportation interdependence, among its components. Changing
corridors and riversides, and to whole urban regions, a central component could trigger an unraveling and
plus the peri-urban or exurban zone at the epicenter of degradation of the neighborhood. More likely, how-
outward urban expansion. ever, the active interactions would provide compen-
Tree patterns along roads and streets in Rome sation, limiting the spread of any disturbance effect.
are even more interesting than for greenspaces in the Altering the edge portion of a neighborhood, though,
preceding section (Attorre et al., 2000). The tree spe- might change the whole area. Also, some boundaries
cies planted differed in, and sometimes symbolized, including the urban fringe readily move, even going
contrasting political and economic periods. In 1998 from concave to convex (Forman, 1995).
about 120 000 street trees representing 58 species were Transportation infrastructure typically is exten-
recorded in approximately 70 sections (urban units) sive with considerable inertia, and thus changes slowly.
covering the 350 km2 area of Rome. Five planted-tree Individual linkages or nodes may be altered, but the
types along streets and roads were recognized: network as a whole usually remains functional, espe-
• Elm (Ulmus minor): the traditional symbol of cially if many loops (high circuitry) are present. On the
Papal (“the Pope’s”) Rome other hand, urbanization changes along coastlines may
be slow or rapid and, with a powerful sea adjacent, are
• Plane (or sycamore) tree (Platanus × acerifolia):
relatively unpredictable (Marsh, 2005).
symbol of the late 19th century Umbertine period
Riversides tend to change drastically with urbaniza-
• Pine (Pinus pinea): planted during the Fascist
tion (see Figure 7.7). With more surrounding imper-
period, and symbolizing a cultural link with the
meable surface, river floods often get larger. More
Roman empire
infrastructure lines the river connecting city center
• Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia): a non-native with areas outside the metro area. The infrastructure
species from America planted during an intense requires continual maintenance, causing continued
urbanization period characteristic of the 1970s habitat disturbance. Riverside land uses also change as
• Mix of small trees (Ligustrum, Nerium, Hibiscus, old factories become less viable, commercial and hotel
Prunus): a functional response to very small activities grow, and demand increases for replacing old
spaces, plus a wish for a rapid effect, and housing with new apartments and condominiums. In
characteristic of the 1990s Hiroshima City (Japan) over two decades (1976–97),
During the past century, 1898 to 1998, large trees (>20 riparian forest patches decreased in number (36 to
m high) progressively decreased from 65% to 35% of 15) and especially in size (average 0.19 to 0.04 ha)
the total, and small trees increased from 5% to 43%. (Tanimoto and Nakagoshi, 1999). The resulting woods
Plane tree and elm dominance changed to a diverse were more elongated. Residential development on
assemblage of black locust, plane tree, pine, Ligustrum floodplain farmland caused the number of farmlands
and Nerium dominance. Throughout the 100 years, to double, while their average size plummeted from
tree species dominance in the individual city sections 1.26 to 0.14 ha. Parks tripled in number (from 5 to 17),
differed markedly, producing an ever-changing, broad though their average size and shape remained essen-
distinctive mosaic across the metro area. tially constant.
Over a similar 12-decade period (1867–1984) in Streams also change markedly with urbanization,
Berlin, an analogous changing mosaic of herbaceous since bulldozers, road building, and building construc-
plant species occurred (Brande et al., 1990). At the out- tion are such powerful forces (Paul and Meyer, 2001;
set the city had considerable greenspace in its center Korhnak and Vince, 2005). Yet flood times occasion-
surrounded by rather densely built areas. During the ally change that perspective.
period, buildings, lawns, flower gardens, vegetable Urbanization effects are just as striking at broader
gardens, rubble from war-destroyed buildings, and scales. The megalopolis of Dutch cities has a “green
craters from explosions all appeared and disappeared. heart” of fragmented farmland and woods. Over dec-
Diverse changing successional habitats characterized ades the heart became even more fragmented (Harms,
the urban mosaic. 1999). In a half century (1950–2000), the Seattle (Puget
Neighborhoods decline and are revitalized Sound) Region was fundamentally transformed, both
(Pacione, 2005). The neighborhood mosaic (see in environmental and human conditions, by exten-
Chapter 2) often has a high degree of interactions, even sive urban expansion (Alberti, 2008). Such a pattern is

87
 Flows, movements, change

replicated in many other North American metro areas to 100% less-suitable habitat (Figure 3.11a) (Forman,
and urban regions (Berger, 2006). 1995). Normally perforation and dissection predom-
Finally, focusing on the epicenter of outward urban- inate in the early portion of land-use change such as
ization, a specific case of a new highway bypass around urbanization. Fragmentation and shrinkage are usually
the city of Hubli-Dharwad (India) illustrates what hap- most prominent in the middle portion of the change
pens at the urban fringe (Shindhe, 2006). Long-term gradient. Shrinkage and disappearance then predom-
residents interviewed repeatedly mentioned the fol- inate in the later portion of urbanization. Interesting
lowing results of the highway bypass: (1) water-logged exceptions to the model exist, but the general sequence
soil in the wet season; (2) deprived of water to carry of spatial processes paints the big picture.
away sewage; (3) fallow land due to water-logging; (4) Urbanization around a New Zealand city per-
blocked access to my land; (5) unable to grow vegeta- forates, and then fragments, nearby forest (Norton,
bles and cash crops; (6) lost access to the water tank 2000). Habitat fragmentation is especially import-
source; and (7) lost 35 mango trees, or 4 large shade ant ecologically in suburban and exurban/peri-urban
trees, or 120 trees ….The peri-urban or exurban zone areas, as discussed below (also see Chapters 8 and 9).
is normally the most altered, indeed transformed, area Finally, as any city continues outward spread, nature’s
during urbanization. fragments continue shrinking and disappearing.
Gradual land-use changes seem to have predomi-
Habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation nated over eight decades (1912–95) in the dry Phoenix
Region (USA) (Jenerette and Wu, 2001). Desert area
The key spatial processes causing habitat change are
decreased steadily. The total agricultural area changed
first outlined. Then habitat changes on agricultural and
little, but some moved outward with more irrigation.
natural lands due to urbanization are introduced.
The urban area noticeably increased from about 1935
Spatial processes on, and steeply from 1975 on. The urban area increase
Five spatial processes, i.e., mechanisms changing the was exponential and correlated with population
pattern or arrangement of objects over time, pre- growth (R2 = 0.99). Fragmentation of the agricultural
dominate in outward urbanization (Forman, 1995; and natural desert lands by urbanization especially
Lindenmayer and Fischer, 2006). Perforation makes increased in the urbanization acceleration phase after
holes in an object. Dissection slices an object, creat- 1975. Structural complexity of the land or mosaic het-
ing constant-width strips or corridors. Fragmentation erogeneity also markedly increased as urban spread
breaks an object into pieces, at least some being widely accelerated. Modeling the patterns for two decades
separated. Shrinkage decreases the size of an object. (1975–95) suggests that the regional land-use trends
Disappearance (attrition) is the loss or elimination of can be understood by measuring four “landscape met-
an object. rics” [patch density; edge density (boundary length);
A general model highlights the relative importance fractal dimension; and contagion (aggregation)].
of these spatial processes along a land transformation Additional spatial processes are important for land
gradient from 100% more-suitable habitat or land use recovery or restoration, and usually for environmental

(a) (b) Figure 3.11. Spatial processes

operating during habitat loss and
habitat recovery. General models; local
conditions may create variations. See
Forman (1995).

88
 Rates and trajectories of ecological change

planning, design, and management. These cases nor- are discussed in Chapter 8, and on wildlife in Chapter 9.
mally begin with less-suitable land, and the goal is to This brief section is to highlight the agricultural and
increase more-suitable land or habitat (Jordan et al., natural lands where outward urbanization most affects
1987; Harris et al., 1996a). Recovery spatial processes habitats.
used in the reverse-of-urbanization scenario differ Farmland, villages/towns, urban areas, and trans-
markedly from those just described (Figure 3.11b) portation corridors are the prime fragmenters of
(Forman, 1995): appearance; proliferation; expansion; land. At a fine scale, almost any human activity on
coalescence; aggregation; connection; infilling; even the land can alter habitats. At the broad scale, land
translocation. or landscape fragmentation is an intense global phe-
Thus, for example, the unplanned reforestation of nomenon (Molnar, 2010). The only extensive, largely
mid-19th century agricultural land in New England unfragmented areas remaining are the Amazon Basin,
(USA) probably involved most of these spatial processes northern Canada, Gobi Desert, Arabian Desert, and
of recovery (Foster and Aber, 2004). In an ecological Antarctica.
planning project for the Greater Barcelona Region Near the big cities of Eastern China is some of the
(Forman, 2004b), one large green patch appeared (was most intense habitat loss, degradation, and fragmenta-
created in the plan), several large vegetated patches tion in the world (Li et al., 2010). Urban land and arable
were expanded, some small-to-medium patches effect- farmland are highly correlated in China (Tan et al.,
ively coalesced, and connectivity among large green 2005). In only a decade (1990–2000), urban land in
patches was greatly increased creating an “emerald net- the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebel Region increased 71%, and
work.” Many urban plans, some implemented, propose three-quarters of that was on arable cropland. Farmland
increasing connectivity for both nature and people loss (Brown, 1995) and vegetation loss (China Ministry
using major green corridors or greenways (Ahern, of Transport, personal communication, 2010) are both
2004; Jongman and Pungetti, 2004; Erickson, 2006). important issues in China. Not surprisingly, the habitat
Finally, infilling occurs where an isolated built prop- disruption in Eastern China occurs close to remnant
erty (inholding) within a park is acquired and reveg- hot spots of plant and mammal diversity.
etated to establish continuity across the park. Land or habitat fragmentation has been ana-
Not surprisingly, the idea of spatial processes is use- lyzed with diverse spatial measures. “Landscape met-
ful well beyond the case of outward urbanization. Many rics” measure parameters such as patch sizes, shapes,
features of urban areas, from an entire urban region to density, aggregation/dispersion, boundary or edge
a neighborhood or cemetery or house plot, change with length (density), corridor length and connectivity,
different spatial processes (Figure 3.11). Perforation, and network connectivity and circuitry (Forman and
shrinkage, and expansion seem to be most frequent. Godron, 1986; Turner and Gardner, 1991; Forman,
The least common spatial processes are translocation, 1995; Klopatek and Gardner, 1999; McGarigal and
disappearance, and connection. In short, the analysis Cushman, 2005; Leitao et al., 2006). “Effective mesh
of spatial processes provides considerable insight into size” is a measure of fragmentation level (Jaeger et al.,
urbanization and ecological change over time. 2007, 2010). For example, during 75 years (1930–2005),
land fragmentation mainly due to roads in Baden-
Agricultural and natural land Wurttemberg (Germany) increased by 40%, as indi-
Overall, habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation cated in effect by the smaller size of spaces enclosed by
by urban expansion mainly occur on agricultural land, the road network.
and secondarily on natural land. Habitat loss refers to Species richness is often high on rich soils, while
disappearance, habitat degradation to reduction in eco- rare species may be concentrated on both the richest
logical quality, and habitat fragmentation to the break- and poorest soils. Urbanization on agricultural land
ing into pieces. Habitat loss doubtless has the greatest commonly targets some of the most-productive agri-
effect on ecological processes and biodiversity. Habitat cultural soils (Imhoff et al., 1997). Urbanization not
degradation seems to have the second greatest effect, only causes farmland loss, but fragments agricultural
and fragmentation the third greatest effect (Forman, land (Carsjens and van der Knaap, 2002), a pattern
2006). widely disliked by farmers. Market-gardening (truck-
The effects of habitat loss, degradation, and frag- farming) areas just outside the urban fringe are an
mentation specifically on vegetation and biodiversity especially valuable source of fresh vegetables and fruits

89
 Flows, movements, change

for the city, yet ironically are threatened by urbaniza- subsequent two decades (1920–40), some fields were
tion from that same city. abandoned and woodland expanded. Finally from
On Puerto Rico (a large Caribbean island) over 1940 to 1995, the spread of suburban houses has com-
four centuries, farmland expanded at the expense of peted with and outpaced woodland regrowth on the
forest land. Then in a short period (ca. 1977–94) the former crop fields.
total urbanized area increased by 42%, almost all on A somewhat different scenario unfolded on much
agricultural land (Lopez et al., 2001). That rapid urban- poorer soils in the Boston Region. The transformation
ization not only significantly decreased food produc- of forest to cropland continued almost linearly for two
tion for the people, but increased urban land from 11% centuries (about 1650 to 1850) (Whitney and Davis,
to a very high 27% of the island. 1986; Foster and Aber, 2004). Then 13 decades of forest
Urbanization of natural land, i.e., forest/woodland expansion followed. Since about 1980, both forest and
and desert/grassland, is ecologically more serious than farmland have decreased, as residential sprawl spread.
that on farmland, because habitat conditions have not In summary, key spatial processes elucidate the
been degraded by farming activities (Zonneveld and patterns of urbanization expansion, as well as land and
Forman, 1990; Browder and Godfrey, 1997; Stern and habitat recovery. In agricultural land around cities,
Marsh, 1997; Jongman, 2002; Prados, 2009). For 13 urbanization causes significant habitat degradation
decades (1650–1780), the forest around Wilmington and loss, because semi-natural habitat is scarce. Where
(Delaware, USA) was removed for grain production natural land is close to cities, urbanization normally
especially on good soils, and mainly for fuelwood on eliminates semi-natural and natural habitat, degrades
poorer soils (Matlack, 1997a). A vigorous agricultural habitat, and fragments habitat, normally in that order
economy then followed for 14 decades. During the of severity.

90
 Part II Ecological features

Urban soil and chemicals

Chapter

4
The nation that destroys its soil destroys itself. refers to the biological zone (combined A and B lay-
Franklin D. Roosevelt, letter to the governors, 26 ers; or sometimes only the A) (Gilbert, 1991). Subsoil
February 1937 is the mineral-dominated zone below the topsoil. In
… microwildernesses exist in a handful of soil … urban areas, human-deposited sandy fill is widespread
close to a pristine state and still unvisited. Bacteria, around construction projects, and normally contains
protistans, nematodes, mites, and other minute crea- no topsoil, only subsoil material. Earth material or sub-
tures … A lifetime can be spent in a Magellanic voyage soil material used as fill can be readily converted to bio-
around the trunk of a single tree. logically active soil by the addition of organic matter
Edward O. Wilson, Naturalist, 1994 such as leaf litter (Bormann et al., 1993).
Many human activities and natural processes have
The essence of urban soil produced urban soil. Not surprisingly, these diverse
processes have created a rich array of soil types in
Soil is the source of life. We build on soil, and nations
urban areas. The different types, in turn, serve a var-
rise and fall on their soil. Look closely and wondrous
iety of extremely important functions for society, from
organisms appear, upon which we depend. In urban
engineering to ecology, farming, and recreation. So let
areas hard surfaces covering so much of the ground
us begin by introducing (1) some key types and func-
render much of the soil invisible. Consequently the
tions of soils; this is followed by (2) core characteristics
remaining greenspaces and spots are that much more
and (3) vertical and horizontal pattern.
valuable for life and us. Most of the species central to
urban ecology – trees and shrubs and flowers and wild-
life and soil animals and soil microbes and us – depend Key types and functions
on these remnant magical spaces. In the outer portion of an urban region, near-natural
Geologists, engineers, and land planners usually and agricultural soils are often widespread. “Natural
consider “soil” to be all the loose unconsolidated earth soils,” which developed on site without fill and with
material (regolith) above the bedrock, thus focusing low levels of human chemicals, usually show an A layer
on the mineral component (Berke et al., 2006; Marsh, over a B layer. The A horizon is mostly blackish due to
2010). In contrast, most agriculturalists and soil sci- the abundance of dead organic matter, and is a layer of
entists consider “soil” to be the upper portion of this leaching where rainwater infiltrating downward washes
unconsolidated material that is modified by the bio- out nutrients. In the B horizon some of the leached
logical activity of abundant microbes, soil animals, and nutrients accumulate. These soils may be better called
plant roots. Both perspectives are important in urban semi-natural because of the aerial deposits of human
ecology. chemicals associated with cities. Agricultural “crop
Thus, urban soil is the unconsolidated material soils,” in contrast, usually show a relatively homoge-
above bedrock in cities and towns, and is composed of neous layer down to a somewhat distinct line at about
a lower mineral zone, plus an upper biological zone of 30–40 cm depth, representing the depth of plowing or
mineral particles mixed with abundant organic matter cultivation (Russell, 1961; Tivy, 1996).
and organisms. Minerals are also in the upper zone and In higher human-density areas “disturbed” soils of
organisms in the lower, but the bulk of biological activ- several types predominate (Wheater, 1999; Sieghardt
ity is in the upper zone. Topsoil or surface soil commonly et al., 2005). Compacted soil results from compression

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 Urban soil and chemicals

by walking, vehicles or heavy machinery, and from “Water drainage” is a key for several functions. A
vibrations by trains, vehicles or machines. Many high level of drainage is important for all the engin-
activities produce low-organic-matter soils. Altered- eering functions mentioned, as well as for paths, ball
nutrient soils are widespread. Rainwater leaching fields, and around foundations. An intermediate drain-
of calcium carbonate from concrete and mortar all age level, neither too high nor too low, is optimal for
around us raises the pH, making more alkaline soils. septic systems, crops, and diverse plantings. In cases
Acid rain acidifies soil. High levels of inorganic heavy involving plants, organic matter or clay particles hold
metals create metal-contaminated soil, and high lev- nutrients against excessive soil drainage. “Aeration”
els of organic materials such as hydrocarbons also providing air in the soil generally correlates with drain-
contaminate soil. age, and is valuable for trees, septic systems, and fill
“Improved” or “remediated” soils are scattered around foundations.
throughout urban areas. For some, organic matter In short, a good topsoil provides air, water, and
derived from fallen leaves (yard waste), municipal solid essential nutrients for roots, soil animals, and microbes
waste, or (sewage) sludge is added. For others, nutrient in the soil (Sieghardt et al., 2005). It helps moderate
enhancement is accomplished by the addition of fertil- water quantity and quality problems in the surround-
izer or the lowering/raising of pH. Perhaps most com- ing environment. And it accumulates, breaks down,
mon is simply the addition of topsoil, or alternatively, and recycles diverse chemicals, from mineral nutrients
fill, the usually sandy mineral material with very little to toxic substances.
organic matter used for building up the ground level
(Knox et al., 2000). Fill often includes various human-
made materials, from brick-mortar-concrete rubble to Core characteristics
metal, plastic, wood and glass objects. Before considering the wide range of soil types, it is
Human designed-and-mixed soil creates a particu- useful to visualize a typical or archetypal small area of
lar mix of mineral particles, often with organic matter. urban soils (Figure 4.1). Eight patterns associated with
For example, using sieves and mixing, specific percent- human activities highlight the essence and distinctive-
ages of sand, silt, and clay are combined for use in con- ness of urban soils.
tainers or other special sites for horticultural plants. 1. Horizontal pattern. Urban soils display a
An extreme type of urban soil uses human-modified much finer spatial mosaic than do natural and
mineral particles, such as extruded (and fused) clay agricultural soils (Craul, 1999; Blume, 2009).
particles used in hydroponics. Plastic or other mater- Both exposed soil and soil covered by the hard
ial may be added to hold the particles in place, as on surfaces of buildings and roads commonly contain
green roofs. a number of different soil types, each a rather small
The internal structure and the functioning of each patch or strip. Patch types appear fragmented
soil type vary considerably. These urban soils from and the soil mosaic highly heterogeneous. The
semi-natural to artificial are all blanketed with human horizontal distribution of fill sites and types of
chemicals. Heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, fill typically covers a significant portion of this
nitrogen, and much more are deposited and accu- mosaic. Boundaries differentiating soil types are
mulate. Such accumulations may reduce the rates of typically abrupt and often straight, reflecting the
biological activity, water infiltration, organic matter predominant urban geometry.
decomposition, and so forth, and may be lethal to some 2. Vertical layers. Soil profiles or vertical layering
roots, soil animals, and microbes. The intensity of effect normally vary much more across an urban
varies by concentration and soil type. area than across a non-urban area. The topsoil
What are the functions or services provided to with major biological activity is usually rather
society by such an array of urban soils? Soils provide shallow. Few trees mean few deep roots. Initially
support for engineered objects on the surface. For high little biological soil-development occurs on the
buildings, train tracks, and busy roads the mineral soil widespread fill present. Chemical pollutants
component has low compressibility. For low buildings, inhibit soil animals and the soil porosity they
lightly used roads, paths, trees, and athletic fields, com- produce. The shallow soil contains a concentration
pressibility is moderately important. For green roofs, a of human chemicals, many toxic. Commonly
lightweight soil is useful. beneath the topsoil are layers of fill, perhaps the

92
 The essence of urban soil

Figure 4.1. Eight major distinctive characteristics of urban soils. Natural and agricultural soils normally have none or few of these. See Craul
(1992), Brown et al. (2000), Clement and Thomas (2001).

older the city the more layers on average. These drainage, aeration, organic matter, and soil animal
layers are predominately sandy but may embed communities (Sieghardt et al., 2005).
former topsoil. They usually include a range of 5. Elevated pH. Water running over concrete and
human (anthropogenic) materials (Gilbert, 1991). brick-and-mortar surfaces of buildings, roads, and
Layers in the soil material tend to be quite distinct sidewalks leaches out their constituent calcium
with sharp boundaries (Craul, 1992; Blume, 2009). and carbonate ions (Gilbert, 1991). The elevated
Water infiltrates downward through these layers levels of calcium reaching the soil raises the soil
carrying some human chemicals from the topsoil. pH (lowers the concentration of hydrogen ions or
3. Vegetation and its litter. On top of urban soil acidity). Hydrogen ions are replaced by calcium
typically only one or two vegetation layers is ions on soil particles making the soil more alkaline.
present, such as savanna-like grass cover with The elevated pH alters nutrient cycles and changes
scattered trees. With limited shade, the heat organism numbers and activity in the soil.
causes rapid decomposition of soil organic matter, 6. Stormwater infiltration. In built areas, much
and a scarcity of tree roots limits the depth of stormwater accelerates across hard surfaces into
the biological soil. In addition, fallen leaves and drains, along ditches, and through pipes that are
dead branches and trunks tend to be carted away widespread in a metro area. The result is a major
(Benedikz et al., 2005). This sharply reduces the reduction in water infiltrating into urban soil.
amount of organic material incorporated into soil. Water from precipitation and snowmelt readily
4. Compacted soil. Repeated walking, games infiltrates into sandy soils, but only slowly in clayey
on athletic fields, and other human activities and organic soils. Such infiltrating water may flow
compress the soil particles together, reducing downward to the groundwater or to a surface water
soil porosity and structure (Craul, 1992). Silty, body. Also surface and subsurface water flows often
clayey, and organic soils, and those with a pass from one soil to an adjacent one.
mixture of particle sizes, are most sensitive to 7. Human structures and artifacts. The three-
compaction. Compaction in turn degrades soil dimensional movement of water through

93
 Urban soil and chemicals

soil material is accentuated by the complex Vertical structure

accumulation of underground human structures Five characteristics with rather distinct attributes pro-
over time (Clement and Thomas, 2001). Buried vide the framework for vertical soil structure. Only one
foundations, pillars, walls, floors, beams, and is visible at a point on the soil surface, whereas below
drainage structures are often on top of one another. you two or three may be present, and in walking around
Yet these may be dwarfed by the labyrinth of some distance you may cross over all four. The predom-
underground pipes. Formerly functional pipes inant types of urban soil reflect different combinations
may now be full of air or soil. Pipes carry drinking and sequences of these five characteristics (Figure 4.2).
water, human sewage, stormwater, electricity, The level of soil-saturated groundwater affects most of
gas, oil, steam, or hot water. Many pipes leak, so the vertical soil patterns.
water leaves or enters them at specific locations. First, natural soil stratification refers to the A, B,
Water commonly flows along outside pipes. and C soil layers that commonly develop over time by
Little subterranean dams and blockages occur. weathering on site under natural conditions of wind,
Subterranean rail lines, highways, walkways water, temperature, and vegetation. The A horizon of
and shops may have shallow soil above them leaching, and B horizon of accumulation, together con-
(Clement and Thomas, 2001; Benedikz et al., 2005). stitute the zone of major biological activity. Beneath
Demolition debris such as brick, mortar, concrete, them is the C layer of rock material resulting from
and asphalt rubble is common. But glass, metal, breaking down the surface of the underlying bedrock
plastic, wood, and other objects are also frequent. or sedimentary deposit.
The net effect of buried structures is a fine-scale Second, compacted soil due to compression by
three-dimensional mosaic of water conditions, as heavy objects above or to prolonged vibration has
well as of aeration, chemicals, and microhabitat dense-packed mineral particles. This means a signifi-
conditions for soil organisms and roots. cant reduction in pore area, aeration, drainage, and
8. Concentrated human chemicals. An abundance soil structure. Organic and clay soils compact the most.
of pollutants from precipitation and dry fallout Gravely and sandy soils, especially if the particles are of
bathes the urban soil. Particles, aerosols, and relatively similar size, are most resistant to compaction
gases originating from power plants, industries, (Sieghardt et al., 2005).
transportation, and other sources provide this Third, impervious or hard surface is a covering (seal-
bath. Consider NOx, SO2, hydrocarbons; the ing) to support weight and human activities above the
list goes on. Inorganic and organic chemical soil. Normally the building, road, parking lot, driveway
substances modify and mold all components of and sidewalk is partially permeable to water infiltra-
urban soils. Both vehicular traffic and roads release tion, and without continued maintenance permeabil-
a range of chemical pollutants that accumulate ity may markedly increase. Typically a sandy-gravelly
in the road vicinity. Sodium chloride, phosphate, fill underlies the hard surface.
and many more pollutants originate from the Fourth, fill associated with built structures is nor-
road surface and roadside management activities, mally dominated by coarse sandy material (though
while rubber, iron, asbestos, chromium, zinc, and any size particles may be present), often containing
much more come from vehicles (Forman et al., human-produced materials. Fill is primarily added for
2003). A hydrophobic surface crust of accumulated rapid water drainage and often for supporting heavy
hydrocarbons that reduces water infiltration may structures.
develop on the soil surface (Craul 1992; Sieghardt Fifth, added topsoil contains considerable organic
et al., 2005). Furthermore, heat from adjacent matter, nutrients, and soil organisms. It may be top-
structures raises the soil temperature and dries the soil with biological and mineral components that
soil (Craul, 1992). developed naturally elsewhere. Or it may be human
designed and mixed soil, usually with varying propor-
Vertical and horizontal pattern tions of sand, silt, and organic matter for plant growth
A closer look at the vertical layering and horizontal in different locations (Gilbert, 1991).
pattern (Jenny, 1980) is a key to understanding urban Getting down on knees with a small shovel, it is
soil ecology. often easy to see interesting sublayers in the A horizon

94
 The essence of urban soil

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) Figure 4.2. Ten soil profiles with layers
of fill, water, and organic matter. Soil
surface at top, and bedrock (or other
parent material) beneath a profile. The
first three profiles characterize non-urban
soils, but are often present on small sites
in urban areas. In contrast, the following
seven soil profiles (containing fill) cover
much of an urban area. See Craul (1992).

of a natural soil. At the top is the litter, where the ori- surface is compacted, colonizing plants grow very
gin of the dead organic matter is relatively clear: leaves, slowly, organic matter accumulates slowly, and topsoil
conifer needles, twigs, and so forth. Beneath the litter is develops slowly.
humus, a more homogeneous black material where the Compaction is often most acute at or near the soil
origin of the organic matter is unidentifiable or unclear. surface, and thus plants on such soil surfaces usually
Beneath these two all-organic layers appears the rather grow poorly. However, a common urban pattern is the
distinct mineral soil composed of sand, silt, and /or clay buried compaction layer, where construction machinery
particles. The upper portion of mineral soil, or A1 layer, was operated on a layer of fill, which was then covered
contains considerable organic matter intermixed and with topsoil. Precipitation water infiltrating through
is clearly blackish. The lower A2 layer is much lower in this soil addition reaches the relatively impermeable
organic matter and mineral nutrients. Under this is the compacted layer, where it simply puddles or accumu-
B layer, where certain clay minerals and iron oxides lates, thus drastically reducing aeration. Woody plants
leached from above often accumulate. may grow little or poorly.
In urban areas the natural soil stratification is rela-
tively clear where the other four attributes are absent Horizontal pattern
(Figure 4.2). However, hard surfaces of buildings and Soil type names, classification, and mapping look
roads are widespread and, where present, effectively much like tongue twisters devoid of ready recogni-
eliminate the A and B biological zone. Fill is also wide- tion, and thus largely remain in the domain of experts,
spread, especially in older areas where over generations, especially soil scientists. An international classifica-
centuries, even millennia, construction activities have tion system developed by FAO/UNESCO and used in
occurred repeatedly in the same locations and have some areas provides worldwide breadth, but highlights
spread outward with population growth. Fill reaching characteristics of the normally invisible soil material
the soil surface has little organic matter and initially (beneath the A layer) (Short et al., 1986b; Fenton and
supports slow plant growth. But over time, organic Collins, 2000; Sieghardt et al., 2005; Sauerwein, 2011).
matter accumulates, forming an A horizon that sup- Many nations, including Australia, Canada, China,
ports good plant growth (Gilbert, 1991). If fill at the France, Germany, Russia, and the USA, have their own

95
 Urban soil and chemicals

classification systems, often focusing more on upper waste that produces methane when anaerobic (with-
soil (A-layer) characteristics and on a narrower cli- out oxygen). And “scalped” is mineral subsoil mater-
matic range of soils. ial remaining after removal of surface material (a cut).
Most soil classification systems recognize soil types In the Mall, 95% of numerous soil profiles analyzed
as products of five interacting key factors: climate, had about 6 m of fill, often in several layers, with sharp
parent material (e.g., bedrock), relief (topography), boundaries separating layers, and 94% contained man-
biological influences, and time (Craul, 1992; Fenton ufactured artifacts (Short et al., 1986a). Buried layers
and Collins, 2000; Sauerwein, 2011). Although under- with organic matter (A horizons) were present in 42%
standing these approaches is valuable for any soil clas- of the profiles (Short et al., 1986b). While this iconic
sification and mapping, in urban areas some of the location may be extreme, the abundance of fill layers,
five key factors are of minor importance. Also, human human-made objects, and buried A layers is indicative
influence, the giant, is missing. Indeed, most of these for urban areas (Kays, 2000).
soil classification approaches emphasize agricultural Perhaps the simplest approach here to understand-
soils, with much less emphasis on engineering, eco- ing urban ecology focuses on the overriding import-
logical, and urban dimensions. ance of human disturbance on soil material in urban
Identification of a soil in these systems is based areas. The bulk of today’s urban land has been signifi-
on measuring physical, chemical, and biological cantly altered by people over time. Consider an urban
attributes at different depths in a vertical soil profile area: dumps in wetlands and along streams and rivers;
(Fenton and Collins, 2000; Sieghardt et al., 2005). The drained wetlands; road building and associated drain-
horizontal extent or size of a particular soil is consid- age alterations; foundations, basements, and related
ered hierarchically. For example, one might recognize building construction; areas of coarse sediment dug for
a soil “individual” or “pedon” of some 1 to 10 m2 area use elsewhere in construction; athletic fields and school
(which exhibits its natural variability), a “polypedon” yards compacted; demolition sites; sites with rich soil
as a group of similar pedons (e.g., at a location on a added for plant growth; flood scoured areas and major
slope), and in similar manner a “series” and then an sediment deposits by floods; wells dug; septic systems
“order” (Craul, 1992, 1999; Fenton and Collins, 2000). built; straightened rivers and streams; ditches and
Common soil maps, typically at the larger end of the canals dug; plowed fields for food production; indus-
hierarchy, are often less useful for areas smaller than trial slag/spoil heaps and other waste sites; and areas
about 10 ha (25 acres) (Berke et al., 2006). covered with hard surface and later uncovered.
As for most things mapped, lines represent bound- Urban soil types are closely linked to current and
aries between types. In natural areas a gradual gradient recent land uses. Thus, coarse fill, natural soil, com-
between types is more common than an abrupt bound- pacted natural soil, buried compacted fill, added top
ary, whereas relatively sharp boundaries predomin- soil, hard-surfaced soil, and so forth, as introduced
ate in urban areas. Soil types on a natural-area map in Figure 4.2, illustrate major soil types in urban
typically appear like large and small amoebas packed areas. These are at a scale especially useful for engin-
together, even on top of one another, whereas urban eering, planning, urban agriculture, and ecological
soils often exhibit straight boundaries. In short, urban understanding.
soils do not fit well with the existing classification sys- Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of
tems, and some soil scientists are at work to modify or the types, both average and variability, are readily mea-
extend or replace the systems for urban areas. sured and compared. The bath of airborne human pol-
For example, from a detailed soil analysis of the lutants operates at a broader scale, e.g., differentiating
grassy “Mall” in central Washington, D.C., five urban urban and non-urban soils or industrial and residen-
soil types, called urbic, spolic, dredged, garbic, and tial areas. At much finer scales, the complex network of
scalped, predominate (Short et al., 1986a, 1986b; building foundations and overlapping pipe networks,
Fanning and Fanning, 1989; Evans et al., 2000). as well as the components of rubble – bricks with mor-
“Urbic” is mineral soil fill containing modern human- tar, tar-asphalt, roofing material, wood beams, iron
manufactured objects. “Spolic” is mineral fill without pipes, plastic paraphernalia – may have significant
the human-made objects. “Dredged” is a less-dense physical, chemical, and biological effects.
(lower bulk density) mineral fill derived from wet In short, at present it is perhaps best to simply name
areas. “Garbic” is an organic soil derived from organic and map soil types mainly based on the last major

96
 The essence of urban soil

human disturbances or uses of the land. In remnant Seas rise and fall, covering coastal plains and inundating
natural locations natural soils can be recognized. In flat areas where corals, chemical processes, and com-
this manner, soil types can become as widely familiar as pression produce limestone. Glaciers advance, grind-
plant and animal types, and thus highly useful to urban ing down hills and mountains, and then melt leaving a
ecology and society. covering of sandy materials, some distinctive hills, and
In a later section we will add one key structural lots of low areas for wetland formation. These molding
characteristic of soils that makes this approach espe- processes across the land endlessly recur. In seemingly
cially useful. “Soil texture” refers to the proportions the last minute, humans in large numbers or with large
of sand, silt, and clay (large to small mineral parti- machines have sculpted massive areas of the Earth’s sur-
cles). Several important soil characteristics including face. We have become a geological process.
drainage and aeration typically correlate with texture. Rocks are fairly easy to recognize, as many “geol-
However, first we highlight the processes that make, ogy from the road” books emphasize. Three big types
mold, and change urban soils. exist. (a) Igneous rocks come directly from the Earth’s
hot magma inside. They may cool slowly beneath the
Key natural and human processes surface, forming large minerals as in granitic rocks, or,
as in surface lava flows and volcanic eruptions, cool
These are conveniently presented in three groups: (1)
rapidly to form dark basaltic rocks. (b) Metamorphic
geological, (2) ecological, and (3) human processes.
rocks begin with any sort of rock that is later squeezed
and bent by the Earth’s internal pressures and heat. The
Geological processes and patterns different minerals in these highly diverse metamorphic
Over long long periods, “geological processes” mold rocks (e.g., slate, schist, and gneiss) tend to be aligned
the land on which cities form. Continents separate, in distinct layers, which usually are non-horizontal
move and collide. Mountains are pushed skyward by and curved. (c) Sedimentary rocks are horizontal layers
the Earth’s tectonic pressures and heat (Figure 4.3). of deposited sediments that have been compressed by
Mountains are eroded down to hills and plains (Forman, layers added on top. Sandstone develops from sandy
1979b; Costa and Baker, 1981), which in turn may be deposits, shale from silty and clayey deposits, and lime-
uplifted and then eroded. Water and wind erosion leads stone mainly from the calcium carbonate deposits in
to sediment deposits in valleys, as well as across plains. shallow seas.

Figure 4.3. Topographic and substrate

framework on which urban areas
grow. Specific characteristics differ by
region. Typically a topographic feature
is dominated by a single landform type,
formation process, and soil-particle size.

97
 Urban soil and chemicals

Putting various processes to work on the rocks informal (squatter) settlements seem to be the
helps make the soil particles of urban areas (Way, 1978; most characteristic urban land uses. The unstable
Craul, 1992). The “weathering” (or breakdown) of surface is an engineering challenge, and both the
igneous and metamorphic rocks produces large sand steep slope and the area below it are hazardous
grains, medium-sized silt particles, and tiny clay par- sites.
ticles. However, sandy deposits are often prevalent on 4. Mountain top. Rocks and gravelly sandy soils
land. Weathered sandstone also produces sandy soils, predominate. Except in dry areas with limestone,
while weathered shale produces silty and clayey soil, precipitation water tends to leach out mineral
typically in low areas. The weathering of limestone, nutrients, leaving a low-pH nutrient-poor
usually at low elevations in moist areas, and high eleva- soil. Communications towers and tourist sites
tions in dry areas, normally produces a clayey or fine- commonly crowd onto mountaintops in urban
silt soil. areas.
These soil types can be eroded by water or by wind 5. Valley bottom. A small stream valley may be
flowing across the surface (Gregory and Walling, 1973; largely covered with sandy soil. In contrast, a river
Dunne and Leopold, 1978). Water “erosion” produces floodplain often is mainly silt, which tends to
sediments or deposits. Especially characteristic are be rich in mineral nutrients. Agriculture thrives
deposits of sands in stream floodplains, silts in river and, outside the floodplain, built areas may be
floodplains and deltas, and clays in lake and sea bot- appropriate. Sandy floodplains sometimes include
toms. In contrast, wind erosion, mostly in dry areas, sand extraction for urban uses, despite significant
generally deposits sands in local sites, and silts (loess) ecological impacts.
across large plains (Way, 1978). Tiny wind-blown clay 6. Hill-top. Soils vary widely from rocky to clayey
particles slowly settle out of the air over regions, conti- depending on type of hill. Except for limestone,
nents or the globe. soils tend to be acid and nutrient poor. Views are
Finally, landforms, as specific geomorphic features good, windspeed is some 10–20% higher than
or structures on the Earth’s surface, are easily recog- below, and air pollution may become bad in still
nizable and useful in urban ecology and planning. periods. Maintaining vegetation rather than built
Landforms are a product of the processes, rocks, and areas on hill slopes facing the city helps cool and
soil-particle types (Way, 1978; Jenny, 1980; Berke et al., clean the air below (see Chapter 5).
2006; Marsh, 2010). These geomorphic features differ 7. Coastal plain. Sands, silts or organic soils may cover
in different regions. For example, in dry climates a hill the flattish area near the sea (or large lake). A sandy
may be a flat-topped mesa or a high sand dune, whereas soil from former water or glacial deposits tends to
in glaciated areas a hill may be a moraine or drumlin. be acid and poor for agriculture. Silts from river
Yet seven “land-surface types” cut across such features floodplains and deltas are rich in nutrients, prime
and give considerable insight into the soils of urban for agriculture. Yet such sites are hazardous, due to
areas (Figure 4.3). large floods. Marshes and swamps, often over the
1. Large flat area. Silty and clayey soils high in pH, Ca, silt base, have wet anaerobic organic soils, which
CO3, and other mineral nutrients predominate, so are unsuitable for most urban uses. Aquifers and
most of such areas are good for agriculture, plant biodiversity are normally especially important in
growth, and septic systems. Sandy floodplains vegetated areas of the coastal plain.
of eroding streams and silty floodplains of Cities spread over all seven of these land-surface
meandering rivers are common. types. Before exploring ecological and human pro-
2. Moderate slope. Silts and sands, especially from cesses, soil erosion in urban areas warrants special
underlying sandstone and shale or as deposits mention (Figure 4.4) (Knox et al., 2000). Natural eco-
of eroded material from upslope, predominate. systems have soil erosion, from moderate levels in dry
Eroding streams are common. Almost all urban climates to little in moist areas, for example,<1 ton/
land uses may work well here. acre/year (2.2 metric tons/ha) on forest land (Craul,
3. Steep slope. Rocks and gravel typically cover 1999). Cultivated agricultural land with extensive soil
cliffs, though sandy or silty bluffs may be present. surface exposed to water and wind erosion has consid-
Semi-natural vegetation, rock quarries, and erably higher annual erosion rates, e.g., 5–20 tons/acre

98
 Key natural and human processes

wood drop, forming the litter layer. In some climates,

frost–thaw cycles or fires mold the soil. From below,
the water-table rises and drops. Ecological succession
changes the soil.
Some of these processes primarily affect the soil’s
physical and chemical conditions, while others affect
biological conditions. Each natural process is signifi-
cantly altered by urban conditions. Finally, the human
effects on these natural processes represent handles for
planning and improvement.
Another set of natural processes is primarily
internal. Organic matter decomposes. Water flows
Figure 4.4. Steep eroded soil bank with parallel gullies and few downward, and in dry times or climates some is drawn
plants. Eroded gullies in the silt and/or clay form and deepen mainly upward by evapo-transpiration. Mineral nutrients are
where plants are absent. Urban graffiti on wall. Madrid peri-urban
area. R. Forman photo. leached out of the A layer. Mineral nutrients accumu-
late in the B layer. Several specialized bacteria sequen-
tially convert N2 (in air) to NH4 (e.g., ammonium in
(11–45 metric tons/ha). Erosion in urban areas varies
the protein of organisms), to NO2, to NO3 (nitrite and
much more from spot to spot. Stable urban areas almost
nitrate in the soil), to N2. Bedrock is weathered, and the
all covered with roads, buildings, and vegetation seem
rock pieces are progressively broken down to smaller
to have only slightly more erosion than do vegetation-
mineral particles (Russell, 1961; Craul, 1999; Fenton
covered natural areas. Overall, urban streambank ero-
and Collins 2000). Earthworms and other large soil
sion is low. Indeed, many streams have disappeared,
invertebrates move up and down, mixing organic and
with their water flowing in buried pipes.
inorganic materials and increasing soil pores and per-
In contrast, construction sites usually have huge
meability. In soil pores, oxygen diffuses downward and
amounts of erosion. Individual sites studied in
carbon dioxide diffuses upward. Bacteria and fungi
Washington, D.C. varied from 7 to 218 (average >33)
decomposers are consumed by small detritus feeders,
tons of eroded soil/ha/year (Craul, 1992, 1999). About
which are consumed by larger invertebrates, which are
94% of the material was carried away in only 6% of
consumed by still larger ones, as well as vertebrates, in
the time, emphasizing that most erosion of exposed
complex food webs. Roots absorb mineral nutrients.
soil occurs in occasional heavy rains. Moreover, for
Roots grow. Also roots die in the soil, providing organic
Washington as a whole, it was estimated that roads and
matter as well as former root channels down deep.
roadsides contribute twice as much to erosion as con-
These active external and internal processes
struction sites (Craul, 1992). Several other character-
represent the natural functioning of a soil, i.e., how it
istics may cause considerable erosion in urban areas,
works. They mold physical, chemical and biological
including steep slopes, a poor stormwater-drainage
conditions in a soil. And together they highlight soil as
system, and active development with exposed soils.
a highly dynamic object.
Finally, eroded soil or sediment does not disappear;
it is deposited somewhere. Sediments may accumulate
in low land areas including wetlands. More frequently, Human processes
sediments are deposited in water bodies such as pond,
Whereas human activities may affect any of the soil’s
lake, estuary, or sea.
natural processes, a distinct set of anthropogenic activ-
ities directly altering the soil characterizes the soils of
Ecological processes urban areas. Indeed, at a broad scale, urbanization itself
Several key natural processes are external and affect the highlights the process of forming urban soils (Craul,
top of an urban soil (Craul, 1992). Precipitation falls. 1992). The placement and modification of soil material
As solar energy is absorbed, the temperature of air in largely reflects the history and human activities of a city
soil increases. Plants colonize, cover, and shade the or urban area.
soil. Wind and sun cause evapo-transpiration, which Some human effects originate from afar but are
pumps soil water to the atmosphere. Dead leaves and accentuated by local urban conditions. Floodwater

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 Urban soil and chemicals

that inundates, scours, and deposits sediment is often from building foundations and walls to diverse func-
much worse because of residential development, engi- tioning and non-functioning pipe systems perforate
neered waterways, or the stormwater drainage system urban soils. Fill itself, which is largely sandy for good
of a city. Particulate pollutants such as dust, soot, and drainage, contains human materials ranging from
heavy metals commonly originate in external agricul- demolition concrete, brick and mortar to wood, plastic
tural and industrial areas, as well as from nearby indus- and metal objects (Gilbert, 1991; Craul, 1992).
tries, power facilities, construction sites, and busy These diverse buried human structures and mate-
roads (Spirn, 1984; Breuste et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2008; rials create three-dimensional heterogeneity widely
Pickett et al., 2001). Gaseous pollutants including NOx, affecting soil functions, from aeration and drainage to
SO2, and hydrocarbons have distant and local sources. organic matter and soil fauna. The materials also are
Such pollutants cover the urban soil. The hydrocarbons internal sources of contaminants affecting the soil as
from vehicles can create a (hydrophobic) crust on the water and soil animals move through it.
soil that reduces water infiltration (Craul, 1992). Buried human structures in varying states of deg-
Human activities adjacent to or near an urban soil radation may be differentiated in many ways, includ-
may also have major effects. Tall buildings alter air ing (Hiller and Meusser, 1998; Sauerwein, 2011): (a)
temperature through prolonged shading, reflected identifiable object; (b) odor; (c) color; (d) hardness;
solar energy, and radiation from the wall surfaces. (e) surface structure; (f) internal anatomy of parts or
Building foundations, sidewalks, and roads absorb fragments; (g) particle size; (h) carbonate content;
heat and radiate some into the adjacent soil (Craul, and (i) diverse microscopic and chemical analyses.
1992; Wessolek, 2008). Train and vehicle traffic causes Archaeologists are experts at this.
repeated vibrations that compact soil. Surface and sub- In short, diverse human processes, most of which
surface water flows from adjacent areas carry chemical are external, alter natural processes, most of which are
contaminants into the soil. internal. Human inputs from the atmosphere, from
On the soil surface numerous human activities adjoining areas, and from activities on the soil surface
alter soils. “Hard-surfacing” or sealing a soil for roads, strongly modify soil conditions and how a soil works.
parking lots, sidewalks and driveways alters almost all However, the most disruptive human processes trans-
the properties of the underlying soil (Wessolek, 2008; form internal conditions by excavation, insertion of
Niemela et al., 2011). Soil compaction results from structures and materials, and fill. Clearly our urban
heavy objects, especially the repeated movements of soils are actively functioning and highly dynamic over
construction equipment, truck and car traffic, well- time. Do not blink or something important may be
used footpaths, and athletic fields (Craul, 1992, 1999; missed.
Sieghardt et al., 2005). Soil surfaces may be mechanic-
ally graded or plowed (Craul, 1999). Diverse soil mate- Soil texture and associated
rials are often added on the surface, including gravel,
sand, topsoil, or a designed soil mix (Craul, 1992,
properties
1999; Gilbert, 1991). Fertilizers, organic or chemical, We begin with (1) soil texture and types, followed by
and pesticides are added. Leaf litter and fallen wood (2) soil properties related to texture, and finally (3) the
are often removed from the soil in urban areas, thus relative importance of soil properties.
reducing important organic matter and habitat values
(Benedikz et al., 2005; Gaston et al., 2005a; Jordan and Soil texture and types
Jones, 2007). When rock is weathered or broken down into small
Finally and most brutally, soil material itself is mineral particles, how big are they and what do we
removed, human objects are inserted, and fill, often call them? The answers differ depending on the pri-
from elsewhere, is added (Kays, 2000; Benedikz et al., mary functions we ascribe to soil (Russell, 1961; Way,
2005). Buried solid-waste sites are scattered throughout 1978; Craul, 1999; Hallmark, 2000). Thus, an engin-
urban areas (Marsh, 2010), and their density may cor- eer concerned with structural stability might focus on
relate with age of human occupation. Septic systems, differences among gravels and coarse sand, plus the
cesspools, and pipes for human sewage are inserted amount of fine-grained and organic soil material. The
in the soil (Craul, 1992; Anderson and Otis, 2000; agriculturalist growing crops, in contrast, focuses on
Benedikz et al., 2005). Numerous human structures, differences in sandy, silty, clayey, and loamy soils, and

100
 Soil texture and associated properties

may lump all gravels together in one group. Ecologists sizes (Marsh, 2010). Clay particles may be suspended in
usually use the agricultural approach. Although differ- water, followed by drying and then weighing. However,
ent classifications use different particle size ranges and a “hand test,” which is useful in the field, provides a
names, they all agree on the general sequence of types rough approximation of several key soils based pri-
from large to small mineral particles (Craul, 1992; marily on soil texture (Figure 4.5) (Craul, 1992, 1999;
Hallmark, 2000): (a) boulders or cobbles, (b) gravel, (c) Brady and Weil, 2002; Marsh, 2010). Consider a spec-
coarse sand, (d) fine sand, (e) silt, and (f) clay. trum of six such soils, plus one soil added at each end
Essentially all soils are mixtures of particle types, (Table 4.1). At least half a dozen intermediate types are
though typically the bulk of soil material is in the sand, recognized among the central six, and subtypes of the
silt and clay range. Thus, soil texture, the proportion gravel and organic/peat soils are common.
of sand, silt, and clay (each a percent by weight), is an Finally, combining this soil texture approach with
important and widely used soil characteristic (Way, the above-described major categories of soil in urban
1978; Craul, 1999; Hallmark, 2000; Marsh, 2010). Sandy areas, provides a simple useful basis for identifying,
soils are mostly sand, such as a barrier beach or glacial even naming, urban soils. Thus, a park might be a
outwash plain; silty soils mostly silt, e.g., a river flood- mosaic of sandy fill, clay-loam topsoil, organic garbic
plain or delta; clayey soils mostly clay, as for various soil, and loamy natural soil. This approach combines
wetland soils. Loamy soils have substantial proportions the origin and texture of soils, and is readily accessible
of all three particle types, illustrated by choice garden to ecologists, engineers, and the informed public.
soils. In urban areas where the structural dimension of
soil and fill is so important, instead of only the three-
variable analysis (illustrated by a sand–silt–clay “soil Soil properties related to texture
texture triangle”), adding the sizes and amounts of Structural properties and water- and air-related soil
gravel as a fourth variable seems particularly valuable. properties are highlighted here. Biological and chemical
Sand, silt, and clay proportions are readily deter- properties are introduced in later sections. Compaction
mined in the laboratory with sieves of different mesh in urban soils affects many of the properties, and the

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 4.5. Hand test for soil texture type. See Table 4.1 for what can be learned. 1 centimeter = 0.39 inch. See Marsh (2010).

101
 Urban soil and chemicals

Table 4.1. Results of a hand test for rough determination of soil types. See Figure 5.3 illustrating the soil “cast,” “thread,” and “ribbon.”
Other attributes such as nuances in color (measured by a Munsel chart) provide further insight. Based on Craul (1992, 1999) and Marsh
(2010).
1. Gravel Viewing an intact handful of soil and using a millimeter ruler, most of the surface is covered by particles
<8 cm (3 inches) and >2 mm (3/4 inch) in diameter (or >5 mm depending on the classification system
used).
2. Sand Individual grains of sand are readily felt and seen. When dry and squeezed in the hand, the soil falls apart
as the hand slowly opens. When moist and squeezed, it forms a soil cast that crumbles when touched.
3. Sandy loam Individual sand grains are readily felt and seen. When dry and squeezed, it forms a cast that readily falls
apart. When moist and squeezed, it forms a cast that remains intact with careful handling.
4. Loam Instead of feeling individual sand grains, the soil feels gritty yet fairly smooth. When dry and squeezed, it
forms a cast that remains intact with careful handling. When moist and squeezed, the soil can be handled
freely without breaking apart. When moist, the soil can be rolled to a pencil-like soil thread that readily
breaks.
5. Silt loam When dry, the soil may appear cloddy (composed of lumps), but the lumps are readily broken, and when
pulverized the soil feels soft like flour. When wet, the soil readily forms a runny (muddy) puddle. When dry
or moist and squeezed, the soil forms a cast that is freely handled without breaking. When moist, the soil
can be rolled to a pencil-like soil thread that readily breaks. When moist and pinched out between thumb
and forefinger, it does not form a flattened soil ribbon, but appears broken.
6. Clay loam The soil usually breaks into clods or lumps that are hard when dry. When moist and squeezed, it forms
a cast that remains intact with much handling. When moist, the soil can be rolled to a soil thread like a
pointed pencil that does not readily break. When moist soil is pinched out between thumb and forefinger,
it forms a thin soil ribbon that readily breaks under its own weight.
7. Clay When dry, the soil forms hard clods or lumps. When wet, it is usually sticky. When moist, the soil can be
rolled to a soil thread like a pointed pencil that does not readily break. When moist soil is pinched out
between thumb and forefinger, it usually forms a long flexible soil ribbon that does not break under its
own weight
8. Peat and These soils from frequently water-saturated sites such as wetlands are generally wet. Peat soil appears
other organic blackish and plant parts are readily identifiable. Other organic soils are commonly grayish, feel smooth,
soil and may have a slight hydrogen-sulfide “rotten egg” smell.

least permeable layer in a soil mainly controls the ver- Soils contain pore spaces, and pore size distribution
tical movement of water and air in a soil. The closer to refers to the total volume of pores of different sizes in
the soil surface a compacted layer is, the more detri- the soil (Craul, 1992, 1999; Sieghardt et al., 2005). Large
mental it is to plant growth. structural pores, 10–50 µm in diameter, function dif-
ferently in water flow and for plant growth than do the
Structural properties medium (0.2–10 µm) and small (<0.2 µm) pores in soil.
Engineering soil structure refers broadly to the cap- Where aggregations of mineral particles and organic
acity of soil to sustain heavy weight. At a finer scale, matter are present as distinct three-dimensional forms,
“bio-mineral soil structure” refers to the aggregation of pores occur between them.
mineral particles and organic matter in distinct three- Volume change, as a “deformation” of soil, occurs
dimensional forms (e.g., peds) (Craul, 1999; Sieghardt in several ways: (1) compression by an external load,
et al., 2005). The engineering soil structure is of par- (2) shrinking or swelling as proportions of water
ticular interest in this section. and air change in large soil pores, (3) absorption of
A primary measure of any soil structure is bulk water in small capillary pores or within many clay
density, the dry weight of soil material per volume of particles themselves, and (4) frost expansion (e.g.,
soil (Craul, 1999; Evans et al., 2000; Sieghardt et al., upward frost heaving). The compressibility of soil
2005). Mineral soils are high, and organic soils low, in refers to its capacity to resist volume change (Way,
bulk density. Bulk density increases with compaction. 1978). In urban areas with heavy trucks, trains, and
Sandy soils are lightweight and clay soils heavyweight. buildings, even skyscrapers, the properties affecting

102
 Soil texture and associated properties

soil compression (or bearing capacity) are especially reaches the saturated-zone water-table recharges the
important. groundwater.
Shear strength is the resistance to a diagonal stress Permeability is the capacity of a soil to permit either
or force (e.g., as measured in kg/cm2) that disrupts the water or air movement through it, and is measured as a
continuity of soil pores (Way, 1978; Costa and Baker, rate per volume of soil (Way, 1978; Craul, 1999; Marsh,
1981; Hallmark, 2000; Sieghardt et al., 2005). Shear 2010). Hydraulic conductivity is the capacity of a soil
strength is higher in a soil with similar-sized and sim- to conduct water, especially through the large pores
ilar-shaped mineral particles, such as certain gravels (Sieghardt et al., 2005). Percolation, as a more special-
and coarse sands. Cohesive bonding among particles ized term, is the downward movement of water within
as in some clay soils also somewhat increases shear soil, often in the vicinity of the saturated zone. A “per-
strength. In urban areas where buildings and busy colation test” is commonly used to evaluate the suit-
roads are commonly adjacent to greenspaces, shearing ability of soils for septic systems (Craul, 1999; Marsh,
is especially important. 2010).
Plasticity is the capacity of a soil to become and Aeration is the movement of air through the soil,
remain deformed without volume change or rupture primarily oxygen from the atmosphere downward and
(Way, 1978; Hallmark, 2000). Mainly important in clay carbon dioxide upward and out of the soil (Craul, 1992;
soils, plasticity reflects (colloidal) slippages and col- Sieghardt et al., 2005). The bulk of the soil air flow and
lapses at grain-to-grain contact points. Finally, elasti- diffusion of gases occurs in the large pores. While car-
city is the ability to rebound to an original volume after bon dioxide constitutes only about 0.03% of the atmos-
a change in an external applied load (Way, 1978). This phere, at low levels in soils it often reaches some 150 to
is important in soil under transportation corridors 300 times that level, i.e., about 5–10% of the air within
when a heavy truck or train passes. soil. On the other hand, oxygen constitutes about 20%
These engineering soil-structure characteristics are of the atmosphere. Air at lower levels of coarse-par-
a key to the placement and arrangement of built struc- ticle soils commonly drops to only 5–10% O2. In wet,
tures, as well as the effects on adjoining or embedded organic, and/or clay soils (Figure 4.6) it commonly
greenspaces of urban areas. Such structure characteris- approaches or reaches zero percent, which indicates
tics also play key roles in the fine-scale anatomy of soil anaerobic conditions. Clogging up, for example, >90%
and its functioning for water, air, and organisms. of the soil pores may lead to oxygen shortage and root
damage (Sieghardt et al. 2005).
Water- and air-related properties An oxidation–reduction balance or threshold
Drainage usually refers to the movement of water occurs at low oxygen levels (Craul, 1992). Positively
over the soil surface (surface runoff) and within the and negatively charged ions shift, so that many chemi-
soil (Russell, 1961; Craul, 1992, 1999; Marsh, 2010). cals in the oxidized form (presence of oxygen) are con-
Permeability and hydraulic conductivity (described verted to their reduced form (insufficient oxygen), or
below) affect the internal flows. A sequence of drain- vice versa. Thus, when oxygen drops below the oxida-
age classes is recognized, such as excessively drained, tion–reduction threshold, soil may change color and
somewhat excessively drained, well drained, moder- the availability of several key mineral nutrients drops.
ately well drained, somewhat poorly drained, poorly The nitrogen, sulfur, iron, manganese, and heavy met-
drained, and very poorly drained (Craul, 1992, 1999). als present become unavailable to plant roots and other
Although these terms are mainly targeted to one soil soil organisms. Furthermore, below the oxidation–
function, plant growth, the measurements used for reduction threshold some elements, such as chromium
identifying each class could be applied for any of the and arsenic that are often present in urban-contami-
several functions of urban soils. nated soils, become toxic to organisms
Infiltration refers more specifically to the rate of While there is no need for an urban ecologist to
water penetration by gravity into the soil from its sur- know every concept outlined here, the big picture is
face (Craul, 1999; Sieghardt et al., 2005; Marsh, 2010). important. Engineering soil structure is strongly deter-
In most mineral soils infiltration water flows through mined by bulk density, compressibility, shear strength,
large structural pores. But in organic and some clay and plasticity of soil. Water infiltration is mainly con-
soils considerable infiltration may take place in smaller trolled by pore size distribution, permeability, and com-
capillary pores (Figure 4.6). Infiltration water that paction of soil. And aeration for O2 and CO2 strongly

103
 Urban soil and chemicals

concerns, i.e., slope angle, depth to bedrock/pan,

cobbles/stones, frost/ice (excluding dwellings with
basements), and subsidence (excluding road fill).
2. Usefulness rating for standard soil-chemical
analyses (Craul, 1992) (properties ranked in
order of importance): (a) pH; (b) phosphorus;
(c) potassium; (d) sodium adsorption ratio; (e)
exchangeable sodium percentage; (f) organic
matter; (g) cation-exchange capacity; (h) total
nitrogen; (i) nitrate nitrogen; and others.
3. Chemical analyses for suitability of urban forestry
(which emphasizes wood production) (Sieghardt
et al., 2005) (properties ranked in order of
importance): (a) pH; (b) organic matter; (c) cation
Figure 4.6. Black organic crop soil and gray roadside clay soil exchange capacity; (d) contents of phosphorus,
used for irrigation ditch. Note deep footprints in clay (lower left)
and the lowered field level due to years of light-weight organic soil potassium, and nitrogen; (e) magnesium; (f)
being oxidized and blown away. Valencia peri-urban area, Spain. R. aluminum; and others.
Forman photo.
4. For land development issues (Marsh, 2010): (a) soil
composition (relative amounts of mineral particles,
depends on pore size distribution. With insufficient organic matter, water, and air); and (b) soil texture.
O2, many chemicals in reduced form are unavailable 5. Suitability for urban “greening” (adding vegetation,
or toxic to organisms. All of the soil properties can be especially trees) (Sieghardt et al., 2005): (a) texture;
negatively, or positively, affected by human activities in (b) structure; (c) pore size distribution; (d) bulk
urban areas. density (weight per volume); and (e) chemical
parameters.
Relative importance of soil properties 6. Optimal characteristics for a highly plant-productive
soil (Craul, 1992): (a) clay content; (b) humus in
To get a handle on which soil properties among the
the A layer; (c) effective rooting zone; (d) root
bewildering array present are most informative or
zone capability for available water; (e) air capacity
important, lists from diverse specialists are inform-
(pores >50 µm); (f) hydraulic conductivity; (g)
ative. These lists are generated for different stated pur-
pH (CaCl2); (h) S-value of the root zone; (i)
poses and thus further emphasize the diverse societal
earthworms; and (j) granular structure with high
roles played by soils (Kays, 2000; Amundson et al.,
water stability.
2003).
1. For engineering activities (Hallmark, 2000). Urban Lists for other societal objectives such as agricultural
engineering projects are concerned with many production, septic systems, and ball fields would also
and different soil properties: (a) corrosion of differ. Perhaps most striking from these lists is their
metal (especially steel) is affected by soil drainage, dissimilarity, both in properties included and in their
texture, acidity, and conductivity (resistance); relative ranking of important factors. Soil require-
(b) corrosion of concrete by texture, Mg-Na ments for engineering are overwhelmingly structural
sulfates, NaCl, pH, and high humus content; (c) plus a few chemical and no biological requirements.
slope stabilization by slope angle, soil strength, Lists for land use and plant-related activities empha-
and distinct rock-layer discontinuities; and (d) size physical (structural) and chemical attributes. The
shallow excavation by texture, slope angle, depth concept of bioassays in evaluating the suitability of
to bedrock or pan, high humus content, cobbles/ soils remains a promising frontier.
stones, ponding/flooding, water table depth,
shrinking/swelling, high bulk density, and frost/ Life in the soil
ice. Four project types, i.e., (e) dwellings with Soil “hums” with the activity of soil organisms. Food
basements, (f) dwellings without basements, (g) fill webs in urban soils vary from simple to quite complex,
for roads, and (h) streets/roads, have similar soil and remain a research frontier. We explore these key

104
 Soil texture and associated properties

subjects from three perspectives: (1) plants and organic significant increase in erosion, decrease in organic
matter; (2) microbes; and (3) soil animals. matter, or worsening of water conditions. In an urban
greenspace, these diverse processes produce a mosaic
Plants and organic matter of conditions for roots, organic matter, microbes, and
The essence of this important topic is captured in (1) soil animals. The soil mosaic mirrors both recent and
soil ecosystem development, (2) organic matter, and current human activities.
(3) roots (Jenny, 1980). Litter differs in quality, and soil development reflects
the differences. Most conifer needles tend to acidify the
Soil ecosystem development soil. Some leaves such as maples (Acer) decompose rap-
In ecosystem development on a bare soil, such as new idly, while others including oaks (Quercus) break down
fill or a topsoil-removed area, the soil changes just as more slowly. Fallen branch and twig litter decomposes
much as does the vegetation overhead (Fenton and more slowly, reduces erosion, and provides more
Collins, 2000; Bradshaw, 2003; Berkowitz et al., 2003). microhabitats for soil animals than does leaf litter.
Moss, herbaceous plants, and some woody plants Trees resistant to soil compaction, such as box elder
spring up from existing seeds and spores, or colonize (Acer negundo), honey locust (Gleditzia triacanthos),
from arriving seeds/spores. Species resistant to urban and willow (Salix) may contribute more to urban soil
drought, scarce nitrogen, and chemical pollutants development than the more environmentally sensitive
grow, compete, and form a vegetation cover. This pro- species, including Austrian pine (Pinus nigra), Japanese
vides some shade and cooling for the soil. Vegetation maple (Acer palmatum), and sugar maple (Acer saccha-
cover provides some friction against wind and water rum) that grow poorly. Retaining rather than removing
flows, and helps stabilize the surface against erosion. lawn cuttings noticeably increases soil organic matter,
Dead leaves and stems provide a film of surface litter, nutrients, and soil animals, which worm-eating lawn
while dead roots provide a bit of organic matter in the birds appreciate.
upper mineral soil. Nutrients including nitrogen begin The widespread removal of fallen leaves, branches
accumulating. and trees in urban areas means less litter, humus, and
Some microbes and soil invertebrates colonize the organic matter in the A1 horizon, as well as fewer
surface organic matter, accelerating its decomposition nutrients and few soil animals (Benedikz et al. 2005;
to humus. New plant species favored by these altered Sieghardt et al., 2005; Gaston et al., 2005a; Jordan and
conditions colonize, outcompete the early colonists, Jones, 2007). Standing dead trees and branches as
form a higher canopy cover, and produce much more important habitats for various wildlife species are often
litter. From then on, the improved soil conditions favor removed for public safety.
more vegetation including shrubs and trees. In a posi-
tive feedback process, shrubs and trees improve the soil. Organic matter
During this soil development, organic matter increases, As the non-living carbon-containing material in soil,
water retention improves, water infiltration increases, organic matter comes in many forms (Gilbert, 1991). In
aeration improves, shade and soil cooling increase, root natural soils it is predominantly the litter and humus
growth is greater, decomposition microbes increase, plus a prominent component of the A1 mineral hori-
soil animals become more numerous, and soil nutri- zon, though organic matter is present throughout the
ents, especially nitrogen, accumulate. A and B layers, and at very low levels beneath. In urban
The soil-development process typically continues areas organic material may occur in layers buried by
until plant roots are inhibited by a layer of compacted fill. On the soil surface, additions, such as peat moss,
or contaminated soil, or by a high water table. Or the sawdust, woodchips, sewage sludge, and topsoil from
process is arrested by above-ground human activities elsewhere, are common in urban areas. Buried mater-
such as cutting woody plants, mowing, trampling, or ial from wooden buildings, animal waste, and garbage
being covered by fill. If the activity is a short one-time dumps is also organic matter.
disturbance, such as cutting trees or a fire, soil devel- Organic matter at or near the surface plays lots of
opment restarts. If the activity is repeated or chronic roles in soil development (Craul, 1992). It lightens the
as in repeated mowing or continued trampling, the soil soil. It binds mineral particles into aggregates, improv-
conditions degrade, at least until the next significant ing soil structure. Organic matter increases water infil-
human activity occurs. Soil degradation may mean a tration, and also water retention. It enhances aeration

105
 Urban soil and chemicals

of soil. It facilitates root penetration. It stimulates dimensional distribution of environmental conditions

microbial populations and decomposition. And it in the soil. At the surface, soil temperature contributes
increases soil animal populations and soil functioning. to, and closely tracks, urban air temperature. However,
Thus, not surprisingly, in adding topsoil or artificially temperature about 20 cm (8 in) down changes lit-
designed and mixed soil, organic matter typically is tle from day to night, though in sandy or dry soil it
1–5% or more by weight. If peat moss is used it may may vary a bit more (Jackson and Raw, 1966). Roots
be 10% of the volume, or in compost 15% by volume, seem particularly sensitive to low-temperature dam-
depending on location. age, which occurs at night when root growth is more
Basically all life in the soil – roots, microbes, and rapid (Craul, 1992). Oxygen is especially important for
animals – depends on the energy and nutrients in roots. For instance at 25°C, roots may daily absorb O2
organic matter (see equations, Appendix B). The car- gas equal to about 9 times their volume. As suggested
bohydrates and diverse organic compounds in leaves above, oxygen is primarily important for root metab-
and wood are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and olism and respiration, but also for nutrient absorption
oxygen, plus nitrogen and other elements. Some soil and to prevent root rot. Even short periods of anaer-
animals physically break down litter to small pieces obic conditions due to standing water-saturated soil
by chewing, and in the process get energy and nutri- can damage root systems.
ents for their growth (Figure 4.7). Microorganisms, Roots absorb much of their water from the medium-
especially bacteria and fungi, decompose these small sized soil pores (0.2–10 µm diameter), which store and
pieces with their large surface area, and in the process make available most of the capillary water (held by
get energy and nutrients for their growth and metabol- cohesion next to soil particles) in the soil (Figure 4.7)
ism. The microbes decompose complex organic com- (Sieghardt et al., 2005). In effect, an unbroken stream
pounds to simple organic ones, and then to inorganic of water extends from the soil through root, stem,
elements in the soil. Roots in turn absorb inorganic and leaf to the atmosphere. Thus, when a molecule of
elements such as nitrate, phosphate, and magnesium water is evaporated (transpired) from a leaf to the air
for plant growth. These processes actively take place in due to sun or wind, it puts the entire continuous water
the presence of oxygen, highlighting the importance of stream under tension. That tension moves the strongly
soil aeration. cohesive water molecules upward, effectively pumping
In the absence of adequate oxygen the soil is anaer- water from soil to atmosphere through the plant.
obic, with two major effects on decomposition (Craul, The requirement of both water and oxygen, the lat-
1992). First, decomposition of organic material is ter mainly inhibited by too much water, determines
much slower, meaning that little energy is released for much about where and how plants grow in cities. Street
microbial metabolism. Most of the energy and nutri- tree plantings, for instance, on average only last a few to
ents remain tied up in the organic matter that may several years. Excavation of dying trees typically reveals
accumulate. Second, the products of this slow organic- that the volume of uncompacted soil was inadequate
matter decomposition are different. Methane (CH4) for good root growth, and especially that the roots were
and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), for example, are given off inundated or had insufficient water (Craul, 1991, 1999;
into the soil by microbes rather than CO2 and H2O as in Sieghardt et al., 2005; Benedikz, 2005). A planted street
aerobic decomposition. A high concentration of H2S, a tree optimally has a dependable source of water near
gas that diffuses through the soil pores and smells like the top of the root system or root ball, and good drain-
rotten eggs, is toxic to plants. age near its bottom.
A major factor producing anaerobic conditions is Growing roots tend to follow paths of least resist-
standing or ponded water in the soil at some distance ance, especially channels of former roots and routes
below the surface. In urban areas this commonly results of soil invertebrates (Sieghardt et al., 2005). In urban
from a high water table, a buried compacted layer, or soils, additional routes of roots are along old pipes,
buried human structures such as foundations, drain- sewer lines, cracks in roads and sidewalks, founda-
age objects, and walls. tion walls, stormwater drains, and the like. Some of
these routes reflect the fact that, except in wet soil,
Roots roots tend to grow toward water. Root penetration, i.e.,
Root growth of course reflects above-ground con- the rate of downward growth, of course is reduced in
ditions, but is especially dependent on the three- compacted soil.

106
 Life in the soil

Figure 4.7. Sizes of major biological

and physical components in soil. Larger
objects above and smaller ones below.
W = width; L = length. See Hallmark
(2000), Schulze et al. (2005), Townsend
et al. (2008).

Large coarse roots anchor the plant and can lift side- area and penetrate between soil particles. Water and
walks. Attached to them is a network of fine roots that nutrients enter the root through the root hairs. For
generally densely perforate the organically rich humus rapid root growth, intermediate soil moisture condi-
and A1 layers (Figure 4.7). In mineral fill material, tions are optimal.
coarse roots may protrude outward in asymmetric pat- Root growth is also highly sensitive to toxic sub-
terns, reflecting disrupted water flows in the soil. Fine stances so prevalent in urban areas (Craul, 1992).
roots tend to be concentrated in an upper shallow zone. Elevated levels of ammonia in solution, copper, zinc,
Near the tips of elongating fine roots are numerous or lead stop both root growth and water uptake. That
microscopic root hairs, which provide a large surface leaves non-functioning roots, which die.

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 Urban soil and chemicals

Roots play many roles. They store carbohydrates Types of microscopic organisms
produced in leaf photosynthesis. They also store an Many types of microbes live at a neutral pH of about
array of other organic substances for the plant. Roots 6.5 to 7, which is common in urban areas. However,
anchor the plant against erosion. They support a tree bacteria thrive at this rather high pH and are the key
against being toppled by wind (Craul, 1999). They microbial group present. As soil becomes more acid
absorb water, and absorb nutrients. Using the inor- most types of microbes decrease. Although bacteria
ganic nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur absorbed, the are often present in some abundance, only fungi are
roots synthesize a diversity of organic compounds. highly active in acid soils, e.g., of pH 4 to 5.5. Acid soil
Roots even produce plant hormones for shoot growth. locations include some woodlands (especially coni-
Moreover, roots provide significant benefits to fers), significant acid-precipitation locations, and sites
the soil. By binding soil particles together they create where heavy metals, such as zinc or cadmium, have
a bio-mineral soil structure. Roots continuously die, eliminated key soil animals leaving a poorly drained
thus adding organic matter within the soil where roots litter-humus. Also buried poor-drainage organic soil,
grow, rather than on top of the soil. Roots increase where anaerobic decomposition produces carbonic
water infiltration, and aeration as well. acid accumulation, has a low pH, fungi predominant,
So how big are urban root systems and what do they and few bacteria.
look like (Benedikz, 2005)? In part these are genetically Bacteria. As the most numerous soil organisms, per-
determined. Typically, palms have thick central tap- haps billions in an ounce (28 grams) of fertile soil, bac-
roots that go straight down, grasses have a thick mass teria (Figure 4.7) play central and diverse roles (Jackson
of fine fibrous roots, and willows (Salix) have widely and Raw, 1966; Craul, 1992). Some are beneficial by
branching horizontal roots. Some species are gen- improving soil structure or cycling nitrogen, while others
eralists, growing over a wide range of environmental are parasites or diseases. Elongated or rod-shaped bac-
conditions (e.g., black locust and red maple, Robinia teria (about 1 µm diameter and a few micrometers long)
pseudoacacia, Acer rubrum), some are specialists in predominate and swim around in soil. Many can form
very specific soil conditions, and some thrive in the spores that resist heat and desiccation, a benefit near the
relatively new, seemingly difficult urban environment urban soil surface. Some can reproduce in 20 minutes
(such as tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima). Almost all though most multiply more slowly. Certain bacteria are
specialists do poorly in cities. aggregated around root tips and presumably facilitate
Yet root systems for a particular species are highly nutrient absorption by the plant.
variable, depending on the 3-dimensional distribution Aerobic bacteria (those in the presence of oxygen)
of environmental conditions in soil, especially too little typically metabolize and reproduce much faster (e.g.,
and too much water. Most urban tree roots are in the top 20–30 times) than do anaerobic bacteria (no oxygen).
45–60 cm (18–24 in). They may extend down a meter Rapid bacterial growth can use up the oxygen present
or more, but horizontally they often spread outward in the soil. That causes local anaerobic conditions even
for several meters. Most fine roots that absorb water in in a well-drained soil. Water-saturated soil is domi-
urban areas are in the top 15 cm (6 in), or 30 cm if tex- nated by anaerobes. Most bacteria derive their carbon
ture and compaction are suitable. Unlike the circular and energy from the decomposition of organic matter
symmetry of most tree canopies, the horizontal distri- (heterotrophs).
bution of roots usually is quite asymmetric in urban In contrast, some chemo-synthetic bacteria gain
trees. These roots extend a short distance outward in their carbon from CO2 in the soil and their energy by
some directions, and well beyond the canopy extent in oxidizing inorganic compounds. Thus, with oxygen
other directions. The relative health or sickliness of a present, nitrifying bacteria gain energy from nitrates
tree above ground is generally mirrored below ground and nitrites, and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria from sul-
in reduced root distribution and elongation. fates. Iron bacteria derive their energy by oxidizing
ferrous to ferric salts, though these bacteria do not
Microbes corrode iron objects such as pipes and debris buried
We look closely at this subject through three lenses: (1) in the soil.
types of microscopic organisms; (2) distribution in the Fungi. Mostly composed of one-cell-thick filaments,
city; and (3) decomposition. fungi in 28 grams (an ounce) of moderately acid soil

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 Life in the soil

may have hundreds of meters of filaments (Figure 4.7), mats during wet periods. (d) Protozoa, as mobile sin-
together weighing more than the mass of bacteria pre- gle-celled organisms, are the primary consumers of
sent (Russell, 1961; Jackson and Raw, 1966; Craul, bacteria. Amoeboid forms and cells that swim with fla-
1992). Overall three types of fungi predominate. Mainly gellum or with cilia are typically common in higher-pH
“single-celled fungi” (Phycomycetes) include most of soils characteristic of cities. Most protozoa can form
the molds. Root rots and plant parasites (e.g., potato thick-walled heat-resistant cysts that readily blow in
blight) also fit here. Second, the “cup- or bowl-shaped urban dust and are viable for long periods.
fungi” (Ascomycetes) are particularly important in
decomposing cellulose-rich plant material. Their spores Distribution in the city
are highly resistant to heat. Third, the “stalked fungi” Urban soils are bathed in microbes from the air. For
(Basidiomycetes) are most familiar as mushrooms or example, pollen collectors on hospitals collect astro-
toadstools, some edible, some tasteless, and some poi- nomical numbers of fungus spores. Dust deposits from
sonous. Stalked species include various plant parasites. urban roads, traffic, and other sources is full of micro-
Both the single-celled and stalked fungi include organisms of diverse types. Areas particularly subject
mycorrhizae, the fungi penetrating or attached to root to acid rain are likely to be rich in soil fungi.
tips forming a mutually beneficial symbiosis. The fun- Several types of sites are hot spots of microorgan-
gus receives carbohydrates from the plant and the plant isms. Garden compost piles are usually designed for
receives nutrients from the fungus. Penicillium-type decomposition by numerous aerobic bacteria. Garbage
fungi that produce antibiotics against bacteria, and dumps (tips) near the soil surface support high levels of
various yeasts, may be abundant in soils. diverse microbes, both aerobic and anaerobic, decom-
Although parasites and symbionts are present, most posing the variety of materials present. When a dump is
fungi (“saprophytes”) decompose organic matter and capped with soil or other covering, anaerobic bacteria
are relatively effective at breaking down cellulose-rich predominate in the decomposition, as the emission
material. Unlike bacteria, most fungi are particularly of methane indicates. Topsoil organic matter buried
effective in decomposing lignin, a major component of beneath fill may have anaerobic conditions, or may be
wood, and hence these species are widespread in wood- acidic with many decomposition fungi.
land soils. A few fungi can attack and parasitize soil The soil microbes around certain urban sites with
animals, such as roundworms (nematodes). Gardeners specialized functions may be exceptional, but are little
and commercial flower-growers know that some seed- studied (Clement and Thomas, 2001). Consider: hos-
lings and roots are quite susceptible to fungal disease, pitals; cemeteries and burial crypts; sewage treatment
and may add fungicide to the soil. Finally, stored top- facilities; commercial mushroom-growing operations;
soil loses its fungi, including mycorrhizae, rapidly. catacombs; military facilities; and smuggling contra-
Other microscopic soil organisms (Russell, 1961; band sites. Activities and materials associated with
Jackson and Raw, 1966; Craul, 1992). (a) Viruses, as various infrastructural networks, e.g., subway system,
tiny entities of DNA and protein, are not organisms but underground highway, electric system, telephone sys-
rather multiply within cells. Some (bacteriophages) tem, and underground shopping arcade, facilitate the
parasitize and inhibit the activity of bacteria. Plant transmission of microbes throughout the urban area.
viruses, such as tobacco mosaic, remain infective for Flowing water, including water supply, hot water for
long periods in the soil, and can be transmitted plant to heating, stormwater drainage, and human sewage sys-
plant by soil animals and fungi. (b) Actinomycetes are tem, is particularly important in creating microbial
similar to bacteria though with fungus-like character- concentrations, because leaks are present. Leaked water
istics, and are mainly in higher pH soils characteristic may stimulate or inhibit microbial activity. Especially
of cities. Some produce antibiotics (e.g., streptomycin in the case of human sewage, leaks (and CSOs) are sig-
from Streptomyces) that inhibit bacteria and fungi, pro- nificant sources of microorganisms. Finally, people
viding a competitive advantage in the soil. (c) Algae, as moving underground in maintenance activities and
unicellular or filamentous photosynthetic organisms for other purposes are both a source and a transmitter
requiring light, primarily grow on the surface of moist of microorganisms.
higher-pH soils. Considering the many urban sites This complexity of subterranean human structures
with little leaf litter, green algae and blue-green algae, and functions not only affects microbes, but also cre-
the most abundant types, sometimes form temporary ates microhabitats and routes for lots of animals below

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 Urban soil and chemicals

the surface (Clement and Thomas, 2001). Rats, crick- decomposition rate (Russell, 1961; Craul, 1999;
ets, moths, cockroaches, spiders, bats, beetles, flies, McGregor et al., 2006). An optimal C:N ratio for decom-
millipedes, mollusks, crustaceans, and much more position is about 25–30:1. If one wishes to decompose
may thrive. Even algae grow around underground sawdust (from wood), which has a C:N ratio of up to
lights. Such animals move about, die, and are eaten and 400:1, the sawdust needs to be mixed with a low-ratio
decomposed. The hidden soil microbe story is rich. material such as chicken manure at 7:1. Leaves and
straw usually have a moderately high C:N ratio. Too
Decomposition little nitrogen slows the decomposition rate, whereas
The breakdown of organic matter to CO2, H2O, and heat too much nitrogen may lead to compaction, acid con-
by microbes sounds simple, but is exceedingly complex ditions, and an ammonia smell.
(see equations, Appendix B). The essence is interest- In urban areas, many organic materials other than
ing. Plants contain starches, fats, and proteins that are leaves and wood are decomposed. In fact, the decom-
broken down to simple sugars, amino acids, etc., which position breakdown of varied human-made organic
in turn are recombined to make other proteins, fats, materials is considered to be one of the “services” pro-
starches, and related compounds. All of these organic vided by nature or ecosystems to society. Domestic
chemicals are readily decomposed by bacteria and waste including food scraps, some plastic bags, paper
fungi. Yet, two other sets of chemicals, mainly associ- products, and so forth may be composted relatively
ated with the structure of plant cell walls, decompose rapidly on site (McGregor et al., 2006), or much more
more slowly: (1) cellulose and its relatives; and (2) lig- slowly in a large garbage dump.
nin (more carbon and less oxygen than in cellulose), As described above, fungi, especially cup-forming
which is particularly prominent in wood. fungi in high-pH aerobic conditions, are particularly
To get a sense of the overall process and its con- effective in decomposing cellulose-rich materials,
straints, consider seven key characteristics that accel- including paper and cardboard products. Lumber and
erate decomposition of organic matter (Russell, 1961): other wooden building materials are full of lignin,
1. A low level of lignin which decomposes best by fungi in acid conditions.
2. Tiny organic particles, such as resulting from Herbicides, insect pesticides, organic acids, alcohols,
the activity of large soil invertebrates (e.g., and hydrocarbons (including polycyclic aromatic
earthworms) hydrocarbons – PAHs) are widely used in urban areas.
3. An adequate amount of available nitrogen Some of these and other human-made organic chemi-
4. Neutral to slightly acid soil (microbial populations cals decompose readily, and some slowly. Also some
decrease and most soil animals die in a strongly are highly resistant to microbial decomposition and
acid soil) hence accumulate to high levels. The idea of contam-
5. Good aeration, and with adequate moisture (not inated soils, or brownfields, often indicates the accu-
anaerobic and not water-logged conditions, which mulation of such industrially produced chemicals in
reduce bacteria and their activity) the soil.
6. Temperature fairly high
7. A mixed leaf litter of different species rather than Soil animals
of a single species. Three types of urban soil animals are easily recognized:
Compared with litter and humus decomposition, the (1) vertebrates (e.g., mice and snakes), (2) large inverte-
process in a compost pile has similar characteristics brates (earthworms, beetles), and (3) tiny invertebrates
except that the temperature is higher and aeration is (mites, springtails) that the eye can just barely recog-
less. Urban areas generally provide good conditions nize (Figure 4.8) (Owen, 1991; Bolen, 2000). Of the
for items (1), (4), and (6). However, several of the huge number of species in soils, a relatively few from
other items are often in short supply on urban sites. each group are pests (see Chapter 1), which therefore
Furthermore, urban areas have patchy amounts of soil grab our attention. But the rest are performing import-
organic matter because fallen leaves and branches are ant functions in our urban soils. The chewing of litter
frequently removed (Benedikz et al., 2005). by many invertebrates results in their feces becoming a
The “carbon-to-nitrogen ratio” in organic mater- major component of clean rich black humus. By bur-
ial has sometimes been used as an indicator of rowing, the large invertebrates increase the porosity

110
 Life in the soil

Figure 4.8. Basic food web in soil. Each

group of organisms includes numerous
species whose feeding patterns vary
somewhat. Soil food webs in urban areas
are less studied, and may normally be
simpler with fewer groups present. 1 µm
= 0.001 millimeter; 1 mm = 0.1 centimeter
= 0.039 inch. Based mainly on Russell
(1961), Jackson and Raw (1966), Odum
(1971), Krebs (1972), Palmer and Fowler
(1975), Smith (1996), Odum and Barrett
(2005), Townsend et al. (2008).

of soil, whereas the tiny invertebrates mainly move areas, the nutrient content of soil affects vertebrates in
between soil particles without changing soil porosity. burrows. For example, in North America, the cotton-
tail (Sylvilagus) is larger and reproduces better in soils
Vertebrates with a pH >6 and rich in calcium and phosphorus,
Many mammals, reptiles and amphibians, plus a few characteristic of many urban soils (Crawford, 1950).
birds, live in burrows in the soil (fossorial species) Cottontails may be common in cemeteries without
(Bolen, 2000). In North America, kingfishers (Ceryle) dogs. Piles of rock or logs on the soil are prime habi-
nest in burrows along certain streams in urban regions. tats for chipmunks (Eutamias). Finally, various highly
Snakes often live in dry, somewhat sandy soils, various urban vertebrates, such as the raccoon (Procyon), thrive
toad and salamander species thrive in moist litter, and in the stormwater drainage system. Here they escape
many urban turtles and frogs live in wetter soils. dogs and cars yet readily emerge to feed on widespread
Small mammals in burrows include mice, voles, garbage and pet food in a city.
shrews, and moles, which may feed on roots, litter, or
large invertebrates such as earthworms (Figure 4.8). Large invertebrates
Soil texture is important to various burrowing animals Six groups of large invertebrates are widespread and
including gopher tortoises (Gopherus) in sand, wood- functionally quite important in urban soils (Figure 4.8)
chucks (Marmota) and red foxes (Vulpes) in sandy (Owen, 1991): (1) earthworms (annelids); (2) slugs and
loams, ground squirrel species in loams, and muskrats snails (mollusks); (3) beetles (coleops); (4) ants and
(Ondatra zibethica) in clayey soils. Some species, such termites; (5) millipedes and centipedes (diplopods,
as burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia) and cottontails chilopods); and (6) spiders (arachnids).
(Sylvilagus), generally colonize the former burrows of Earthworms, essentially limited to moderate-to-
other species. Burrows are particularly important in high pH soils such as in urban areas, overall may be
compacted soils. the most important animals in soils, as the early natu-
Some burrows dug by a large animal serve as a ralists, Gilbert White and Charles Darwin, pointed out
habitat for several other vertebrate species, a com- (Figures 4.7 and 4.8) (Russell, 1961; Jackson and Raw,
mon occurrence under shrubs in desert areas around 1966; Owen, 1991; Craul, 1992; Broll and Kaplin, 1995).
cities. Just as “mineral licks” rich in sodium, calcium, Earthworms burrow. They chew litter and drag it down
or magnesium salts attract diverse wildlife in remote into the burrows, thus mixing organic and inorganic

111
 Urban soil and chemicals

matter often far down in the soil profile. Earthworm Millipedes and centipedes, the elongated multi-
manure, composed of undigested organic matter plus legged soil animals, are particularly abundant in for-
some earthworm secretion, creates wormcasts. These ested soil (Russell, 1961; Owen, 1991; Craul, 1992).
tiny aggregations or lumps of soil particles may be quite Millipedes, with lots of paired legs, chew litter, an
abundant on the surface of an urban or natural soil, and important early step in the decomposition process.
are much higher in available P, Ca, Mg, K, and nitrate In contrast, centipedes, with fewer paired legs, move
than the soil beneath (Russell, 1961). Darwin took a faster and are predaceous mainly on other inverte-
special research interest in earthworms, including esti- brates in the soil.
mating the rate at which ancient buildings, pavements, Finally, spiders in the soil may form webs but mostly
and cinders were buried by wormcasts (Jackson and they forage through the organic layers of the soil as
Raw, 1966). Furthermore, earthworm burrows form predators on invertebrates (Owen, 1991). Various
large pores that aerate the soil and enhance soil-water other large invertebrate groups of importance bur-
drainage. Earthworms do poorly in acid soil, water-sat- row in soil, including pillbugs or woodlice (isopods)
urated soil, drought, or cold. A related group of worms, and bees and wasps (hymenops) (Russell, 1961; Owen,
the enchytrids, is often abundant in wet organic soils 1991; Wheater, 1999).
such as present in many sewage treatment facilities.
Slugs and snails commonly thrive in moist soil Tiny invertebrates
and a cool temperature (Figure 4.8) (Jackson and Raw, While numerous tiny invertebrates populate soil, two
1966; Owen, 1991; Craul, 1992). They are especially groups seem to be particularly abundant and import-
important in the decomposition of plant material, ant (Owen, 1991): (1) mites and springtails (acarines,
because the gut of these mollusks contains microor- collembolans); and (2) nematodes (roundworms).
ganisms producing an enzyme (cellulase) that breaks Mites and springtails often predominate in acid
down cellulose and related substances of plant cells. soils, where few or no large invertebrates are present,
Like the earthworms, the slugs and snails do poorly in and are present in prodigious numbers (Figures 4.7
acid soil. Also these mollusks increase soil porosity and and 4.8) (Russell, 1961; Craul, 1992; Broll and Keplin,
improve soil structure by creating aggregations of soil 1995). Springtails feed mainly on organic matter and
particles. Many of the mollusks are omnivorous, and fungi. They in turn are eaten by mites, beetles, centi-
some are predaceous, feeding on other large inverte- pedes, and spiders. Typically mites are oval and barely
brates in the soil. visible to the eye, whereas springtails are cylindrical
Beetles, including their juvenile worm-like grubs, and a few millimeters long. Mites primarily consume
increase soil aeration and water drainage by moving organic matter, though some are predaceous on nema-
through the soil (Russell, 1961; Owen, 1991). Many are todes, springtails, and insect eggs.
predaceous (carabids) on other soil invertebrates. Nematodes (Jackson and Raw, 1966) are micro-
Ants and termites, while evolutionarily unrelated, scopic, and in some soils are the most abundant of the
in some ways operate similarly (Figure 4.8). By typ- animals considered. Roundworms are best known as
ically nesting beneath the soil surface, they burrow, pests and parasites, as well as vectors for various plant
increase aeration, facilitate water drainage, and mix and animal diseases (see Chapter 1). However, the
organic matter with inorganic particles further down sheer abundance of nematodes suggests the important
(Craul, 1992). Numerous individuals can move a huge role they play in the decomposition of organic matter.
amount of soil material. Most ants are predaceous They are also major consumers of soil bacteria, and
(including eating termites), though some are herbiv- some are herbivores or predators. Rotifers, an unre-
orous or decomposers. Some ants (e.g., leaf-cutting lated group of microscopic animals, are also frequently
ants) and termites feed on fungi that decompose the abundant in soil.
organic matter carried below ground by the inverte- Finally, from knee height, gently push aside some
brates. Termites, mainly tropical and subtropical, may soil litter and look sharply. Then with fingers or a
construct large mounds. These soil animals, contain- scoop pick up some humus with black mineral soil
ing bacteria in their gut that produce enzymes effect- beneath, and gently spread it out. As Pulitzer-Prize
ive in breaking down wood, live near wood. In tropical winner E. O. Wilson pointed out: Strange and won-
urban areas, termite-infested crumbling wooden foun- derful and unknown organisms lie within meters of
dations, floors, and walls are familiar sights. where we sit.

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 Life in the soil

Urban soil chemicals 2. High pH (high alkalinity or low acidity) due to the
prevalence of calcium-carbonate-rich concrete
The soils beneath us in urban areas contain a cornu-
and mortar (natural limestone soils also have a
copia of chemicals, not just a long list, but spatially
high pH)
arranged and interrelated in intriguing ways. We abso-
3. Considerable leaf litter and wood transported off-
lutely depend on them for the trees, the gardens, the
site by people, wind and water
parks. Buildings and roads, and their longevity, depend
on the chemicals present. Waste disposal and treatment 4. Accumulated aerial deposits of diverse chemicals
and public health are affected by soil chemicals. Some from the concentration of industry, transportation,
of the chemicals are natural substances such as zinc and power generation, and buildings
chloride, while others are from the >100 000 artificial 5. Underground human structures, plus different
substances made by humans (Ellis and Mellor, 1995; types of fill often containing human objects/
Stengel et al., 2006; Sauerwein, 2011). Some are good artifacts
and others bad for us. Analogously, in ecology, some 6. Human applications of diverse chemicals and
improve or increase plant growth, microbial commu- materials on the surface
nities, aquatic ecosystems, and so forth, while others 7. Restricted aeration due largely to impervious
degrade or decrease them (Rowell, 1994). surfaces
In essence the diverse urban chemicals originate from To reveal our treasure chest of soil chemicals, we
four major sources (Sauerwein, 2011). (1) The geological explore four key aspects. First is an overview of the
substrate: Ca and carbonate (CO3) from limestone; silica main (1) types of chemicals present. This is followed by
(Si) from almost all other rocks as well as sand and gravel (2) underground human structures, rubble, and arti-
deposits. (2) Buried human-made materials: Si from facts, (3) contaminated soils and organic wastes, and
sand and gravel fill; Ca and Mg from rubble fill; sulfur (4) chemical flows.
(S) in dredged fill from bottom of water bodies (van
Bohemen, 2005); natural carbon compounds and N, P, Types of chemicals
Ca, and Mg from added topsoil; existing built structures
and foundations; former structures and foundations; Inorganic elements
CH4, H2S and CO2 from a dump (tip); and numerous Nutrients. Eighteen chemical elements are consid-
inorganic and organic compounds from human-made ered to be “essential” for living organisms (Craul,
artifacts. (3) Atmospheric inputs: SO2 and NOx from 1992; Lambers et al., 1998; Smith, 1996; Schulze et al.,
acid precipitation; heavy metals from dust particulates 2005). Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) are
and aerosols; heavy metals and hydrocarbons near the big three. These are the components of carbohy-
roads; Ca and carbonate from cement factories; diverse drates produced by plant photosynthesis, which are
chemicals from industrial areas; and hydrocarbons from then converted into many other organic molecule
some urban trees. (4) Human surface applications: Na forms. Animals and we thus mainly eat the big three,
and Cl in road salt; organic and inorganic pesticides in C, H, O.
lawn and vegetation management; Ca and carbonate in Six other chemicals called “mineral nutrients,” or
runoff from buildings; heavy metals and hydrocarbons simply nutrients, are present in plants and animals in
in stormwater runoff; carbon compounds, N, P and K in relatively large amounts: nitrogen (N), a component of
leaf litter and humus applications; carbon compounds all amino acids and proteins; phosphorus (P), import-
in wood compost; carbon compounds, N, P and heavy ant for energy conversion within cells and for plant
metals in sludge from human wastewater treatment. growth; potassium (K), between cells and important
Natural soils beyond the urban area seem decidedly in carbohydrate metabolism; calcium (Ca), in bone,
impoverished, though nature works smoothly with its teeth, and plant cell walls; magnesium (Mg), in the
chemical subset. Agricultural soils for crop production chlorophyll molecule and important in enzyme reac-
have a different subset. Perhaps seven characteristics best tions; and sulfur (S), in proteins. These six elements (N,
highlight urban, in contrast to natural, soil chemistry: P, K, Ca, Mg, S) are called macro-nutrients, since they
1. Widespread soil compaction and its effects on are needed in abundance and, together with C, H, O,
drainage, aeration, chemistry, microbes, animals, compose 99+% of living tissue (Figure 4.9) (Ricklefs
and plants and Miller, 2000).

113
 Urban soil and chemicals

Nine other mineral nutrients are required at low N, P, K, and Mg are frequently inadequate for good
levels (grams or kilograms per hectare, or ounces or street-tree growth. Common chemical fertilizers are
pounds per acre of vegetation) for life, compared with various amounts of N, P, and K. In acid soils, available
100–1000 times that amount for macro-nutrients. P, Ca, and Mg are in limited supply.
These micro-nutrients (trace elements) are: sodium These nutrients are absorbed by organisms as
(Na); chlorine (Cl); iron (Fe); boron (B); manganese “available” ions in solution in the soil. The macro-
(Mn); zinc (Zn); copper (Cu); cobalt (Co); and molyb- nutrient ions (Craul, 1992) are nitrogen (NH4+, NO2−,
denum (Mo) (Figure 4.9). Almost all urban soils con- and NO3−); phosphorus (H2PO4−); potassium (K+); cal-
tain sufficient amounts of these nutrients, though cium (Ca2+); magnesium (Mg2+); sodium (Na+); and
sometimes a nutrient is unavailable, that is, cannot be sulfur (SO42− and S2-).
absorbed by organisms. For instance, at a high pH most Heavy metals. The term heavy metals usually refers
of the Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn present cannot be absorbed to a set of 12 mainly “heavyweight” chemical elements:
by roots (Lambers et al., 1998). Warm dry soils often manganese, zinc, copper, cobalt, molybdenum alumi-
provide ample Ca, Na, K, and H for plant growth, while num (Al), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr),
cool moist soils may additionally provide Mg and Al mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb) (Figure 4.9).
(Craul, 1992). Sandstone-derived soil has more H, The first five heavy metals listed are essential micro-
while limestone-derived soil is higher in Ca and Mg. nutrients (Co, Cu, Mn, Mo, Zn), but the other seven are
Silica (Si) is especially abundant in plants. not required for the growth of organisms.
In contrast, the six macro-nutrients, especially N Heavy metals originate from rock material, but
and P, are often in limited supply in soil. For example, increase enormously in concentration in the soil due

Figure 4.9. Soil chemicals and

organisms relative to soil pH. Width of
bars refers to the relative amount of
nutrients available for absorption by
plant roots (upper and middle portions),
or to the relative abundance of soil
organisms (lower portion). T = termites; L
= litter earthworms; S = soil earthworms;
F = ants (Formicidae); B = beetles; P =
protozoa; E = enchytrid worms; A = mites
(Acarina); C = springtails (Collembola);
N = nematode worms; I = isopods; M
= millipedes/centipedes; D =fly larvae
(Diptera). pH (measuring acidity or
alkalinity) represents concentration of
hydrogen ions; each pH unit = 10 times
the next lower unit. Based mainly on
Craul (1992), Lavelle et al. (1995), Lambers
et al. (1998), Edwards (2004), Schulze et al.
(2005).

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 Urban soil chemicals

to industrial, transportation, and other human proc- soils, but which is highly alkaline, causing high-pH
esses (Craul, 1992; Wessolek, 2008). Lead is often at problems. Calcium-magnesium-acetate (CMA), an
high levels in soil near buildings with lead paint, and by organic salt that readily breaks down, is being studied
roads where lead-containing gasoline is used (Evans, as a de-icer for roads. Sodium and magnesium sulfates
2000). All the heavy metals are persistent in the soil, react with minerals in concrete, so that adding water
that is, highly resistant to being washed out by rain- causes expansion and crumbling of concrete structures
water (Sieghardt et al., 2005). (Hallmark, 2000).
Just as for the micro-nutrients, if a heavy metal
element is in a salt or particulate form, it is unavail- Organic substances
able for organisms. But when available in solution, Pesticides are widely used in urban areas to target cer-
high levels of heavy metals become toxic to organisms, tain groups of organisms: herbicides for unwanted
inhibiting or killing them. For Co, Cu, and Zn, avail- plants; fungicides for fungi, especially the pests on
ability (and toxicity) increases with low pH (Figure 4.9) plants; insecticides for many types of insects; and
[acid conditions usually associated with low organic other less-used chemicals including rodenticides
matter, low clay content, and low fertility (e.g., cat- (for rodents), nematocides (for nematodes), and aca-
ion exchange capacity)] (Craul, 1992; Lambers et al., ricides (for mites). While obviously a diverse group
1998). Molybdenum is more available at high pH. In of chemicals, pesticides last a few days to years and
contrast, low levels of heavy metals are tolerated by can accumulate to high levels in soil (Sieghardt et al.,
organisms, which may absorb the elements (e.g., Cr, 2005). In addition to being lethal for their target
Ni). Some heavy metals, including Cd, Cu, and Zn, bio- organisms, pesticides inhibit or kill many microbes
accumulate, that is, in passing through the food chain and other soil animals. In some cases the by-prod-
they become more concentrated and typically toxic ucts of pesticide breakdown are more toxic than the
(Sieghardt et al., 2005). Other contaminants are pre- pesticide.
sent in soils, such as asbestos near many demolition Although pesticides are widely used in agricul-
sites (Evans et al., 2000). ture, about a quarter of their use in the USA is in urban
De-icing salt. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the main areas (Mizell and Hagen, 2000). Much of this is indoors
salt used in cold climates for reducing ice and snow for cockroaches and termites, though considerable
along roads, parking lots, and walkways (Craul, 1992; amounts are used outdoors for pests on lawns and
Forman et al., 2003). Some 20–60% of the salt applied ornamental plants. In warm moist climates, insecti-
to certain German roads was carried by airflow and cides are widely used for mosquitoes, midges, and flies,
deposited 2 to 40 m from the road, sometimes further as both pests and public health threats.
(Sieghardt et al., 2005). In water, Na and Cl readily sep- Many pesticides used in urban areas accumulate in
arate as ions and are highly mobile. They then perme- soils (Craul, 1992). Once applied, the chemical may:
ate the soil, are absorbed by plant roots, or reach the vaporize into the air; be adsorbed onto (especially
groundwater where Na and Cl persist and accumulate. small) soil particles; be washed to lower soil levels or
In the presence of NaCl the pH rises. Several groundwater; be decomposed by soil microbes or
nutrients, including Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and Co, decrease chemical processes; or be adsorbed on plant surfaces.
(also N, P, Ca, Mg depending on how high the pH is) Most pesticide applications kill target organisms and
(Craul, 1992; Lambers et al., 1998). The pH rises, which various related species. However, the repeated fumiga-
decreases the availability of most heavy metals and thus tion of soils can be lethal to most soil organisms.
their potentially toxic effects. Street trees are especially Hydrocarbons, as long chains of H, C, and a few
subject to and inhibited by high NaCl levels. Most tree O atoms, particularly result from the use and incom-
species grow poorly or die, though some are tolerant of plete combustion of petroleum products. Polycyclic
the salt. Marine aerosols carrying salt into coastal cities aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely produced
accentuate the problem. by vehicles and in industrial processes (Forman et al.,
Presently the primary alternative is calcium chlor- 2003; Sieghardt et al., 2005; Wessolek, 2008). Certain
ide (CaCl2), a less persistent salt. Better still, Ca causes trees produce airborne hydrocarbons in abundance
less degradation of soil chemical and physical prop- (see Chapter 8). PAHs often accumulate along road-
erties than does Na (Sieghardt et al., 2005). KCl pro- sides, near tar and asphalt sites, and in contaminated
vides potassium, which is sometimes deficient in urban rubble. Mono-aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene

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 Urban soil and chemicals

and toluene, emanate from crude oil and various pet- (c) aromatic compounds (e.g., benzene, toluene, naph-
roleum products. thalene); and (d) phenols. Many other substances could
Other organic chemicals of enormous and little be added to these lists.
known variety, especially from industry and transpor-
tation, end up in urban soils (Evans et al., 2000; Forman
et al., 2003). Polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs), methyl Underground human structures,
tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE, an additive to gasoline that
readily pollutes groundwater), fatty acids, and alcohols
rubble, and artifacts
are among the small percentage of organic products Throughout human prehistory and history whole com-
studied for, and known to have, environmental effects. munities have been buried. Middle Eastern cities now
Some inputs to urban soils are gradual and often dis- lie beneath mounds called tells, and lost villages have
persed in air, land and water. Others are concentrated been discovered across Britain. The buried materials in
accidental spills or purposeful dumping, typically with such sites are magnets for archaeologists.
acute ecological effects. Underground structures are composed of materi-
als resistant to compression by weight above, to water
Gases in soil penetration, and to chemical degradation related to
Leaks of methane (CH4) from major gas pipelines, plus pH, water, and anaerobic conditions. Such materials of
the thousands of kilometers of small distribution pipes course are diverse, but masonry and metals predom-
to buildings, strongly inhibit many roots, microbes inate. Corrosion of their surfaces liberates chemicals
and animals in the soil. Considerable methane and into the soil, facilitating or inhibiting the growth of soil
CO2 also result from the anaerobic decomposition of microbes, animals, and roots.
organic materials in major, as well as numerous tiny, Most important, however, to understanding urban
buried dumps around a city. In some urban areas dump soils are the materials and chemicals in fill (Craul,
methane is captured for energy use. Not surprisingly, 1992; Evans, 2000). Major solid-waste dumps are con-
anaerobic decomposition of the diverse components sidered in Chapter 12. Here the focus is on persistent
buried in dumps produces several gases, including car- materials, not organic materials such as paper prod-
bon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydro- ucts, cardboard, clothing, food garbage, leather, and
gen cyanide (HCN), ammonia (NH3), ethane, ethylene, brush piles that decompose rather rapidly. A cornu-
and propylene (Craul, 1992). Toxic to many organisms, copia of chemicals is added to urban soil from vehi-
these gases surely have diverse and significant eco- cles, road dust, and other sources (Spirn, 1984; Breuste
logical ramifications. et al., 1998; Forman et al., 2003; van Bohemen, 2005).
Radon (a product of radioactive decay of uranium) Also, although mining wastes are prominent in some
is widely dispersed in certain rocks and sediments, and cities such as Johannesburg and various Pennsylvania
is liberated into the soil as a radioactive gas (Craul, (USA) cities (Kovar, 2004; Berger, 2006), mining is not
1992; Nielson and Rogers, 2000). Although it is inert a characteristic urban phenomenon.
with a half-life of a few days, it causes human lung can- Several categories of human materials and artifacts
cer, and doubtless kills or inhibits soil animals and (human-made objects) in fill are readily recognized:
other organisms. 1. Rubble with cement: masonry, mortar, bricks,
At high levels almost any chemical is toxic to organ- building stones, chunks of concrete, iron
isms. Different species – microbes, soil invertebrates, reinforcing rods
wildlife, humans, plants – -are inhibited at different 2. Other building materials: lumber, nails, roofing
concentrations. Widespread substances hazardous to (tiles, slate, asphalt shingles), pipes (of Fe, Pb, Cu,
humans in cities include (Nielson and Rogers, 2000; Al), iron and steel structural supports
Sieghardt et al., 2005; Sauerwein, 2011): (1) arsenic, 3. Road and railroad debris: chunks of tarmac/asphalt,
cadmium, lead, zinc, nickel and copper; (2) chlorine concrete chunks, diverse iron structures, railroad-
chemicals (e.g., PCB, DDT, and volatile chlorinated bed cinders
hydrocarbons); and (3) radioactivity (e.g., radon, 4. Industrial waste products: exceedingly diverse
radionuclides). materials depending on the industries; furnace
More local but potentially hazardous substances ash, slag, cinders (also from coal-fired power
include: (a) chromium, cobalt, uranium; (b) cyanide; facilities)

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 Urban soil chemicals

5. Domestic/home refuse/trash: long-lasting human- 4597 ppm. Phosphorus (32 ppm), K (198), and Mg
made objects/artifacts, including metal cans, (233 ppm) levels were also usually high, largely reflect-
ceramics/pottery, diverse plastic objects, and glass ing their abundance in the clay used for making bricks.
(the most persistent artifact) Although cinders, furnace ash, sulfur from gypsum
plaster, and other materials may locally lower soil pH,
Dispersed artifacts, such as items lost or tossed away,
a widespread high pH in urban areas is characteristic,
are concentrated in fill, but have a similar composition
due to water running over masonry and concrete struc-
to domestic refuse. For example, the soils around multi-
tures. The de-icing salt NaCl in cold climates, as well as
unit housing for military families in New Hampshire
irrigation with Ca-rich water in hot climates, tends to
(USA) contained the following dispersed human-made
raise the pH. Distinctive urban plants survive or thrive
objects (Evans et al., 2000):
at a high pH.
1. Housing used for ca. 40 years (1950s–90s). Topsoil
(down to an average 18 cm): pieces of plastic, wire,
paper, brick, pantyhose, clothes pin. Subsurface
Contaminated soils and organic wastes
soil (18–60 cm depth): toy block pieces, wood, Contaminated soils
nails, pottery, brick, woven material, cigarette filter. Chemically contaminated soils, here called brownfields,
2. Housing used for ca. 20 years (1970s–90s): Topsoil: are usually difficult to deal with for several reasons: (a)
toy car, piece of pottery. Subsoil: Styrofoam, plastic a continuing input of chemicals; (b) the diversity of
tape, paper, ribbon. chemicals present; (c) the relative immobility of many
The chemical inputs to soil may be more diverse chemicals; (d) types and amounts of chemicals at differ-
than the structures, materials, and artifacts (Craul, ent soil depths; and (e) the paucity of microorganisms,
1992). Cement-based materials give off Ca, CO3 (car- soil animals, and plant roots able to survive, indeed
bonate) ions, Mg, and heavy metals. Corrosion of iron thrive, in the toxic chemicals (Craul, 1992; Hollander
provides the nutrient Fe in a form available to organ- et al., 2011). Contaminated soil may be removed and
isms. Readily decomposable plastics often liberate deposited at another site (Sieghardt et al., 2005). Or
toxic chemical by-products, including gases, that are uncontaminated soil can be added over the site at a
toxic to many roots and other organisms. thickness greater than roots penetrate.
For example, in an analysis of some rubble in Alternatively, one might try “bioremediation,” a
Berlin (Blume, 1982; Craul, 1992), particles <2 mm soil treatment or cleaning process to stabilize, mobilize,
in diameter (sand-size and smaller) composed 60% extract, and/or volatilize the chemicals. For example,
by weight of the material. Ten percent of these small if poplars could thrive in the contaminated soil, they
particles were calcium carbonate (CaCO3), but sig- could extract certain chemicals from the soil. Or cer-
nificant amounts of boron, copper, manganese, and tain microbes, if tolerant, could stimulate the uptake
zinc were present. Large particles of rubble were 22% or breakdown of certain chemicals. The poplars would
bricks, 12% mortar, 1% slag, a trace of coal, and 3% arti- have to be harvested and deposited on another site. A
ficial products. Mortar, artificial products, and the tiny key limitation to the effectiveness of bioremediation is
particles contained most of the CaCO3. Artificial prod- to find a mechanism where the rate of removal is suf-
ucts contained the greatest amounts of boron (B), cop- ficient to rapidly remove the chemical accumulation
per (Cu), and zinc (Zn), and second most manganese (plus ongoing inputs) (see Chapter 12). For many soil
(Mn) (Figure 4.9). Slag was high in Mn, and coal in Zn. contaminants, regulatory standards have been estab-
Bricks and mortar both contained relatively low levels lished to help in the evaluation of contaminated land,
of the four heavy metals (glass contains considerable B as well as for human health (Craul, 1992; Maconachie,
and sometimes Pb). The sand-sized particles, predom- 2007).
inantly from mortar, can aggregate with clay to form a In Rosario, Argentina, livestock manure, crop resi-
relatively impermeable concrete-like material (Gilbert, dues, and municipal organic waste were mixed to fer-
1991), which supports few plants and soil organisms. tilize peri-urban soils. This fertilizer resulted in few
An analysis of rubble soils from several building earthworms and a high concentration of heavy metals.
sites in Britain found an average pH of 7.0 (Figure 4.9), In an extensive study at Kano, Nigeria, water from an
with very low levels of total nitrogen averaging 0.6% industrial area dominated by tanneries and textile mills
(Gilbert, 1991). Calcium levels were high, averaging was piped untreated into a stream used for irrigation of

117
 Urban soil and chemicals

a peri-urban agricultural area (Binns and Maconachie, Chemical analyses of each type are important to
2006; Maconachie, 2007). Forty soil measurements determine whether levels are safe for water supplies,
were made in the farmland (2 samples × 20 sites; aver- food, and various ecological processes. Decomposed
age pH 8.1, Mg 12.1 mg/l, and Ca 13.9 mg/l). For the leaf litter is least likely to have toxic-level chemicals
heavy metals, Hg, Cr, Pb, and Cd, 40% of the measure- (Kidder, 2000). Sewage sludge often has high levels
ments exceeded recommended permissible levels for of heavy metals (Evans, 2000; Sieghardt et al., 2005).
industrial use and for irrigation. Almost all measure- Composted solid waste doubtless varies the most
ments for Fe, Mn, Co, Cu, and Ni exceed permissible in types and levels of toxic chemicals because of the
levels. The farmers knew of the toxic contaminants but diverse materials included.
apparently considered water and crop production to be
more important. Chemical flows
Soils around heavy-industry areas may be illustrated Four major sources of chemicals in urban soils pre-
by two sites on the southern coast of South Korea domi- dominate: (1) minerals in the geological substrate (e.g.,
nated by chemical, including petrochemical, industries, silica [SiO2], calcium carbonate[ CaCO3]); (2) water
which give off high levels of sulfur dioxide pollution flows, especially in floods (e.g., phosphate, nitrate);
(Lee and Cho, 2008b). Soil pH averaged a very low 4.25. (3) atmosphere (e.g., dust in dry deposition, sulfur in
Organic matter was 11% and total nitrogen a low 0.7%. acid rain); and (4) humans (e.g., hydrocarbons from
Phosphorus in the soils averaged only 19 ppm, K 100, transportation, organo-chlorides from manufactured
Ca 148, and Mg 39, while Al averaged 462 ppm. products, heavy metals from solid waste, ammonium
The varied levels of soil chemicals in the preceding and phosphate from human wastewater). Some chem-
examples are indicative but may not be representative. ical inputs are spatially limited, concentrated, short-
Certainly variability from city to city and site to site term, and may affect any soil layer (Pouyat et al., 2007;
must be high. In short, chemically contaminated soils Sauerwein, 2011). Other inputs are relatively diffuse,
are hazardous for food production and other uses, and extensive, low-concentration, and continuous, mainly
difficult to clean up. affecting the upper portion of soil.
The concentration of diverse chemicals from these
Organic wastes and recycling sources in urban areas is striking because they disappear
Massive amounts of organic waste are produced in cit- so slowly (Blume, 2009; Sauerwein, 2011). Cities are
ies, and interest in its recycling grows. The big three worsening mounds of toxic chemicals. Some organic
are: yard waste (leaf litter, brush, and wood); solid waste chemicals are decomposed by microbes in a few days,
(often collected by municipalities, organic compo-
nents include paper products, food, and plastic); and
human waste (typically in wastewater of sewage and
septic systems) (Kidder, 2000). These organic matters
can be composted for a period, thus stimulating partial
decomposition by aerobic bacteria, and then applied
on the soil surface. Humus from yard waste is com-
monly spread onto gardens. Recycled solid waste is
used in some urban agriculture, though heavy metals
are often a problem (Maconachie, 2007).
Untreated or partially treated human waste is com-
monly inserted directly into the ground in holes, com-
post toilets, cesspools, and septic systems (Figure 4.10).
The soil often provides some organic-matter decom-
position, though often considerable organic matter is
carried into a local water body. “Sludge” (biosolids)
from partial wastewater treatment may serve as a fer- Figure 4.10. Erosion and line of wet soil in road of informal
tilizer on certain lawns, golf courses, and athletic fields, squatter settlement. Soil erosion due to both water and wind.
The wet soil line during a dry period usually indicates community
if the spores of pathogenic organisms have been thor- drainage of sewage wastewater. Favela on west edge of Rio de
oughly killed. Janeiro. R. Forman photo.

118
 Urban soil chemicals

but most persist, even for years. Some substances such soils outside the city, the amount is likely to change,
as nitrates and chlorides are readily leached downward even rapidly and drastically. Urban soils, ecosystems
by rainwater to groundwater and surface water bodies. and sites with small size and rapid chemical flow-
But heavy metals usually leach very slowly. Removal of throughs are likely to be fluctuating rather than equi-
contaminated soil and attempts at bioremediation of librium places.
sites are basically expensive and local. Thus, day by day
chemicals accumulate in cities and towns, poisoning The urban underground
organisms and us. To sense the richness of structure underground we
The law of conservation of matter indicates that sequentially explore: (1) structures and their distribu-
chemical elements can neither be created nor destroyed, tion; (2) organisms and habitats; and (3) networks and
just combined in different forms. Biogeochemical their forms.
cycles, such as the familiar water cycle, have built on
this to highlight the movement of chemical elements
and substances from component to component within
Underground structures and
a system (see Chapter 3) (Kaye et al., 2006). Mineral their distribution
nutrient cycles, such as for carbon, phosphorus, nitro- Imagine living in a big city for a period, absorbing the
gen, and sulfur, focus on nutrients flowing, especially sights and sounds and aromas on sidewalks and streets,
cycling from soil to organism to soil to organism and as well as in all kinds of buildings throughout the city.
so on (Craul, 1992; Carreiro, 2008). However, concen- Familiarity and understanding, even an embryonic
trated heavy metals as in many urban sites may inter- sense of place, develops. But suddenly someone says,
rupt nutrient flows (Gilbert, 1991). Cycles may also “You barely scratched the surface … half the action
involve the soil or atmosphere. lies underfoot.” Indeed, just climbing down a few feet
For a particular urban ecosystem such as a park or through a manhole opens up an entirely new world,
woods, chemicals cycle within the system, but also flow like the first time peering through a microscope or the
one way through it as a chemical flow-through (Forman, first snorkeling on a coral reef.
1995). The flows are commonly driven by wind and Initially our impression underground is of dark-
water, such as N, Ca, or Zn arriving by air and being ness, moist air, a slightly unappealing aroma, silence
washed out by water to another ecosystem. People and except perhaps for distant trickling water, and maybe
wind and water combine to accelerate the inputs, flows, helplessness or fear with few familiar cues. Yet soon
and outputs. Thus, urban areas normally have high curiosity creeps in. A frontier found by few lies at your
rates of aerial deposition of chemicals, wind turbu- fingertips.
lence among buildings and other structures, extensive Some objects or structures are small and may be
impermeable surfaces, extensive pipe systems, moving numerous, relatively easy to find on a treasure hunt.
vehicles depositing and resuspending chemicals, and Manholes, entrances/exits, ladders, gates, stairs, eleva-
large numbers of people seemingly walking every- tors, light wells and air vents are part of getting around.
where spreading chemicals. Chemical flow-throughs Basements of buildings, wine cellars, nightclubs/enter-
predominate in urban soils, sites, and ecosystems. tainment spots, and rest rooms often contain people
These vectors and massive horizontal flows operate (Figure 4.11). Less familiar are building foundations,
across the urban fine-scale mosaic. As discussed earlier former pipes and foundations, pumps, flow-control
in the chapter, urban soils differ at the scale of meters, equipment, sewer cleaning/flushing apparatus, leak-
tens of meters, occasionally hundreds of meters across, ing pipes, pockets of dangerous gas, and scarcely
rather than often being an order of magnitude (10 known black holes. These are just the small things in
times) or more greater as in natural and agricultural abundance.
soils. Similarly, sites and distinct ecosystems tend to be Some large structures or objects loom under-
much smaller in built areas. ground but are few in number and may require more
In effect, the large rapid flows of chemicals through searching. Subway stations (as in Beijing, Berlin,
small soils and sites means that typically an atom or Baltimore), train station (s) for suburban commuter
chemical is “here today, gone tomorrow.” In addition, rail (San Diego, London, Tokyo) and inter-city trains
the total amount of a chemical on site may remain rela- (Barcelona, Washington, Osaka), bus terminals (New
tively constant, but, relative to agricultural and natural York), and carpark garages (Boston, Madrid, Paris)

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 Urban soil and chemicals

Figure 4.11. Underground structures at

different levels in a city. Based mainly on
the extensive, diverse, and longstanding
underground in Paris (Clement and
Thomas, 2001). Lower: inter-city train,
stormwater, electric power system,
subway. Middle: wastewater, stormwater,
subway, garage, quarried spaces. Upper:
garage, basement, elevator, wastewater,
stormwater, telephone cable system,
clean water supply, heating/cooling pipe
system, natural gas, walkway shopping
arcade.

are the key underground transportation spots. People But water-related networks are also the big story.
are attracted to underground shopping nodes or cent- Many types include: piped former streams (all moist-
ers (Toronto, Chicago), office buildings (Kansas City, climate cities); underground aqueduct (Paris); clean
USA), storage warehouses (Kansas City), light indus- water-supply (main) pipe system (all cities); hot-water
try (Kansas City), military facilities (Bagdad, London; heating pipes (London, many Chinese cities), storm-
Stafford, 1999), and even a vault with France’s gold water drainage system (all cities); and wastewater sew-
reserves (Paris; Shea, 2011). Here too are less-famil- age system (all cities). Heavy rainstorms above ground
iar large structures, such as a water reservoir (Paris; can send walls of onrushing water through stormwa-
Clement and Thomas, 2001; Shea, 2011), flooded ter pipes and tunnels. Many cities entirely or partially
quarries (Paris), collapsed rock piles with rubble combine two dissimilar flows, stormwater and human
from former above-ground buildings (Paris), flower- sewage, into a single pipe system (e.g., a 1340 km length
growing spaces (Paris), and fungus-growing spaces in Barcelona).
(Paris). Even catacombs (ossuaries) store the bones of Important underground networks for people
former residents dug from overcrowded cemeteries, as include pedestrian walkways (Chicago, Montreal,
in Rome, or in Paris (where bones of 6 million former Toronto), tourist historical routes (Seattle and San
residents are stored) (Clement and Thomas, 2001). Antonio, USA), and quarry tunnels (Kansas City, USA,
Much easier to find underground are the diverse and 290 km in Paris). Other key networks are gas lines
intertwined networks, each another frontier inviting (many cities), electrical conduits (most cities), tele-
exploration. Transportation creates most of the large- communication cables (many cities), and pneumatic
tunnel networks (Figure 4.11), including the subway tubes (Paris).
(e.g., dense systems in Tokyo and New York), suburban Fortunately, these explorations of the city are made
commuter rail (San Francisco, Moscow), inter-city rail- slightly easier because of the vertical distribution or
ways (many large cities), multi-lane highways (Boston, layering of structures (Clement and Thomas, 2001;
Madrid), and streets (Kansas City, USA, and Leipzig, Shea, 2011). Objects and networks may be roughly
Germany; Fritsch, 1896). grouped into three layers that are logical though also

120
 The urban underground

complicated by historical development and urban portions. Some tend to be loners who relish the free-
growth (Figure 4.11). The upper layer just beneath the dom of nightclub parties, drugs, and artistic expression
city’s streets and greenspaces may contain basements in murals, while others may be serious speleologists
of buildings, parking garages, electricity conduits, (cavers), scuba divers, mappers, and so forth (adven-
gas lines, telephone or telecommunications cables, turers in New York). Also usually in low density are the
small water-supply pipes to buildings, small hot-water “homeless,” who may appreciate freedom but addition-
heating pipes to buildings, stormwater drainage pipes ally welcome convenient shelter, especially during cold
going diagonally downward from street to a small con- or wet times above.
nector pipe, and human sewage pipes going diagonally More familiar are the regular travelers on subways
downward from basements to collector pipes (Cano- and trains, shoppers in pedestrian tunnels, business
Hurtado and Canto-Perello, 1999). people going to and from work, and some of the many
A middle layer often contains more parking-garage key maintenance personnel who keep the underground
space, a subway system, pedestrian walkways, shops, city working (Fulford, 1995; Belanger, 2007; Brick,
some little-used quarry space, clean water-supply 2009). Specialized underground activities such as mili-
(main) pipes, large hot-water heating pipes, medium- tary uses, wine aging, fungus growing, and storage of
size stormwater-drainage collector pipes, and large valuables of course widen the range of people valuing
human-sewage collector pipes (Figure 4.11). At a still underground resources.
deeper level may be more tunnels of the subway sys- People bring down food, carry dirt, microbes,
tem, tunnels containing high-voltage electrical con- spores, insects and human diseases, and transmit path-
duits, a large stormwater-drainage collector tunnel, ogens to rest rooms. Human food and diverse types of
and perhaps a large human-sewage collector tunnel. If solid waste attract rats and mice and more. In effect, the
an inter-city railway system is underground, it is often urban underground has a permanent, abundant and
at the bottom level. rich input of organisms from above. Conversely, these
Plenty of features facilitate flows and movements organisms endlessly move upward into our streets and
up or down among the layers. Air and light pene- buildings.
trate in vertical shafts. Ladders and stairs are used by Microbes. Greenish algae are often present in
people. Stormwater flows diagonally downward, and moist tunnels around continuous lights. Many types
the heavier more-viscous sewage wastewater does too. of bacteria, from decomposers of organic material
All the pipe systems leak from time to time and loca- to pathogens in sewage, are present on all substrates.
tion to location. Leaking gas, oil, gasoline, clean water, Fungi may also thrive, especially in more-acid loca-
stormwater, and wastewater-sewage move downward tions. Sometimes edible mushrooms are commercially
by gravity. The ever-aging complex of objects and grown underground. Protozoa, the single-cell animals,
network systems enmeshed in soil and water below feed on essentially all types of microbes.
ground promise lots of interactions, mostly negative, Invertebrates. Lights attract moths (Lepidoptera),
between systems. For instance, riding most subway flies (Diptera), and other winged organisms. Thus,
systems normally highlights the abundance of leaks in sometimes spider webs and spiders are present around
the “waterproofed” tunnels. Occasional blockages and lights. Cockroaches/cucarachas (Blattidae) and other
explosions disrupt the endless seemingly silent flows in scavenging invertebrates mainly feed on garbage and
underground systems. dead organic matter. Representatives of the rather dis-
tinctive fauna characteristic of caves may be present
Organisms and habitats in the anthropogenic underground. In the ground-
With a dense and diverse human population only water, usually meters or tens of meters below the
meters away, the underground activities of people are urban ground surface, is a still stranger or less-familiar
exceedingly diverse. Perhaps most interesting are the hyporheic fauna (see Figure 6.4). These distinctive
“free-spirit” people (catophiles in Paris) who simply micro- and macro-invertebrate forms are densest just
love the freedom present underground, an escape from below the water-table (top of groundwater) and where
the regimentation needed for a high population dens- chemical pollutants are not excessive.
ity above ground (Shea, 2011). The free-spirits roam Vertebrates. Manifold mice and rats (e.g., Rattus
widely through the networks, love discovery, and often norvegicus or R. rattus; Boada and Capdevila, 2000)
are the most knowledgeable about the little-explored thrive on garbage and dead organic matter both above

121
 Urban soil and chemicals

and below ground. Feral cats often forage and live on Network forms. Connected corridors in a network
the abundant mice and other foods below ground. function in several ways, especially as conduit for
Raccoons (Procyon) frequently live underground and movement along and as barrier or filter against move-
come up at night through stormwater drains to scav- ment across. Watertight underground corridors gen-
enge for food. Bats may have roosts underground and erally have negligible barrier effect, since subsurface
emerge at dusk to feed on flying insects in the air above water and groundwater in the soil and rock can simply
ground at night. These and other rodents and predators flow around and past such pipes and tunnels. However,
are common carriers of fleas, rabies, and other diseases if subsurface water in the soil encounters a leaky pipe
(Rossin et al., 2004). In addition, many types of ver- or tunnel, the subsurface water flows into the corridor,
tebrates have been reported from under cities, though which then carries it elsewhere. Much more import-
populations often do not persist long term under- ant though is the conduit effect, where water, microbes,
ground. These include fat fish in a pond beneath the invertebrates, vertebrates, and people are transported
old opera house in Paris (Shea, 2011); anguila (Anguilla within pipes and tunnels.
anguilla) in Barcelona (Boada and Capdevila, 2000); Network form is thus central to movement pat-
and alligators in various North American cities. terns. Three indices of network form provide the big
picture (see equations, Appendix B) (Forman, 1995):
(1) connectivity (measured by the gamma index) indi-
Network flows and forms cates how connected by corridors the network nodes
Material and objects moving. Water in the underground or intersections are; (2) circuitry (alpha index) meas-
soil, but outside of pipes and tunnels, is the most per- ures the relative abundance of loops in the network;
vasive flow. Some water infiltrates through the hard and (3) corridors per node (beta index) is the average
surfaces and greenspaces above to become subsurface number of corridors radiating from an intersection.
flow. Leaky pipes add to the amount. Subsurface water The direction, rate, route, and alternative routes avail-
flowing in the upper underground layer (Figure 4.11) able for movement are strongly determined by these
mainly goes horizontally but slightly downward to a three attributes. For example, attempts to eradicate a
nearby water body, or it may get deep enough to join pest animal in a location are relatively ineffective if the
the saturated-soil groundwater beneath. Flowing animal’s preferred network has many alternative routes
subsurface water normally carries a large number of available (high circuitry) to circumvent the eradication
microbes and invertebrates through the soil and into location.
network conduits. Groundwater in porous rock or But networks have many other attributes also affect-
sandy material flows very slowly, whereas groundwater ing flows and movements, as illustrated by the follow-
in limestone (or karst) rock usually flows rapidly. The ing networks:
deepest level of structures is commonly within the 1. Pedestrian walkways. Toronto has the world’s
groundwater, which in some cities encloses the mid- largest underground shopping complex, including
dle layer or even the upper layer (Figure 4.11). Pipes, 1200 stores (Fulford, 1995; Belanger, 2007). More
tunnels, small objects and large objects are typically than 30 km of underground shopping tunnels and
“waterproofed” so that subsurface water and ground- scattered retail shopping nodes/centers are also
water do not penetrate them. connected to above-ground resources, including
Moving people is the primary rationale and flow in 50 office buildings, 6 hotels, 2 department stores,
the underground pedestrian walkways, streets, high- several tourist destinations, and many public
ways, subway, suburban commuter rail, and inter-city transit stops. Overall the pedestrian tunnel
trains. Transported goods and waste materials, espe- network is rectilinear, roughly paralleling the
cially related to shops and storage, overall are minor. above-ground streets, and covers an area with
The transmission of electricity and telecommunica- a length-to-width ratio of about 1.5 to 1. The
tions occurs in pipes containing air. Natural gas, oil, underground network has a few main corridors or
and gasoline fill and flow in their own separate pipes. axes connected to underground shopping nodes,
Flows in pipes and tunnels for clean water-supply, hot- and contains numerous short spurs (no outlets, or
water heating, human sewage/wastewater, and storm- dead ends), “T” intersections, “+” intersections,
water runoff are all water-based, though both water jogs (zig-zags), and diagonals. Few curves, loops,
and air fill the conduits.

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 The urban underground

major shopping nodes, and disconnected small (Paris Sewer Museum). In addition to hearing
network sections are present. the occasional rumble of a subway, the double-
Less extensive but similar-form networks are clanking of a vehicle passing over a loose
present in Chicago, Montreal, and Calgary. The “manhole,” the soft splashing of water, or low
abundance of underground shops and people, voices, one quickly becomes accustomed to, and
plus an extensive corridor length, means that the largely forgets, the moist somewhat pungent air.
city center will long be plagued by diverse pests Intriguing history oozes from every direction:
that thrive with these conditions. Underground famous names on the tunnel “streets”; wartime
shopping nodes or centers easily walkable by a resistance activities right under the aboveground
dense population, with no parking spaces available offices of an occupying military force; Jean Valjean’s
or needed, is effectively an antidote to the suburban famous escape into the infamous sewer system
shopping mall. (in Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables), when soldiers
2. Quarried limestone tunnels. Limestone is soft easily crushed a band of citizens behind street barricades
harvested rock. The quarried spaces are rainless in the French Revolution.
and snowless, and, for cities with cold winters or Sewage wastewater is viscous, flows slowly by
hot summers, have pleasant constant temperatures gravity, and frequently experiences blockages in
(e.g., ca. 18°C or 65°F). A small-to-medium pipes. Flushing wastewater down kitchen and
sized city, Kansas City (Missouri, USA), has an bathroom drains, and of course toilets, sends the
underground quarry area with about 9.6 km (6 mi) liquid material rapidly down a vertical or steeply
of roads and 3.2 km of railroad. These corridors diagonal pipe to a more horizontal collector pipe
apparently connect 55 businesses, storage for many drains and toilets (Clement and Thomas,
warehouses, office space, and light industry. 2001; Shea, 2011). This primary collector goes to a
The quarried-tunnel network of Paris is composed larger and somewhat-deeper secondary-collector
of mostly straight corridors, some quite long pipe, and so on. Pumps are used periodically to
without intersections (Clement and Thomas, 2001; keep the fluid moving. In Paris these larger pipes
Shea, 2011). The long corridors connect areas lead to channels down the center of tunnels with
of dense short interconnected corridors. Many walkways along sides. The channels in turn lead to
diagonals are present so intersections have acute, a “river” of sewage, essentially filling the width of a
right, and obtuse angles. Large and medium-size tunnel several meters wide. The sewage river leads
enclosures are rectilinear in form, whereas small northwestward to a huge sewage treatment facility
and medium enclosures are typically in portions on the outskirts of the city. Before reaching that
with convoluted (squiggly) interconnected facility, sewage is full of pathogenic bacteria and
corridors. The overall area has a length: width ratio other microbes that are readily and widely dispersed
of 1:1. by workers, scurrying vertebrates and invertebrates,
3. Catacombs network. A 1-km-long portion of the leaking and flowing water, and air movement.
Paris quarry network with highly convoluted The network from first-collector-pipe to sewage
tunnels is lined with bones, sometimes neatly river is dendritic (tree-like), with virtually only
stacked, of some six million former residents acute angles at intersections. Infrequent spur
(Clement and Thomas, 2011; Shea, 2011). corridors are mainly for the varied equipment
Consideration of the number of people who lived used to clean or flush the pipes and tunnels
in a city over time, versus the space or number of (large wooden balls have been used for pipes,
markers in aboveground cemeteries, highlights a and a wide flat boat for the river sewage). Several
little-recognized but long-standing disconnect in characteristics are scarce in the sewage network:
older cities. In Paris the catacombs network has loops (which are accessed by pumps to avoid
numerous short spur tunnels plus many loops. A blockages); large open rooms or nodes; sharp
few large rooms are attached to the network. The curves; jogs (zig-zags); and narrows.
catacombs network in Rome is similar in form. 5. Distinctive characteristics of many other
4. Sewage wastewater network. A good way to underground networks stand out. (1) Subway
understand a city’s human sewage system is to networks commonly have loops and are attached
descend into the Musée des Égoutes de Paris to many subway-station nodes (at least two in

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 Urban soil and chemicals

Paris include delightful small tropical rainforests). the edge of streets, and lead to a nearby water body.
(2) An aqueduct is basically an unbranched Conversely, (7) hot-water heating networks begin
corridor leading to a reservoir in the city. (3) Piped at a power station and end in numerous small pipes
former streams are a single corridor, or with a typically in the basements of buildings.
few tributaries connecting at an acute angle. (4)
Paris is a large city and its underground has a long
An inter-city train network typically has a single
and rich history. Smaller and newer cities are likely to
station with railway tunnels leading outward in
have only portions of such a complex of networks. In
two or a few directions. (5) Electricity, telephone,
coastal cities the underground networks, and a city’s
gas, and clean-water-supply networks often have
dependence on them, are especially at risk from sea-
right angles. (6) Stormwater drainage networks
level rise associated with climate warming.
start with numerous small pipes (and drains) on

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 Part II Ecological features

Urban air
Chapter

5
… this most excellent canopy, the air, look you, this seeds. Trees produce leaves, flowers, pollen, fruits, and
brave o’erhanging firmament, this majestical roof seeds that attract insects, bats, and birds.
fretted with golden fire, why, it appears no other Yet trees also suffer from many of these same factors.
thing to me than a foul and pestilent congregation Trees grow poorly, and may die, with excess heat, wind,
of vapours. and shade from buildings. Trees wither from excess
William Shakespeare, The Tragical History of dust, SO2, aerial road salt, heavy metals, and other pol-
Hamlet Prince of Denmark, 1603 luting aerosols and gases. Some trees die from frost,
and excess light at night may stimulate growth that is
We all live downwind. sensitive to frost. Trees suffer from too much herbivory
Bumper sticker in USA, 1980s by insects, even excess bird droppings. Considering all
We all live downstream. these roles, trees will be key players in the urban air sec-
Environmentalist’s motto, quoted in The New tions ahead (also see Chapter 8).
Ecology of Nature, 2002 Human-built structures of seemingly infinite var-
iety also predominate in urban areas. To gain under-
We daily bathe in urban air. So does everything else standing in such a complex situation, we simplify by
in built areas. The nature of this air overwhelmingly developing models (and try to avoid false insights from
depends on microclimate and pollutants, which in turn oversimplification). In urban areas we recognize some
are strongly determined by the built environment. 15 distinct types of structures to model. Each is present
Consider the urban trees and other plants that by the hundreds or thousands across the urban area,
bathe continuously outdoors. Individual trees, tree and together the structures represent the bulk of the
lines and woods, plus mowed grass, low spontaneous area. Five groupings emphasize some common fea-
plant cover and ornamental plantings, are the prime tures present (Erell et al., 2011):
vegetation types found repeatedly across urban areas.
1. House lot, suburban block, city block: typically a
Individual shrubs are common, though shrubby areas
rectangular form, and building dominated
tend to be uncommon despite their ecological import-
2. Urban street “canyon,” suburban road,
ance (Forman, 2008).
highway segment, rail corridor section: linear
The roles of trees are exceptionally diverse and
transportation form separating two adjacent
important for urban air (Gartland, 2008). Trees cool
land uses
surfaces by shading, and cool the air by shading and
evapo-transpiring water. Trees may heat or cool the air 3. Shoreline section (by lake, estuary, sea), riverside
by creating or disrupting streamline, turbulent, and section: linear form by water body differentiated by
vortex wind patterns. Trees give off water molecules the adjacent land use
and may increase relative humidity. Trees, especially 4. Courtyard/patio, plaza/small greenspace, large
those with extensive leaf surfaces, catch airborne dust open greenspace: open vegetated patch surrounded
particles, often containing heavy metals (Spirn, 1984). by taller structures
Trees absorb the greenhouse gas, CO2 and other gases 5. Parking lot, roof, wall: a patch of hard
including SO2, NO2, and O3 (Forsyth and Musacchio, (“impervious”) surface
2005). Some trees emit quantities of hydrocarbons In the sections following in this chapter, urban air rela-
(major type of VOCs) (Gartland, 2008). Many trees tive to these apparently basic structures will be dis-
liberate lots of pollen, and some give off long-airborne cussed in varying detail.

125
 Urban air

Microclimate each with different climatic properties. Similarly, mid-

latitude cities vary from desert to wet forest to island
Two perspectives are particularly valuable here: (1) air
locations. Furthermore, human activities have created
in and out of cities; and (2) layers of air and the air-
regional-scale smog over Los Angeles, nitrogen diox-
dome.
ide (NO2) over Beijing, and dust over Mexico City. So,
consider the broad trends above as generalizations, but
Air in and out of cities expect each city, and each urban to non-urban radius,
to be quite distinctive (Brazel and Heisler, 2009).
Urban and non-urban air Energy, heat, airflow, and pollution are the big stor-
Some representative statistics provide insights into air ies of urban air. Before diving into these key subjects we
differences between urban and non-urban areas (for briefly consider atmospheric moisture.
cities of about 1 million population in mid-latitudes).
Moisture in the air
As a general comparison with nearby non-urban areas,
the microclimate of urban areas is characterized by Invisible moisture (or water vapor) from land and sea
the following (von Stulpnagel et al., 1990; Gilbert, is carried upward by wind into the colder atmosphere.
1991; Oke, 1997a; Hough, 2004; Sieghardt et al., 2005; The moisture condenses (releasing heat), often form-
Alberti, 2008): ing visible clouds of droplets. Liquid falls as rain. If the
temperature is below freezing, snow or ice form, and
1. Radiation: (a) much less UV radiation (25–90%
drop. Because cities are significant sources of pollu-
less); (b) less solar radiation (1–25%); (c) greater
tant particles that act as nuclei for moisture conden-
infrared radiation input (5–40%)
sation, rain especially falls on the downwind side of
2. Heat and temperature: (a) increased temperature
metro areas (Kuttler, 2008). Overall, the total amount
(1–3°C annual average, and up to 12°C at spots on
of water in the atmosphere is small, equivalent to about
occasions); (b) more (upward) heat flux (50%); (c)
2.5 cm (1 in) of water spread over the globe (Moran and
greater heat storage (+200%)
Morgan, 1994).
3. Moisture and water: (a) less evapo-transpiration Urban areas are typically covered by extensive hard
(+50%); (b) decreased humidity (summer impervious surface and limited vegetation cover, the
daytime); (c) more thunderstorms; (d) less snow opposite of surrounding natural and agricultural lands.
(some turns to rain); (e) more total precipitation, Thus, much of the urban rainwater rapidly drains away
especially on downwind side of city in ditches and pipes to water bodies. Hard surfaces
4. Airflows: (a) greater turbulence intensity (10–50%); such as walls and roads are normally wet and evaporate
(b) decreased windspeed (horizontal streamline) water molecules for only a short time (Rosenberg, 1974;
(5–30% at 10 m above ground surface); (c) altered Kuttler, 2008). Combined with limited plant cover, this
wind direction (1–10 degrees) means that little moisture is released to the atmosphere
5. Sky conditions: (a) reduced visibility; (b) more haze in the city (little evapo-transpiration). Excluding the
in and on downwind side of city; (c) more clouds precipitation and associated evaporation, the main
on downwind side of city; (d) more, less, or no sources of atmospheric moisture are localized: (1) vege-
difference in fog tation patches; (2) water bodies (e.g., ponds, rivers); (3)
In contrast, for air pollutants, differences between release from machinery combustion (e.g., industry,
urban and non-urban areas are usually much greater, domestic heating, vehicles); and (4) horizontal move-
even an order of magnitude or more (Spirn, 1984; ment (advection) from an adjoining source.
Gilbert, 1991; Marsh, 2010): (a) gases 5–25 times “Humidity” refers to the concentration of moisture
greater in urban areas; and (b) particulates and aero- or water vapor in the air (Rosenberg, 1974; Moran and
sols 10 times more. However, such differences can rise Morgan, 1994; Kuttler, 2008; Erell et al., 2011). Higher
or drop rapidly. humidity reduces the evaporation and transpiration
These broad comparative differences are useful of water molecules from surfaces. Relative humidity,
as a first step in understanding, yet variability is the in percent, is the moisture present compared with the
second big step. Note that the ranges given are rather amount present if the air were saturated (on the verge
large. Also, “non-urban areas” beyond a city may be of rain). Relative humidity is strongly affected by rain-
dusty cropland, extensive wetland, or mountainous, fall patterns, though in general urban air is relatively

126
 Microclimate

dry. Overall, urban daytime relative humidity may be roots. Dry air dries out soil, resulting in fewer microbes,
lower than that of the surroundings due to the extensive fewer soil animals, less decomposition, and less min-
hard surface and stormwater runoff, plus limited vege- eral-nutrient cycling. Molds are scarcer in dry urban
tation. Nighttime humidity may be higher because of air. On the other hand, in arid climes the surroundings
higher temperature (and less dew providing moisture) are typically dryer than the urban area that receives
in the urban area. Dew condensed on surfaces tends some irrigation.
to be limited in urban areas due to dry air (Rosenberg,
1974; Kuttler, 2008). Ventilating the city
In streets lined with high buildings (street canyons) Look at the air high overhead. Regional airflows or
and somewhat limited air movement, relative humid- winds, resulting from macroclimatic often regional
ity can be increased with well-watered plant cover such temperature differences on sea and land, carry heat,
as grass, flowers, and shrubs, as well as by trees (Erell pollutants, and airborne organisms into and out of
et al., 2011). Also pools, water channels, and fountains urban areas (Figure 5.1a). Clustered high buildings
increase the relative humidity. Most tree evapo-tran- force the horizontal layers of streamline airflow across
spiration liberates moisture in the upper canopy, where the land upward a bit. The structures also cause tur-
airflow tends to be greater. Tree shade cools and some- bulence, somewhat random flows with up-and-down
what reduces evapo-transpiration from plant cover or eddies. Turbulence (and vortex airflows) especially
pools beneath. separates pollutants, including heat and particles, from
Several interesting implications follow from these urban surfaces. Thus, regional winds tend to ventilate
moisture patterns. More urban air pollution, particu- and clean both urban surfaces and the air, always carry-
larly of particles, generally leads to more foggy days ing the pollutants to somewhere downwind.
(Kuttler, 2008). Low indoor humidity, as in winter- In most cities, the regional wind typically drops
heated buildings, is increased by many indoor plants at night, leaving still air. Since heat rises from urban
(Moran and Morgan, 1994; Kellert, 2005). Dry urban surfaces toward cold outer space, a modest amount of
air means a high evapo-transpiration rate for a plant, ventilation occurs naturally. Warm and polluted air
and consequently the need for more water for plant moves upward, thus pulling in some cooler air from

(a) (b) Figure 5.1. Airflows by city and hill.

(a) Arrows indicate streamline airflow.
(b) and (c) Warm air from city rises. (c)
Inversion layer of warm air, with cooler air
beneath, interrupts the normal upward
airflow from warm substrate to cold
upper atmosphere (troposphere).

(c)

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 Urban air

surrounding cropland, natural land, or water bodies – Temperature inversions (Figures 5.1a and 5.2) occur in
effectively a “breeze from the country” (which may the UBL. It also usually contains significant amounts
contain pollutants) (Figure 5.1b). of human-caused pollutants including heat. Small pro-
However, if nearby hillslopes or mountainsides are peller planes often fly just above the urban boundary
present, a stronger airflow, cool air drainage, takes place layer.
on still nights. Heavier cool air pours downward into the The bottom portion of the UBL is the urban canopy
city pushing out the lighter warm air. This can produce layer, a mix of streamline, turbulent, and vortex air-
a major cooling and cleaning of the urban air. Stuttgart flows determined by the heights of trees and buildings.
(Germany) is a particularly well known case, where Immediately above this is a “roughness UBL,” often
urban planning kept high-rise buildings out of valley with considerable turbulence and eddies containing
bottoms so that cool air drained efficiently throughout pollutants that have been removed from the urban can-
the city (Thurlow, 1983; Spirn, 1984; Hough, 2004). At opy layer.
no cost, this mechanism both cleans the air by remov- Above the roughness layer, a “surface UBL” is dom-
ing pollutants and reduces the urban heat effect by inated by regional streamline airflow (Figure 5.2). Here
cooling the city. Cool air drainage is especially effective the windspeed increases logarithmically with height
on slopes covered with vegetation (Forman, 2008). until reaching 100%, above which no drag effect due to
Under certain microclimatic conditions with no the urban area is present (Hough, 2004; Marsh, 2010;
regional wind, a layer of warm air forms a temperature Erell et al., 2011). The thicker urban canopy and rough-
inversion, and remains for a period above the urban ness layer of cities, compared with suburbs, creates a
area (Figure 5.1c). With this stationary warm layer, the greater drag on regional airflow, and thus a higher col-
natural upward ventilation of warm city air is inter- umn of reduced-speed streamline airflow above the
rupted. Thus, urban heat builds up beneath the inver- city. Horizontal streamline airflow dominates near
sion layer, gradually spreading outward, often heating ground level in large open areas, whereas turbulence
suburbs and beyond. Since there is no upward ventila- may predominate in most urban areas.
tion through the inversion layer, pollutants also pro- The layer of significant human-caused pollut-
gressively build up under the layer, resulting in poor ants – heat, particles, aerosols and gases – effectively
urban air quality. forms a dome or airdome of varying thickness over
Finally, a regional wind or storm blows the heat and an urban area (Balling et al., 2001; Hough, 2004; US
pollutants away. Residents then enjoy crystal clear air. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008b; Marsh,
2010; Erell et al., 2011). Somewhat like a giant amoeba
Layers of air and the air-dome in form (Figure 5.3), the thickest portions usually are
Analyzing the air above us reveals a number of different over the central business district and major industrial
layers. Outer space is characterized by the near absence or power-generation pollution sources. The thinnest
(extremely low density) of molecules (Figure 5.2). portions are typically over large greenspaces and water
The “stratosphere” contains an atmosphere of mol- bodies. In addition, the mosaic of urban and suburban/
ecules held by the Earth’s magnetic pull (Ahrens, 1991; peri-urban areas, and the building density within them,
Moran and Morgan, 1994). Small meteorites encoun- affects the form of the amoeboid urban airdome.
ter the friction of the molecules and burn up here. Several factors affect the buildup of dome height
Commercial airliners commonly fly in the jet stream at over a land use. Most important seem to be (1) surface
the bottom of the stratosphere. An ozone layer (ozone roughness, (2) aspect ratio, (3) percent vegetated area
shield) filters out most UV, X-ray, and gamma/beta/ (or impermeable area), and (4) source of particles, aer-
alpha radiation emitted by our Sun, thus protecting all osols, and gases (Alberti, 2008). Heat tends to be high-
organisms and us in the city. est in a center-city high-rise area and in high-density
Especially important for urban ecology is the urban-residential areas. Particles and chemical pol-
urban boundary layer (UBL) in the lowest 1000–2000 lutants are usually highest in industrial, cropland, and
m (3000–6000 ft) (Figure 5.2) (Oke, 1987; McPherson commercial areas. Combining the volume of air with
et al, 1994b; Gartland, 2008; Kuttler, 2008; Erell et al., elevated heat and material pollutants creates the form
2011). This is the lower portion of the “troposphere” of the dome.
(between stratosphere and surface) with reduced In the conceptual example illustrated (Figure 5.3),
windspeed due to friction from the Earth’s surface. peaks of the dome are over the center-city high-rise and

128
 Energy and radiation

Figure 5.2. Layers of air above the

land. Within a few hundred meters of
the ground surface, the windspeed of
regional streamlined airflow is reduced,
while turbulence (size of the circular
eddies) increases. 1 meter = 3.28 feet.
Based mainly on Ahrens (1991), Moran
and Morgan (1994), Kuttler (2008),
Gartland (2008), Marsh (2010), Erell et al.
(2011).

industrial areas. Dips in the dome are over the wooded center to urban park. These local horizontal airflows
parkland, institutional, and suburban-residential tend to smooth the dome thickness and surface.
areas. Cropland has its own flattish dome of heat and Temporally the dome changes daily, weekly, and
materials adjacent to the amoeboid urban airdome. In seasonally. A prolonged warm-air inversion with
the illustration, forest and water body have no over- ample mixing of polluted air beneath produces a rela-
head heat and pollutant buildup. tively smooth-topped dome. The more common case
The different thicknesses of the dome are most of heterogeneously distributed pollution sources and
pronounced in short-term still air such as at night. light regional airflows produces a variably thick dome.
A persistent warm-air inversion creates a relatively Strong regional winds change the dome from large and
smooth-topped dome of polluted air (Figure 5.1c) thick to nearly nothing.
(Geiger, 1965; Ahrens, 1991; Marsh, 2010). Light
regional winds tend to lower the dome and extend it
downwind into a plume. Strong winds may eliminate
Energy and radiation
the heat-and-pollutant dome altogether. Afterward,
with pollution emitted and relatively calm air, the Solar radiation
dome gradually reforms. Consider sitting by a campfire or in direct sun on a cool
Beneath the dome is a mosaic of warm and cool air day and feeling warmth on your face. Radiant energy
over different land uses (Figure 5.3). Since heat moves or radiation from the fire or sun has warmed you,
toward cool areas, local horizontal airflows occur over not heat from the air. Radiation moves through air as
land uses. Thus, air with pollutants moves, for instance, electromagnetic waves that, upon reaching an object,
from cropland to suburban residential, and from city simply release heat and warm it. Any radiant energy

129
 Urban air

Figure 5.3. Dome of heat and

pollutants over different land uses
of city and surroundings. General
heat and pollution levels indicated
by “thermometers”: very high; high;
medium; low; very low. For each land
use, estimates of roughness (R) (effective
terrain or surface roughness), aspect
ratio (A) [average height of the main
roughness elements (buildings, trees)
divided by their average spacing], and
percent hard surface (H) (buildings,
roads, etc.) are as follows (Alberti, 2008):
center city high-rise (R = 8; A > 2; H >
90%); medium density urban residential
(R = 7; A = 1.0; H = 80%); commercial (R =
5; A = 0.1; H = 85%); suburban residential
(R = 6; A = 0.4; H = 50%); industrial (R = 5;
A = 0.1; H = 85%); institutional (R = 5; A =
0.3; H < 50%); urban park (R = 5; A > 0.5; H
< 50%); cropland (R = 3; A > 0.05; H = 1%);
forest (R < 4; A > 0.05; H = 1%); water (R
= 2; A > 0.05; H = 0%). See Hough (2004),
Marsh (2010).

not absorbed (or transmitted through an object) is with simple trigonometry from the height of surround-
reflected directly away from the surface. ing structures and the horizontal distance from point
When solar radiation from the Sun hits a surface to structures (see equations, Appendix B) (Reifsnyder
such as a wall or the city perpendicularly, the solar and Lull, 1965; Erell et al., 2011). Common examples
angle is 90° and each square meter receives the max- are for a point in a street “canyon” with buildings on
imum amount of energy (Rosenberg, 1974; Marsh, opposite sides, a rectangular courtyard or patio with
2010). However, if the wall is tilted (solar angle <90°), building on all sides, a circular space, and an open park
the same amount of Sun’s radiation is spread over a or plaza with buildings on one side.
larger area so each square meter receives less energy. Solar radiation passing through outer space
Shading and shadows result from objects such as build- encounters the Earth’s atmosphere composed of water,
ings and trees intercepting radiation as the solar angle nitrogen, oxygen, ozone, carbon dioxide, and many
changes throughout the day (see equations, Appendix other molecules. Above urban areas we have added lots
B). Except in the overhead sun of a tropical city, these of pollutants. Solar radiation encountering the mol-
objects always produce shadows to the side, with the ecule-laden atmosphere is divided into three. Some
smallest shadows at midday. A row of street trees or energy is reflected outward. Some is absorbed by the
row of buildings produces a “corridor of shade,” which atmosphere. And some passes through the atmosphere
sharply reduces direct solar radiation to the ground to the urban surface beneath.
(Figure 5.4) (Emmanuel et al., 2007; Marsh, 2010). Solar radiation is composed of energy traveling in a
Such a shadow corridor may be unwelcome to a pedes- spectrum of wavelengths, from short to long. Each type
trian on a cold day, but quite welcome on a hot summer of molecule in the atmosphere effectively filters out a
afternoon. particular wavelength of incoming energy. For example,
The size of open areas exposed to the sky is a useful ozone (O3) filters out most of the very short ultraviolet
indicator of several microclimatic dimensions. Within wavelengths (<0.4 µm), whereas CO2 and H2O filter out
an open area, the sky view factor (or view factor) is the much of the very long infrared (IR) wavelengths (>0.7
exposed area visible from a point. An easy method µm) (Ahrens, 1991; Forman, 1995). We can only see in
to estimate the sky view factor is with a fish-eye lens the visible wavelengths (0.4–0.7 µm), which also drive
pointed upward. This is particularly valuable in areas plant photosynthesis.
with many trees that tend to have irregular boundaries An important change or threshold appears at a
and holes in their canopy. Alternatively, using geomet- wavelength of about 3 µm. Below that level short-wave
ric modeling, the sky view factor is readily calculated radiation is mainly the UV, visible, and near-infrared
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 Energy and radiation

solar and diffuse sky radiation. QF is the anthropogenic

heat added by human activities (such as heating, cool-
ing, and transportation). Those are the two inputs.
QH is the sensible heat (calories determining air
temperature that we feel). QE is the latent heat (energy
given off to the air by evapo-transpiration of water
molecules, mainly by plants). Those are outputs. QS is
net heat storage (gain or loss of accumulated heat from
an object). And QA is the net horizontal heat advec-
tion (transfer of heat to or from an adjacent, e.g., non-
urban, area).
The incoming all-wave radiation, Q*, is composed
of direct and diffuse solar energy. Direct solar radi-
Figure 5.4. A corridor of shade where transpiring trees cool street,
sidewalk, and wall. Tree roots receive oxygen from the air and water ation from the Sun predominates on clear dry days.
runoff from the sidewalk. Guatemala City. R. Forman photo. However, in urban areas a significant portion of the
solar radiation may be absorbed or “scattered” by
(0.7–3.0 µm). From from 3 to 25 (3 or 1000) µm is infra- water vapor, including clouds, and pollutants in the
red long-wave radiation. At 8–10 µm is an “atmospheric sky’s atmosphere. Energy radiating downward from
window,” where an abundance of IR is given off from this atmospheric scattering is called “sky radiation” or
the Earth’s surface and passes through the atmosphere diffuse radiation, an important component of the all-
to outer space. wave radiation reaching urban surfaces (see equations,
Appendix B) (Kuttler, 2008).
Solar and sky radiation energy encountering the
Surface energy balance of an area urban area is either reflected upward or absorbed within
In a broad sense, the incoming energy simply equals the system. The amount of incoming short-wave radi-
the outgoing energy plus any change (gain or loss) in ation (or solar irradiance) absorbed by the city is largely
the amount of energy stored in an urban area, a green- determined by the surfaces and three-dimensional pat-
space, or other object. Except over relatively long peri- terns of buildings, streets, and vegetated areas beneath
ods, energy input and energy output are not equal. In the urban canopy layer. The amount of incoming
bright sun, energy input is higher than the output, so long-wave energy (or atmospheric counter radiation)
energy in the form of heat builds up in the city. At night absorbed in an urban area depends mainly on air tem-
with little energy input, the built-up stored energy is perature and water vapor in the lower atmosphere.
almost all emitted as output to outer space. Arithmetic The surface reflection of energy is particularly
and ecology work together. important since in many cases people can have a major
The surface energy balance or budget of an urban effect on it. Reflection is largely determined by surface
area is basically determined by six energy flows, eas- characteristics and the combination of objects present.
ily understood (Rosenberg, 1974; Kuttler, 2008; The percent of incoming radiation reflected, or albedo,
Grimmond et al., 2010; Erell et al., 2011; Parlow, 2011). varies widely (Ahrens, 1991; Gartland, 2008; Dandou
This balance readily applies to an entire urban region et al., 2008; Marsh, 2010; Erell et al., 2011; Parlow,
and any piece within, such as commercial area, urban 2011):
park, city block, or tree (Njorge et al., 1999). For each 1. Built areas: (a) concrete, 25%; (b) asphalt (tarmac)
energy flow (or flux) we will indicate below key char- 13%; (c) overall urban area, 15%; (d) commercial
acteristics affecting it in urban areas. This provides city center, 14%; (e) area of buildings 12%
potentially useful ways to improve our urban air. 2. Vegetated areas: (a) mowed grass, 23%; (b) crops,
20%; (c) meadow, 15%; (d) deciduous forest,
Q * +QF = QH + QE + change in QS + change in QA

        16%; (e) coniferous forest, 12%; (f) tropical rain
Energy Energy Can be inputs or outputs
inputs outputs forest, 8%
3. Other surfaces: (a) fresh snow cover, 85%; (b) fresh
Q* is the net all-wave radiation (short- and long- white-painted surface, 80%; (c) rock quarry, 17%;
wave energy), the combination of incoming direct (d) airport, 10%; (e) surface water (e.g., lake), 7%

131
 Urban air

The percent figures given are general averages organisms, including the human population, is negli-
for comparative purposes. Considerable variation gible compared with solar-driven heat sources.
in albedo exists for most such features, especially for Transportation and heating or cooling buildings
bare soil, concrete, and areas of buildings. Cities in are the primary human sources of heat, and these vary
Europe and the USA are generally in the 15–20% range, enormously both in space and time (McElroy, 2010).
whereas some North African towns exceed 40% reflec- For example, office blocks in central business districts
tion (Erell et al., 2011). A high density of buildings and of cold-climate cities may give off more than 1000–1500
a uniformity in their height produce high albedos. watts/m2 of anthropogenic heat in winter. But in mild
Overall, light-colored smooth dry surfaces reflect the climates, such heat output is in the range of a few watts
most radiation. in suburbs to 25 watts/m2 in city center. Eight Australian
A wavelength shift is another key reason we separate and US cities had mid-day values from 7 to 62 watts/m2,
short- from long-wavelength radiation. When short- with summer averaging 18 watts/m2 less than in win-
and long-wave radiation encounters a structure, the ter (Erell et al., 2011). Even the relatively high-latitude
non-reflected energy is absorbed. The absorbed radi- cities of Vancouver (Canada), Fairbanks (USA), and
ant energy of both wavelengths is converted into heat Berlin (Germany) had average annual anthropogenic
in the structure. This heat, however, can only be emit- heat flows of 6–21 watts/m2, although the value for
ted from the structure’s surface as long-wavelength Moscow was much higher. Fossil-fuel energy use per
infrared energy, essentially heat. In effect, within the capita has generally risen in cities in recent decades,
structure the short-wavelength radiation absorbed has thus adding anthropogenic heat. Yet outward urban-
been shifted or converted to long-wavelength heat. Its ization sprawl has lowered average population density
emission to the air raises air temperature. in many metro areas, so the overall role of QF in the
The story is still more interesting because it leads to energy balance probably remains minimal.
the greenhouse effect. As mentioned above, long wave- The outputs in the surface energy model for urban
lengths tend to be filtered out by common atmospheric areas are equally interesting. Sensible heat (what organ-
gases such as H2O and CO2, even methane (CH4), N2O, isms feel and respond to), QH, flows from materials or
and ozone (O3). Airborne aerosols in relatively high structures to the air and raises air temperature. Within
concentration reflect some incoming solar radiation, the heterogeneous urban structure, heat flows by con-
typically <10%, skyward (Erell et al., 2011). vection from structures to the adjoining air. However,
In clear air over a city, the outgoing long wavelengths for a large urban area, air turbulence (in the surface UBL
of heat readily pass upward at night to outer space, thus above the city) carries most sensible heat skyward.
cooling the urban air temperature. But in dirty air with In contrast, latent heat, QE, (the energy required to
an accumulation of chemical pollutants, especially air- evaporate water from liquid to gaseous form), is effect-
borne particles, the emitted long waves do not readily ively given off to the air in the evapo-transpiration
pass through. Rather, much of this long-wave energy process (Rosenberg, 1974; Ahrens, 1991; Grimmond
is reflected, or absorbed and reradiated, downward by et al., 2010). Evaporation liberates water vapor from
the atmospheric accumulation. Consequently, urban non-living surfaces, such as soil, streets and roofs.
heat accumulates and temperatures rise. Transpiration gives off water molecules from the sur-
The pattern is quite comparable to that of a green- faces of living organisms such as plants, especially trees
house or glasshouse. Short and long-wavelength energy with so much leaf-surface area. Heat and wind, par-
enters, is absorbed by soil and plants, and then the ticularly horizontal streamline airflow, accelerate this
energy is reradiated upward as long-wavelength infra- upward pumping of water to the air (Kuttler, 2008).
red radiation, which cannot pass through the glass cov- The latent heat given off in the evapo-transpiration
ering. Therefore, heat builds up inside the greenhouse, process cools the surface of a roof, a leaf, or a suburb.
broiling or frying the plants. Latent heat energy essentially ends up in the molecules
Now consider the other energy flows in our urban of water vapor. Therefore, the evapo-transpiration pro-
area. Anthropogenic heat, QF, directly added by human cess does not heat the air or raise air temperature. Also,
activities in most cities is relatively low compared with unlike sensible heat, animals and people do not feel
the other heat sources resulting from solar radiation latent heat. Most importantly though, the cooling of
(Kuttler, 2008; Gartland, 2008; Erell et al., 2011; Parlow, a surface by evaporation or transpiration means that
2011). Indeed, the metabolic heat given off by living the cool surface radiates or emits less sensible heat.

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 Urban heat

With less heat given off, the adjoining air temperature In an urban area west of Tokyo, summer day-
is cooler. time maximum air temperatures (at 1.2 m above
Two heat flows, storage, QS, and advection, QA, can ground) averaged 32°C (90°F) (Asaeda and Ca, 1998).
either gain or lose energy. This contrasts with solar radi- Meanwhile the surface temperatures were 55°C for
ation and anthropogenic heat, which are only gains, asphalt and concrete, 40° for a mowed-grass area, and
and sensible and latent heat, which only remove heat. 38°C (127°F) for canopy foliage atop woods in a park.
Radiant energy absorbed by a structure such as a build- Therefore, much more heat would be radiated skyward
ing or city is stored therein. Energy storage, QS, depends at night from the impervious built surfaces than from
on the “thermal conductivity” and “heat capacity” of the vegetated surfaces. The lawn and tree-canopy sur-
a structure (Gartland, 2008; Erell et al., 2011; Parlow, faces differed little in temperature.
2011). Steel is highly conductive and can rapidly rise The relative size of the different heat flows in the
in temperature, and stone is also relatively high in both energy balance varies greatly from city to city and spot
characteristics. In contrast, wood is relatively low in to spot, as well as from day to night and summer to win-
both thermal conductivity and heat capacity. Expanded ter. Overall though, Q*, the radiant heat flow from the
polystyrene (e.g., Styrofoam) is extremely low in both, Sun and sky greatly exceeds any other peak mid-day
and thus very poor for storing heat. Typically in spring, flow (commonly reaching some 500 watts/m2) (Erell
or during the day, heat storage in the city is increasing, et al., 2011; Parlow, 2011. Sensible heat flow, QH, which
and in autumn or at night, storage decreases. determines air temperature (often reaching a peak of
Advection, QA, the horizontal flow of airborne 200–300 watts/m2) (see equations, Appendix B) tends
energy or material, results from temperature differ- to be somewhat larger than heat storage flow, QS, and
ences, such as between city and adjacent suburb, or latent heat flow, QE (some 150–200 watts/m2), in urban
buildings and a park. Incoming solar radiation varies areas. Anthropogenic heat flows, on the other hand typ-
rather little horizontally across an urban area, while ically only reach about 3–30 watts/m2, and advection
anthropogenic heat sources do vary spatially but the overall is probably often in the same range (Forman,
amount of heat is relatively small. Thus, the major hori- 1979b). These relative diurnal peak flows, however, only
zontal contrasts are normally in sensible and latent heat provide a partial picture. Based on the total amounts of
flows. These flows primarily reflect nearby differences energy flow over 24 hours, radiant heat flow, Q*, is by
in the amount of vegetation present. far the greatest factor determining the temperature and
On summer afternoons, advected heat flows from energy flows in a city, or a site within.
a warm built treeless area to a cooler wooded park.
Similarly, hot air moves from a large carpark to an
adjoining houselot with lawn. But late at night with Urban heat
cooled buildings and carpark, advected heat can flow Except in hot dry regions, almost always non-urban
in the opposite direction. Thus, like storage, advection areas are cooler than urban areas. The urban heat
can either add energy to or take energy away from an island refers to a built area with a higher air tempera-
urban area. ture than its surroundings (Landsberg, 1981; Klysik
Finally, upward long-wave radiation (or surface and Fortuniak, 1999; Mills, 2004; US Environmental
emission) is the primary microclimatic variable deter- Protection Agency, 2008b; Gartland, 2008; Erell et al.,
mining why non-urban areas are so different from urban 2011). This slightly odd but well-used term can be use-
spaces. Radiation emitted from a structure depends ful for ecological understanding, but often has a nega-
strongly on surface temperature (Stefan–Boltzmann tive implication because the heat may be uncomfortable
law or black-body effect). A warmer surface radiates for residents. The concept has ecological implications
energy toward a cooler surface. Standing by a cold wall such as less-cold nights and a longer growing season
(or an ice sculpture) means that body heat radiates to in cool climates, as well as human implications such as
the wall, and a person feels colder. In urban areas, the pollution-caused asthma and other airborne diseases
abundance of concrete, bricks, steel, and asphalt mate- (Endlicher et al., 2008).
rials that readily hold and conduct heat means that In today’s world fewer and fewer cities could be con-
daytime surface temperatures are higher than in non- sidered island-like. A megalopolis, such as the Tokyo-
urban areas. Consequently, built areas emit consider- Yokohama area, the connected big Dutch cities, and the
able long-wave-infrared energy, or heat, skyward. Boston-to-Washington area, shows a complex pattern

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 Urban air

of connected elevated temperature. Indeed, most cities

are connected with suburbs and nearby towns or other
cities. The amoeboid dome concept (Figure 5.3) may be
more useful and informative than the island metaphor.
Nevertheless, we start by highlighting the main
characteristics of urban heat islands or domes, and then
briefly explore their causes. Finally, the roles of trees
and greenspaces in affecting air temperature, both in
the city and its surroundings, are highlighted.

Characteristics of a “heat island”

The highest temperature or greatest heat intensity tends
Figure 5.5. Urban heat zones relative to the built area of London.
to be near the center, or just downwind, of the area of Land uses marked around the perimeter refer to generally short
elevated temperature. Heat intensity of the “island” usu- green wedges (white space) projecting into the built area (shaded).
ally refers to the air temperature difference between the Arrows indicate apparent major areas of outward urbanization,
1959–2000. Adapted from Spirn (1984), Marsh (2005), Forman (2008).
hottest location in the urban area and that in a “com-
parable” location in the non-urban surroundings. The
second location poses measurement problems because The hottest spot is near the center of London with
the surroundings usually are quite heterogeneous, and a heat intensity of 6.7°C (12°F) (Figure 5.5). Green
comparable or extreme locations require interpret- wedges of this city project inward and built lobes pro-
ation. Still, North American cities typically have higher ject outward. The heat contours follow these coves and
heat intensities than European cities of the same popu- lobes rather well, though the temperature lines are less
lation, for several reasons related to the causes of heat convoluted. Green wedges are typically dominated by
islands (von Stulpnagel et al., 1990; Erell et al., 2011). woods, golf courses, and/or rivers. The steepest tem-
Urban heat islands with isopleths or lines of equal perature gradient occurs where the Thames green-
temperature have been mapped for numerous cities, space wedge reaches closest to the core nearly all-built
including Mexico City (Erell et al., 2011), Washington, area. Major green wedges and green corridors slicing
D.C. (Moran and Morgan, 1994; Marsh, 2010), Regina, through a city probably noticeably ventilate the city,
Canada (Marsh, 2010), Seoul, Korea (Lee et al., 2008), reducing buildup of hot air and pollution.
Tokyo, Japan (Gartland, 2008), Berlin, Germany (von Also, in the last century London established a wide
Stulpnagel et al., 1990), and Grenada, Spain (Gartland, delineated greenbelt around itself, so in fact today’s city
2008). In North America, cities in temperate broadleaf is an “island” of elevated heat. The outer boundary of
and mixed forest have the most pronounced summer mapped development corresponds rather closely with
urban heat islands (Imhoff et al., 2010). Nevertheless, the inner greenbelt boundary.
a recent review of 190 heat-island studies reported As cities expand outward, both the heat island area
methodological problems in most of them, and coun- and the maximum air temperature within it increase
seled caution in interpreting results (Stewart, 2011). (Gartland, 2008). The heat-island intensity seems to
Nineteen high-quality studies were cited, however. increase with diameter of metro area (Wong, 2009;
London is a particularly informative example Imhoff et al., 2010). But the heat intensity may decrease
(Figure 5.5) (Spirn, 1984; Marsh, 2005). Apparently or increase, perhaps largely based on changes in the
the first description of a heat island was made by a local surrounding non-urban areas.
climatologist, Luke Howard, in 1818 (Gartland, 2008; The heat island is most pronounced or intense in
Parlow, 2011; Erell et al., 2011). Similar descriptions large areas dominated by impervious surfaces (roofs,
followed for European cities from 1855 onward and streets, sidewalks), and least intense in large areas
for US cities from 1953 on. In two centuries, London dominated by vegetated greenspace. But note that the
has densified and also expanded to become a megacity. spatial correlation is rough or general according to the
Built lobes that have recently grown outward (Forman, patterns in Figure 5.5. The temperature at a given loca-
2008) presumably are also lobe-like fingers of heat pro- tion largely relates to urban conditions close-by, rather
jecting outward. than to distance from a non-urban boundary.

134
 Urban heat

Surface temperatures of human structures show a (Landsberg, 1981; Mills, 2004). Heat islands also form
clear heat-island effect, with higher daytime tempera- in non-urban areas such as a large sandy shrubland sur-
ture differences between urban and non-urban, and rounded by moist forest (Moran and Morgan, 1994).
small differences at night (Erell et al., 2011). In con- Before examining the causes of urban heat, consider
trast, the air temperatures at about the average height briefly some of its ecological effects (von Stulpnagel
of buildings in the urban canopy layer show the heat et al., 1990; Gilbert, 1991; Kaye et al., 2006; Parmesan,
island to be marked on still nights, but with little urban 2006; Alberti, 2008). The growing season (and frost-
versus non-urban effect by day. For large cities at least, free season) for plants is longer, and especially extends
a heat island effect is present upward to about 1000 further into autumn. The phenology of plants, includ-
(to 2000) meters in the urban boundary layer (UBL) ing earlier blooming and later leaf drop, is changed.
by day, but only hundreds of meters or less at night Bird nesting and migration differ in timing. Many other
(Figure 5.2). Thus, although urban surfaces are warmer natural rhythms are altered by the added urban heat.
by day than at night, people feel air temperature (sens-
ible heat). Overall at night, air is warmer in the city than Causes of urban heat
in surrounding non-urban areas. But by day, generally To understand urban heat differences we examine (1)
the temperature difference is small. energy flows, and (2) surfaces and structures.
The urban heat island of elevated air temperature is
normally present year round, winter and summer, and Energy flows
is most evident in calm clear air. In North American Numerous factors affect the intensity of a city’s heat
cities the average urban heat island amplitude is 1.3°C island, and their cumulative effects are reflected in basic
in winter and 4.3°C in summer (Imhoff et al., 2010). physical processes of energy flow. The difference in the
Still, in some cases the heat island is more pronounced surface energy balance, introduced above, of the urban
in winter than in summer (Gartland, 2008). Light and adjacent non-urban areas is central (Gartland,
regional wind blows the urban air dome into a tempor- 2008; Erell et al., 2011; Parlow, 2011).
ary plume downwind. Stronger wind eliminates the In late afternoon and early evening, air temperature
high urban-boundary-layer pattern, and minimizes begins to decrease in both city and rural areas. However,
the lower urban-canopy-layer pattern (Figure 5.2). with considerable stored heat being emitted from sur-
Nevertheless, island-like elevated daytime surface faces in the city, rural cooling takes place faster. That
temperatures may remain. creates a larger city-rural difference in air tempera-
The considerable upward moving heat over urban ture. A more intensive heat island is formed at night,
areas at night also contributes to the formation of tem- a nocturnal heat island, usually most pronounced a
perature inversions (Gartland, 2008). Unlike warm- few hours after sunset (Oke, 1981; Erell et al., 2011).
layer inversions at fairly low altitudes in rural areas, Note that if the rural area has humid overcast condi-
urban heat inversions are commonly up near the top tions, rural cooling is much less, and therefore the
of the urban boundary layer. The bottom of an urban urban heat-island intensity is less. Shortly after sunrise
temperature inversion is often about 100–300 m high the process is reversed, as the non-urban area heats up
(Ahrens, 1991), and below it the air tends to be well faster than the urban. Consequently, the daytime urban
mixed (Figure 5.1c). heat island is less intensive or non-existent.
In hot arid areas, although city air temperature These broad patterns are affected by geography,
is extremely high, the urban heat island is less pro- weather, season, and so forth. But most important are
nounced (Brazel et al., 2009; Imhoff et al., 2010; Erell how the characteristics of the local urban surface area
et al., 2011). This is because the temperature of the non- affect the variables in the surface energy balance: the
urban may be similar to or even higher than that of the inputs of net radiation and anthropogenic energy; the
urban. In subtropical cities, the temperature-difference outputs of sensible and latent energy; and the changes
intensity is less than in temperate zones (Roth, 2007). in energy storage and advection.
Also the tropical/subtropical heat island effect may be Incoming net radiation, Q*, is typically lower in the
more evident in the wet season than in the dry season. city than outside due to polluted air, and of course at
Larger cities on average have greater heat island inten- night no net radiation arrives at either place (see equa-
sities than do smaller cities (Oke, 1973). Small towns tions, Appendix B). Anthropogenic (human contrib-
form urban heat islands, though hamlets may not uted) heat inputs, QF, which overall are relatively small,

135
 Urban air

may be large in certain locations, such as high-density net radiation energy by day is readily stored in these
building areas. Such local heat sources could affect air materials, and the warmer their surface, relative to the
temperature contours within a heat island (Figure 5.5). night air above, the more they radiate heat to the air.
Especially at night in cool climates, heating systems Built structures using these impervious materials
give off sensible heat, QH, raising nocturnal heat-island create urban surface forms that are also important in
conditions somewhat. Sensible heat, especially from affecting the intensity of a heat island. A higher build-
heated surfaces, is given off to the outer atmosphere ing density (for buildings of similar form and height)
day and night, in and out of the city. increases the albedo or reflected energy, and therefore
Evaporative cooling in summer by air condition- has less energy absorption and storage. Lower build-
ing systems cools built structures, and gives off latent ing densities tend to have more vegetation, especially
heat, QE, which does not raise air temperature. In both tree cover, which absorbs more energy and gives off
city and surroundings, latent heat is mainly given off in more latent heat. A second major factor is the convo-
daytime when most plant evapo-transpiration occurs. lutedness or roughness of the urban surface (within the
However, latent heat does not raise air temperature. urban canopy layer). This relates to the variability in
Horizontally moving advected heat, QA, can be building form, height, and density; the relationship of
important locally, but normally has little effect on the streets and buildings; the distribution of greenspaces,
heat island intensity. If anything, advection would and so forth.
reduce the urban–rural temperature difference by One measure, the average “street canyon” height-
warming areas downwind of the city. to-width ratio (or sky view factor) separating blocks of
Thus, except for the obvious day–night difference buildings is particularly useful. The heat island inten-
in incoming net radiation from Sun and sky, the other sity rises as the average height-to-width ratio (H:W)
four energy flows just discussed show relatively small increases (sky view decreases) in the urban area, though
urban-to-rural differences. However, energy storage, the relationship is curvilinear (Oke, 1981; Erell et al.,
QS, is a key to the heat island intensity (Parlow, 2011). 2011). A steep increase in urban versus non-urban
The mainly nocturnal heat island of higher air tem- temperature difference occurs as H:W increases up to
perature in city than in surroundings depends primar- 1.0–1.5, above which the heat island intensity increases
ily on heat radiated from built urban surfaces. That gradually. Thus, while the heat intensity is greatest in
stored energy, absorbed during the sunny day, heats center-city high-rise areas, it is especially sensitive to
the nighttime air in cities more than in rural areas, and road widths and building heights in the outer city and
dominates the urban heat-island effect. inner suburb areas.
Heat island intensity is decreased by many other
Surfaces and structures factors, including: (1) wet rural areas; (2) cloud cover
We focus on the differences in structures and surfaces and atmospheric moisture; (3) regional wind; and (4)
between non-urban and urban areas (Landsberg, 1981). onshore and offshore breezes of coastal cities. The
Non-urban areas usually have considerable vegetation interaction between global warming and the urban
cover and moisture in the soil. Therefore, evapo-tran- heat island is explored later in this chapter.
spiration and latent heat flows are much higher than A daytime “urban cool island” effect, whereby city
in the less vegetated city with little exposed moist soil. air is cooler than that of surrounding non-urban areas,
In the city, upward latent heat flow is typically small, has occasionally been highlighted (Erell et al., 2011).
and in non-urban areas considerable latent heat moves This results from high city albedo plus shading of
upward without warming the air. After rain, evapor- surfaces by built structures. Although the urban cool
ation from wet built structures briefly gives off latent island is normally a small and/or temporary tempera-
heat, which cools the surfaces of the structures but does ture difference, it may be important for cities in hot dry
not raise air temperature. climates. This cool-island effect differs from the famil-
Extensive impervious surfaces in urban areas (e.g., iar “oasis effect,” in hot arid land, where cooling largely
some 75–95% cover in cities and 20–75% in suburbs), results from shade and evapo-transpiration by vegeta-
compared with nearly none in many non-urban areas, tion on moist soil.
have major effects on the surface energy balance. Steel, Finally, the urban heat island and its heat intensity
concrete, asphalt (tarmac), and bricks-and-mortar are familiar as problems for the comfort and health of
readily absorb, conduct, store, and emit heat. Incoming urban residents. An alternative perspective is that high

136
 Urban heat

air temperature is simply a normal characteristic of cit-

ies, which are composed of concentrated buildings and
roads that absorb, store, and emit heat. Incorporation
of the considerable knowledge available on urban cli-
mate and heat into urban planning and design remains
surprisingly scarce, given the expected extensive pop-
ulations of cities ahead (Mills et al., 2010; Grimmond
et al., 2010).
The island metaphor or model, with its core heat-
intensity concept measured by subtracting two vari-
ables may be oversimplified and in need of a richer
paradigm or broader perspective. The basic processes
in the surface energy balance should serve well in such Figure 5.6. Air cooling relative to size of urban greenspace. In
a paradigm. Key factors may include (1) the connected West Berlin, the coolest temperature measured in a park or other
amoeboid dome; (2) non-urban areas being more het- greenspace is compared with the temperature in its surrounding
built area. Measurements at 2 m aboveground in midsummer (July
erogeneous and diverse than urban areas; (3) combin- 9, 1982) at 11:00 PM on a calm clear night. 1 hectare (ha) = 100 m ×
ing the cover and diversity of vegetation types; and (4) 100 m = 2.5 acres. Adapted from von Stulpnagel et al. (1990).
integrating other horizontal flows, especially water,
wildlife, and transportation. Building a model on such
road, parking lot, ballfield, wetland, pond, and so
major observable patterns and assays could provide
forth), and/or the shape, topography, and location of a
very useful understanding of heat around urban areas.
greenspace. Nevertheless, clearly larger parks cool the
air more than do smaller ones.
Greenspaces and impervious spaces An equally interesting question is how far outward,
and in which direction, a cooling effect extends from
Greenspaces a greenspace boundary into the surrounding built-up
In the urban canopy, vegetation with trees and built area. The cooling effect occurs in a “breeze from the
structures with impervious surfaces are the two pri- park” mainly in the hours after sunset, and is related
mary features of built areas. They also are the two prime to warm air rising from built areas surrounding a
determinants of urban heat buildup through energy greenspace.
flows (Klysik and Fortuniak, 1999; Grimmond et al., Measurements in the surroundings of five Berlin
2010). Here we separately consider the cumulative role greenspaces found cooling effects (significantly lower
of vegetated greenspaces and of built surfaces in affect- air temperature at 2 m) reaching 1500 m downwind,
ing air temperature across an urban area. and 500 m upwind, of medium-size greenspaces
The effect of the size of greenspaces is of obvious (Figure 5.7) (von Stulpnagel et al., 1990). Overall
interest. Does it matter temperature-wise whether cooling extended further from medium greenspaces
parks are large or small? A particularly interesting study (125–212 ha) than from small ones (18–36 ha), though
compared the air temperature in 42 Berlin greenspaces differences were not significant within size categories.
of different size versus the temperature in their built-up Cooling extended downwind on average 2 to 2.5 times
surroundings on a calm summer evening (Figure 5.6) further than upwind for both greenspace-size categor-
(von Stulpnagel et al., 1990). Small greenspaces <30 ha ies. The data also suggest that the cooling effect extends
were on average approximately 1°C cooler than their furthest upwind in calm conditions, whereas down-
surroundings. Medium-sized ones of about 30–500 ha wind cooling distances seem about the same in calm
averaged about 3°C cooler, and the four large urban conditions and moderate wind. With stronger winds,
greenspaces >500 ha were about 5°C cooler. Variability the cooling effect beyond a greenspace commonly dis-
in temperature was rather low among the small unbuilt appears, though in two cases it extended outward a
areas, as well as among the large ones. However, vari- considerable distance.
ability was high for the medium-size greenspaces, with These Berlin studies suggest a modeling approach
a range from 0.5 to 5.4°C. This high variability may be to estimate whether a single large greenspace or
due to different land uses included (e.g., lawn, woods, the same area subdivided into smaller greenspaces

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 Urban air

(a) cooling, respectively, in the same total area of medium

and small parks. In both modeled alternatives, the large
greenspace provides noticeably more overall cooling
(both by area and temperature) than do the smaller
parks of the same total area.
A more complete answer emerges by adding the
outward-extending cooling effect (Figure 5.7) to these
results. We assume a very rough average cooling dis-
tance of 300 m for a medium-size 100-ha greenspace,
and 200 m for a small 10-ha park. Although the average
temperature decrease surrounding the medium park
is greater than that around small parks, the total area
around small ones is considerably greater. Together
these patterns would probably narrow the difference in
(b)
cooling benefit based on within-park data, but the over-
all conclusion of greater total urban cooling by one large
rather than several small parks seems to remain valid.
The representativeness of these results awaits stud-
ies in other cities. Studies in Northern Europe on hot
summer days have found a 2–3°C cooling in “large”
parks, 1°C in 10+ ha parks, no significant cooling in
parks <1 ha (Kuttler, 1993), and cooling extending to
200–400 m in built-up areas downwind of large parks
(Tyrvainen et al., 2005). In San Francisco, cooling
extends some 2000 m downwind of the large 700-ha
Golden Gate Park, where winds are typically strong
(Schmid, 1975; Marsh, 2010). In Montreal, the more-
Figure 5.7. Distance a cooling effect extends outward from a typical 20-ha LaFontaine Park on a calm winter early-
greenspace. (a) Length of arrow = distance a lower temperature
was measured. (b) Horizontal bar indicates the range of cooling evening showed a downwind cooling of about 1250
distances (in meters) recorded outward from a greenspace. 0 = no m, and almost no upwind cooling (Schmid, 1975).
cooling detected outside greenspace. West Berlin; temperature In spring early-evening there, with calm-to-light
measurements at 2 m aboveground under varying weather
conditions. 1 hectare (ha) = 100 m × 100 m = 2.5 acres. Also see wind conditions, the approximate downwind cooling
Figure 5.6 caption. Adapted from von Stulpnagel et al. (1990). extended to 900 m, and upwind to 300 m. Interestingly,
the coolest spot in both cases was not in the park but
provides more overall cooling for an urban area. One about 450 and 100 m, respectively, downwind of the
might compare the total greenspace area cooled by one park boundary. This downwind “coolest-spot” pattern
1000-ha park versus ten 100-ha parks versus a hun- could be usefully factored into the simple modeling
dred 10-ha parks (Figure 5.6). We assume that parks just above to provide a yet more useful picture of cool-
are square, minimum temperature is in the park center, ing by urban parks.
and temperature isopleths are equidistant from center
to border. With this model, one large park has 1000 ha Impervious spaces
with an average cooling of 2°C, ten medium parks have In contrast to greenspaces, patches of impervious sur-
1000 ha averaging 1.25°C cooling, and a hundred small face such as roofs and parking lots tend to be small
parks have 1000 ha averaging 0.5°C cooling. and distributed in huge numbers across an urban area.
Alternatively, we may assume that, say, the cen- Even street and sidewalk segments (e.g., between inter-
tral 90% of the large park is 4°C cooler and its outer sections), while in linear form, mostly cover a limited
edge portion averages 2°C cooler, with the analogous area and are widespread. Airports, truck/lorry trans-
90%/10% areas of different temperature in the medium port-and-warehouse terminals, and wide highway/
and small parks. In this alternative, one large park has boulevard segments are large and few in number in an
1000 ha of 3.8°C cooling, compared with 2.4° and 1.0°C urban area.

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 Diverse airflows

As indicated above, albedo, the percent of incom- green roofs and green walls provide the first and third
ing net radiation reflected by a surface, is important temperature benefits.
because all non-reflected energy is absorbed by the So, shade the streets and sidewalks and parking lots
structures. There it is converted to heat, which is stored with trees (Gartland, 2008; Gaston, 2010; Grimmond
and then re-radiated, especially at night, accentuat- et al., 2010). Indeed, shade the roofs and walls of homes,
ing the heat island. Light-colored, dry, and smooth and of low-rise residential and commercial structures.
concrete surfaces reflect the most (Gartland, 2008; A well-placed street tree can shade a building wall in
Erell et al., 2011). White roofs and new concrete have addition to sidewalk and street. In choosing locations
high albedo and therefore contribute little to raising for trees, diurnal and seasonal solar angles and deter-
air temperature. Dark surfaces such as asphalt/tar- mining when surface energy absorption contributes
mac roads and tar-based roofs have low albedos, thus most to raising air temperature are critical. Choose tree
absorbing most incoming energy, which mainly ends species according to whether they will grow or wither,
up raising the city’s air temperature. As noted above, and whether they have a leafless period. Consider
moist surfaces such as water bodies, vegetation, and whether trees are located to increase or inhibit cool-
impervious surfaces after a rain, also have low albe- ing by winds, to be explored in the next section. An
dos. However, the latent heat given off in evaporation invisible factor is perhaps most important. Make sure
and transpiration from these moist surfaces does not that roots continue to have sufficient water to support
heat the air. the tree’s considerable evapo-transpiration (ET) in the
Two strategies are the key to ameliorating hot tem- face of incoming radiant and wind energy. To provide a
peratures in cities (Gartland, 2008): (1) orient and color major cooling effect for urban areas, during the day ET
surfaces to maximize upward reflection of incoming pumps a lot of water out of the ground.
radiation, and (2) increase vegetation, especially trees. Also plant cover on roofs and walls (see Chapter 10)
Paint roofs and walls white as in many Mediterranean greatly reduces their surface temperature. That means
towns and cities. Also use light-colored materials for much less heat radiated to the air. For instance, ivy cov-
roofing. On the sunny sides of buildings, use narrow ering a building may reduce the building surface tem-
downward slanting strips or shelves to reflect net radi- perature by 15°C (27°F), and air temperature 1 meter
ation upward, and shade the vertical surfaces between from the surface by up to 4°C (von Stulpnagel et al.,
strips. These urban surfaces cool by increasing evapor- 1990).
ation of rainwater on them (thus also reducing storm- Yet another approach to reduce urban heat buildup
water flooding below). New concrete on roads, parking remains largely untapped. As highlighted in Chapter 6,
lots, and sidewalks has a high albedo, but hydrocar- cities use impervious surfaces and pipes to get rid of
bons and other pollutants from transportation usually rainwater or stormwater as fast as possible, thus degrad-
quickly darken it. General urban particulate and aero- ing local water bodies and causing periodic floods.
sol pollution tends to darken roofs, walls, roads and Evaporation of water from those same surfaces reduces
sidewalks, and thus increase urban heat. heat radiation to the air. Couldn’t creative thinking and
The companion strategy of increasing urban vege- technology capitalize on the considerable rainwater
tation can also be used to minimize heat buildup in and built surfaces to produce combined solutions for
impervious urban materials, and the consequent air- the urban heat, stormwater, and water body problems?
temperature increase. A key is the arrangement or
juxtaposition of trees and other vegetation relative to Diverse airflows
the surfaces of built structures. A tree or tree canopy
Urban airflows are explored from four perspectives: (1)
over an impervious surface, such as street, parking lot
local breezes; (2) winds and windbreaks; (3) street can-
and sidewalk, provides triple benefit. (a) The tree pro-
yons; and (4) isolated buildings and trees.
vides shade, thus minimizing energy absorption by the
surface and consequent heat buildup. (b) The under-
side of the tree canopy absorbs energy radiated upward Local breezes
from the impervious surface (Ali-Toudert and Mayer, The upward flow of warm air from an urban area helps
2007). And (c) the foliage transpires water upward, thus to ventilate and clean urban air. The process also draws
“dissipating” the incoming radiant energy into latent in cooler air to replace the rising air, and several types
heat without raising air temperature. Plants covering of this cool air movement are important. We typically

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 Urban air

call them breezes, as the windspeed is relatively low. A upward against the upper layers of flowing air (Brandle
breeze from the country is cool air from a surrounding et al., 1988; Forman, 1995; Rampanelli et al., 2004).
rural or natural area moving inward through the urban At the hilltop, windspeed is commonly some 10–15%
area (Figure 5.1a). Similarly a breeze from the park is higher (due to the Venturi effect). Like wind passing
airflow from a relatively large greenspace into its sur- an airplane wing, streamline airflow is maintained on
rounding built areas. the upslope, top, and downslope of the gradual hill, or
Cool air drainage down a mountain or hillslope at a similarly contoured windbreak or town.
night results in part from the cool air upslope being If the hill has a steep slope on either upwind or
heavier than warm air downslope, and hence air moves downwind side, the streamline airflow separates from
downward by gravity (Figure 5.1b). Upward moving air the ground surface, creating a zone of turbulence com-
from a nearby heated city also draws this cooler moun- posed of seemingly chaotic “eddies,” typically with
tain air to the city. Vegetated slopes without develop- strong localized circular up-and-down motion. The
ment are particularly effective in generating cool air steep-slope hill is a bluff object that disrupts streamline
drainage. For this, the relative advantage of meadow or airflow, creating turbulence or a vortex. Turbulence
woodland on hillslopes and mountain slopes remains extends downwind from the hill until streamline air-
a subject of research (Forman, 2008). The cool air pri- flow is reestablished along the ground. A vortex, as
marily flows downward in gullies, valley bottoms, and the third basic type of airflow, is strong airflow rotat-
open strips between buildings or trees. The absence of ing in the form of a cylinder, such as a twister or tor-
high-rise buildings in these channels enhances ventila- nado. Vortices form by streamline wind flowing over
tion of the urban area. or around a long object such as a long wall or the edge
Onshore and offshore breezes occur in coastal areas of a tall building.
by the sea or a large lake. These breezes are seasonally Winds separate objects and energy from surfaces,
dependent and may occur by day or night. In spring such as dust from a construction site, butterflies from a
following the cold season, solar radiation warms the butterfly garden, heat from a wall, or hats from pedes-
land faster than the seawater. Warm air rising from trians. The items are deposited downwind. The abil-
the land then draws cool air from over the sea inland, ity to separate objects from a surface increases in the
creating an onshore breeze (Yoshikado, 1990). Heat ris- following order: (a) breeze (as described above), (b)
ing from urban surfaces by the coast accentuates the streamlines, (c) turbulence, and (d) vortex. Generally
onshore breeze. This cooling breeze typically extends people try to minimize turbulence and vortices.
a few kilometers (up to about 7 km) inland from the The minimum regional windspeed that eliminates
coastline. Conversely, in autumn following the hot sea- the urban heat island was calculated for several cities
son, the land surface cools more rapidly than the sea- (Schmid, 1975). For cities of 2 to 8 million people, the
water at night, so heat rising over the sea draws cool air heat island disappeared when wind reached 11–12 m/s
seaward, creating an offshore breeze. (ca. 25 mi/h). A 6–8 m/s wind did this in cities of 120
In essence, these breezes and air drainage are local 000 to 400 000, and a 3–5 m/s (7–11 mi/h) regional
processes. All result from stored energy being radiated wind eliminated the urban heat island of small cities
skyward, and several are strongly affected by the heat (33 000 to 50 000 population).
emitted at night from impermeable urban surfaces. A treeline, wooded strip, or stone wall acts as a wind-
These airflows contrast with winds generated by atmos- break to decrease streamline windspeed (Brandle et al.,
pheric temperature differences at the regional scale. 1988; Forman, 1995). Three simple variables mainly
determine the effectiveness and interesting wind pat-
terns around a windbreak (see equations, Appendix B).
Winds and windbreaks Assume that the windbreak is located in an extensive
Regional wind across the land may be visualized as mowed-grass or cropfield, and that wind direction is
flowing in horizontal layers in the urban boundary perpendicular to the windbreak. Streamline airflow
layer, with higher windspeeds aloft (Figure 5.2). In a is reduced and turbulence present both upwind and
large smooth open area, such as cropland or pasture- downwind of the windbreak. The distance of reduced
land in flat terrain, the air flows as streamlines. If stream- windspeed both upwind and downwind is proportional
lines encounter a hill with gentle slopes on both windy to windbreak height, H. Typically windspeed is reduced
and downwind sides, the lowest air layers are squeezed upwind some 3–6H (e.g., 6–12 m upwind of a 2-meter-

140
 Diverse airflows

high hedge, or 60–120 m upwind of a 20-meter-high If streamline wind above the roofs is in the same dir-
treeline). Just beyond the windbreak is a “quiet zone,” ection as the street, the air also flows along within the
with little streamline airflow, that extends a distance canyon without creating turbulence or vortices. On
of about 8H downwind. Beyond that is a “wake zone” the other hand, above-roof airflow crossing over the
of turbulence extending to 15–25H downwind of the street perpendicularly creates a secondary flow in the
windbreak before streamline airflow is reestablished. form of a horizontal rotating vortex within the can-
Windbreak porosity has a major effect on these air- yon (Figure 5.8). Streamline wind flowing diagonally
flows. Downwind of an impermeable wall or build- over a street also creates a horizontal canyon vortex.
ing or nearly impermeable woods, strong turbulence However, instead of airflow “rotating in place,” the air
is present, and relatively strong turbulence upwind as both rotates and flows along the street. Air with pollut-
well. In contrast, a porous treeline or hedgerow permits ants picked up along the canyon spills out at the end of
some streamline air to flow through the windbreak the street.
(bleed flow). This is sufficient to prevent or reduce tur- Wind crossing perpendicularly over a deep street
bulence both upwind and downwind. canyon, e.g., with H/W ≥ 2, creates complex secondary
In addition to windbreak height and porosity, loca- airflow patterns (Erell et al., 2011). The vortex formed
tion is the third key variable. Locating the windbreak beneath the roof level rotates in a cylinder as in a shal-
in an extensive open area produces the above wind low canyon, but this rotation may cause another vortex
patterns, but urban areas are mainly characterized by to form below it that rotates in the opposite direc-
numerous buildings and trees that create turbulence tion. Counter-rotating vortices can also be produced
and vortices. If the wind encountering a windbreak is in wider canyons (H/W < 1). The relative temperature
already slightly or strongly turbulent, the distance, H, of the three canyon surfaces, as well as the over-roof
in which wind patterns are affected both upwind and windspeed, strongly affects such airflow patterns.
downwind of the windbreak is reduced. In addition, if At city street intersections, wind moving along one
wind encounters a windbreak at an angle rather than street reaches the corner of a building and forms a ver-
perpendicularly, H is reduced, and the windbreak is tical vortex in the end portion of the intersecting street
less effective in reducing windspeed (Erell et al., 2011). canyon (Figure 5.8). However, windspeed is lowest at
street level and higher above, so the complex vortex
and turbulent airflows present may be simply viewed
Street canyons as a “street-corner eddy.”
The idea of a valley or canyon with flat bottom and These generalized airflow patterns provide the
vertical sides has been used to help understand the framework for understanding wind in urban areas
microclimate of a street lined with buildings on both with street canyons. Variability in the heights and con-
sides (Oke, 1981; Erell et al., 2011). Consider a street tinuity of buildings creates turbulence at the above-
canyon with a height-to-width ratio (aspect ratio) of 1. roof level, and this turbulence disrupts the geometric

Figure 5.8. Air flows in street canyons.

Decreasing W, or increasing H, tends to
decrease or eliminate the canyon vortex
at street level. Doubling H may result in
an upper canyon vortex location above
a second reverse-direction vortex at
street level. High, medium, low refer
to windspeed. Adapted from Erell et al.
(2011).

141
 Urban air

is forced upward at the edge of the building, and then is

quickly reestablished along the flat roof. Immediately
downwind of the building, strong downward turbu-
lence occurs, which extends only a short distance down-
wind before streamlines are reestablished at ground
level. Also, airflow over a wood has some turbulence
due to canopy roughness, so immediately downwind
the zone of turbulence and reduced-windspeed is usu-
ally very short.
To reduce streamline airflow and increase farmland
Figure 5.9. Airflows by low and tall buildings. * = Windspeed of production, the distance between parallel windbreaks
streamline airflow in a long upwind, relatively smooth-surface open is partially determined by the height of windbreak
area. Increases and decreases in windspeed given are idealized,
and vary according to the presence of other structures such as trees, and partly by the “porosity” of the windbreak. A
buildings, bridges, trees, and parked trucks. Nevertheless, the medium-porous windbreak is commonly used in order
locations and relative amounts of windspeed change illustrate the to limit turbulence yet provide long downwind wind-
principles and patterns to be expected in urban areas. Based on
Spirn (1984), Oke, (1987), Forman (1995), Brandle et al. (1988), Hough speed reduction (Brandle et al., 1988).
(2004), Erell et al. (2011). With buildings, height and distance apart are the
main variables determining airflow patterns, since
almost always buildings have zero porosity. For a ser-
streamlines and vortices. Also, frequent large objects
ies of buildings, a H/W of 1 or less produces “skimming
such as trucks and street trees at the bottoms of can-
flow,” where streamlines continue over streets with min-
yons produce turbulence where most organisms move
imal turbulence present (Gut, 1993; Erell et al., 2011).
or live. Building walls with balconies, ornament, and
When buildings are relatively far apart or isolated (small
vegetation create fine-scale temperature differences,
H/W ratio), streamline airflow may touch ground level
all of which create some turbulence. East-west oriented
at spots between buildings, thus creating an overall
street canyons tend to be warmer than north-south
rough pattern of flow (isolated roughness flow).
ones, due to prolonged relatively direct solar radiation
The airflow patterns around buildings of differ-
on walls facing the sun. Therefore, east–west streets can
ent size and shape of course are diverse. Consider
be expected to have more upward heat movement at
wind flowing perpendicular to one low long build-
night (Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2007). Indeed, diverse
ing separated from a second flat high-rise building
street-canyon designs varying airflow types, built radi-
behind (Figure 5.9) (Spirn, 1984; Hough, 2004; Erell
ation surfaces, tree distributions, and more can prod-
et al., 2011). At ground level, wind is reduced upwind
uce a rich array of microclimatic effects (Yamaoka
of the low building. Downwind of the first building,
et al., 2008).
windspeed is increased (rather than decreased as for
an isolated building), due to additional downward air-
Isolated buildings and trees flow from the face of the tall building behind. A still
An elongated isolated building, like a hedgerow per- higher windspeed is present where air is forced around
pendicular to the wind, has elongated high-windspeed the sides of both buildings. This accelerated air forms a
zones on each side, where moving air is squeezed “side streak” that progressively decreases in windspeed
between the structure and other flowing air (Figure 5.9) downwind.
(Spirn, 1984; Hough, 2004; Erell et al., 2011). In add- A ground-level opening in the center of the tall
ition, eddy effects, as at street corners, form vertical building provides some porosity. The opening has the
vortices. These may affect much or all of the downwind highest ground-level windspeed, as air is pushed and
side of a building (Erell et al., 2011). squeezed through. A strong downward turbulent flow
The higher a building is the longer the sheltered from air passing over the tall building prevents the
reduced-windspeed zone downwind (Gut, 1993 For a air through the opening from forming a central long
very thin building or stonewall, perpendicular stream- downwind streak. In addition, vertical vortices separ-
line flows are forced upward over it and return to ate the central flow from the side streaks.
ground level at some distance downwind. In contrast, Skimming airflow may play an additional role in
for a large flat-topped building the streamline airflow ventilating urban ground-level conditions. Consider

142
 Air pollutants and effects

the so-called “prairie dog effect” named for a burrow- or simply particles). Sea spray adds NaCl (salt). Natural
ing mammal (Cynomys) in North American grasslands lightning-caused fires add CO2, CO (carbon monox-
(Butler, 1981). Prairie dogs have two or more entrances ide), and PM. Various trees and other plants produce
to their underground homes. The upwind hole is at the hydrocarbons (HCs, a major type of volatile organic
top of a mound built by the animal, while the down- compounds or VOCs). Wind erosion in dry land con-
wind entrance is closer to ground level. Streamline air- tributes dust particles to the air, especially silt. Wetlands
flow across the grassland is forced upward and slightly contribute CH4. And plant evapo-transpiration con-
accelerated by the mound, a process that also draws air tributes water vapor. These natural materials may be
upward from the burrow. Air enters the burrow system scarce or dense, but are not (unwanted) “pollutants.”
in the second hole where streamline airflow is slightly Urban air contains these chemicals in addition to
downward toward the ground. The prairie dogs are pollutants from human activities unrelated to urban
well adapted to ventilating their burrow system with areas. Livestock and rice paddies produce CH4; pasture-
fresh air in this way. Analogously, funnels are used on land and cropfields give off soil particles (PM); smelt-
ships to ventilate lower levels, and wind-towers fun- ers, SO2 and heavy metals; unpaved roads, particles
nel air downward to ventilate many Middle Eastern (PM); paper mills, SO2; refineries, HCs; and anthropo-
buildings. genic fires, CO2, CO, and PM. Although mainly origin-
Urban trees appear repeatedly as key players in this ating elsewhere, most of these airborne materials are
chapter. It is useful to summarize their roles relative to transported by wind into urban areas, where they may
air flow (also see Chapter 8) (McPherson et al., 1994b). be an important component of urban pollution.
By evapo-transpiration “cooling,” trees affect the breeze
from the country and breeze from the park. Tree abun- Ten urban air pollutants
dance on mountain slopes and paucity in the nearby
Ten air-pollutant types are most important in urban
city increases cool air drainage. Their cover on the land
areas (Figure 5.10). The gases are CO2, CO, SO2, NOx,
affects both onshore and offshore breezes. In the street
and HC. The particulates and aerosols are PM, HM
canyon, trees reduce the along-street airflows, both
(heavy metals), O3 (ozone) smog, and CFL (chlo-
streamline and vortex. Trees may shade the street and
rofluorocarbons). Toxic substances, the tenth type, are
sidewalk, as well as the sunny-side, windward, and/or
a heterogeneous group of gases and aerosols/particu-
leeward wall, in all cases affecting radiation and upward
lates. Gases are lightweight and invisible, while par-
airflow. Trees “cool” the street canyon with evapo-tran-
ticles are heavier and visible. Airborne particles and
spiration. They create turbulence from streamlines.
aerosols are often grouped together, because particles
Trees disrupt street-corner eddies. The may accelerate
are “dry” and aerosols are particles in droplets of water.
airflow beneath their canopies. Trees may accelerate or
Pollutant variability from city to city and place to
inhibit airflow and cooling along wall surfaces, with
place within an urban region is great, and pollutant
different implications for wall temperature in sum-
levels sometimes rise or drop sharply and quickly.
mer and winter (Gartland, 2008; Erell et al., 2011). In
Furthermore, countless other pollutants mainly pro-
essence, trees are a key to urban microclimate.
duced by industry and motor vehicles enrich urban air,
usually at very low levels but sometimes at high levels
Air pollutants and effects (Benton-Short and Short, 2008). Radioactive isotopes
The air over natural land contains plenty of gases, aero- from distant or local sources are in urban air normally
sols, and particles, some of which are essential to life at “low” levels (basically, no radioactivity is safe for liv-
and its diversity. Consider the general composition of ing organisms)
air for organisms (Ahrens, 1991): 78% nitrogen gas Fossil fuels – gasoline, diesel, coal, oil, and natural
(N2), 21% O2, 0.039% CO2, 1% argon, plus traces of gas – produce somewhat different polluting chemicals
many other gases such as neon, helium, and methane and are the primary indirect or underlying sources for
(CH4). But water vapor may range from zero to 4%. urban air pollution (Figure 5.10). Biomass fuel, solid
Lots of natural microbial activities add and remove waste, surface materials, and manufactured products
chemicals, including CO2 and NOx (nitrogen oxides), are also indirect underlying pollutant sources.
in significant amounts from the air. Volcanic activity The direct urban-region sources produce extremely
adds SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and PM (particulate matter, different pollutants. Motor vehicles and industries

143
 Urban air

(a) Figure 5.10. Ten key urban air

pollutants and their primary sources.
(c) Gases; (d) aerosols and gases; (e)
particulates and aerosols. Ozone smog
(O3) is produced in the atmosphere from
the combination of nitrogen oxides,
(b) hydrocarbons, and solar radiation.
Based mainly on Hartshorn (1992),
Moran and Morgan (1994,Puliafito et al.
(1998), McNeill (2000), Ravetz (2000),
Frumkin et al. (2004), Alberti (2008),
Benton-Short and Short (2008),
(c)

(d)
(e)

(f)

produce by far the most number (seven each) of air 3. SO2. Damages leaf tissue, leading to death of plants.
pollutants (Figure 5.10). Some sources produce only Lowers pH. Acid precipitation chemically erodes
two major pollutant types. limestone, concrete, mortar between bricks, and
Particulate matter, PM, is produced by six of the some statues (Moran and Morgan, 1994).
seven urban-region sources. CO2 emanates from five, 4. NOx. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), the primary
and NOx from four. CO and CFL are each produced in problem; nitrogen oxide (NO) not so; nitrous oxide
quantity by a single source type. (N2O) mainly from biomass burning, including
The effects of urban air pollutants range from human wood-fire cooking/heating and forest/savanna
health to ecology and the environment (Figure 5.10). burning. NOx may lead to smog.
The predominant health effects are to the respiratory 5. HCs. Hydrocarbons, or volatile organic
system, and secondarily in causing cancer (Curtis compounds (VOCs), include many derivatives
et al., 2006). However, some of the cancers are in lungs, of petroleum, including polycyclic aromatic
e.g., from very fine particles, so in effect damage to the hydrocarbons (PAHs). Hydrocarbons may lead
respiratory system is the overwhelming health prob- to smog.
lem. For instance, Manchester, the so-called pollution 6. O3 smog. NOx and HCs in the presence of
capital of the UK, has particularly high rates of respira- sunlight, heat, and O2 produce smog, with the
tory disease (Ravetz, 2000). rate apparently increasing with temperature.
In brief, the major ecological and environmental Dominated by ozone (O3), smog may contain PAN
effects of elevated pollutant levels are: (peroxyacetyl nitrate), formaldehyde, ketones, and
1. CO2. Associated with anaerobic (no oxygen) other organic constituents (Moran and Morgan,
conditions in soil, and therefore little root growth, 1994). Corrosive to metals and rubber.
few soil animals, and presence of anaerobic 7. Tox. Toxic or hazardous substances include organic
bacteria and decomposition. Also, a major compounds, especially benzene, formaldehyde,
greenhouse gas leading to global warming. chloroform, methyl chloride, polychlorinated
2. CO. Reduces the transport of O2 in blood of biphenols (PCBs), dioxins, pesticides (e.g., DDT),
vertebrates, leading to death. and compounds containing cadmium (Cd)

144
 Air pollutants and effects

(Benton-Short and Short, 2008). Other toxics are troposphere below it are often carried to the ground in
inorganic, including mercury, lead, and arsenic. precipitation events. Such plumes, however, are com-
The worst industrial air pollution case for humans monly more extensive than weather fronts and may
was in 1984 when a cloud of methyl isocyanate be rapidly replenished by pollution sources after rain.
gas from a major industry in the city of Bhopal, Thus, a huge layer of elevated NO2, mainly related to
India spread across the urban area killing 4000 vehicular traffic, covers much of East Asia and sur-
people and injuring some 200 000. roundings, bathing Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong,
8. HM. Heavy metals inhibit various microbes Seoul, and even Osaka and Tokyo (Parlow, 2011). A
and decomposition processes, as well as root similar cloud of particulate matter originating from
growth. Also they reduce aquatic biodiversity. soil erosion in dry pastureland and cropland spreads
Lead (Pb) remains in gasoline for vehicles in far eastward into the air of the same cities.
many developing nations, where urban air, e.g., in Many of the severely and long-polluted cities of
Cairo, Lagos, and Cape Town, is polluted by Pb, history owe much of their murkiness to coal combus-
which damages the nerve system (Benton-Short tion (McNeill, 2000). London in the 17th-20th centur-
and Short, 2008). After the removal of lead from ies, Pittsburgh (USA) in the 19th-20th centuries, the
gasoline in Athens, Pb dropped sharply in the air, Ruhr Region cities (Germany) in the 19th-20th centur-
and in urban parks gradually moved down into ies, Calcutta (Kolkata) in the 20th-21st centuries, and
the mineral soil A-horizon (Michopoulos et al., today Baotou (China’s blast-furnace center) are not-
2005). able. Mexico City, Los Angeles, and Athens suffer from
9. PM. Particulate matter (or simply particles) severe ozone smog, especially in summer (Benton-
damages leaves and plant growth, and may Short and Short, 2008). Yet air quality may dramatic-
smother lichens and mosses. Airborne PM ally improve, as in Ankara, Pittsburgh, and Cubatao
reflects incoming solar and sky radiation (Brazil).
outward. It increases the turbidity of water bodies, Some cities have air dominated by a single pollu-
inhibiting clear-water fish. Large particles >10 µm tant type, such as NOx in New York and Tokyo, or PM
in diameter (PM10) include pollen, fly-ash from in Delhi (Laakso et al., 2006; Benton-Short and Short,
combustion furnaces, and dust from soil erosion, 2008; Kuttler, 2008). On the other hand, several pol-
cement, and coal (Marsh, 2010). PM2.5 (>2.5 µm) lutant types dominate some cities, such as CO, NOx,
includes smaller coal dust and fly-ash particles, and O3 in Buenos Aires, or SO2, NOx, PM, and O3 in
and is particularly important in damaging the Beijing (Figure 5.11). Mexico City’s air is high in SO2,
respiratory system. Very fine particles <1 µm CO, O3, NOx, and PM. Some major cities have low or
include photochemical smog, tobacco smoke, relatively low levels of all major pollutant types, includ-
auto exhaust, oil smoke, and sea-spray salt. ing Auckland, Montreal, Vancouver, Vienna, Berlin,
Plants may act as partial filters of PM, as particles and Edinburgh. San Francisco, constantly swept by
accumulate on leaf surfaces and are later washed ocean winds, has the cleanest major city air in the USA
to the ground by rain. Vertical vegetation layers, (Mayer and Provo, 2004), quite a contrast with the air
a diversity of species, and certain leaf attributes of its neighbor, Los Angeles.
increase the filtering effect (Spirn, 1984). Differences in urban versus suburban areas are usu-
10. CFL. Chlorofluorocarbons breakdown O3 ally visible for particulates and present for gases. For
molecules in the stratosphere (Figure 5.2) (a cause instance, overall in the USA, airborne particulate matter
of the “ozone hole”), increasing the penetration in suburban areas may be 60% lower than in urban air,
of UV radiation, which damages living organisms NOx 99% lower, and SO2 17% lower, though of course
(Moran and Morgan, 1994). this varies by city and by radius measured (Marsh,
2010). The upwind radius typically shows a sharper
difference than in the downwind direction. Pollution
Spatial distribution of pollutants sources are more likely to be concentrated on the down-
Broad plumes of materials reaching the stratosphere, wind side of a city, and in addition, polluted urban air
such as radioisotopes from nuclear explosions, are is blown downwind (Madronich, 2006; Moran and
carried around the globe and slowly settle down- Morgan, 1994). In dry air, heavier particles tend to settle
ward. In contrast, plumes of materials moving in the out nearby, while lighter pollutants are carried further

145
 Urban air

1998). Unpaved roads and uncontrolled open burn-

ing of waste are dispersed secondary PM sources. In
Leipzig (Germany), industries, rail yards, and train sta-
tions with associated PM concentrations were at some-
what dispersed locations (Geiger, 1965).
In the USA as a whole, cars and trucks annually
contribute 77% of CO, 56% of NOx, 47% VOCs (HCs),
31% air toxins, 30% CO2, 25% directly emitted PM10
(28% PM2.5), and 7% SO2 (Frumkin et al., 2004). Of
course traffic varies enormously throughout the day,
with commuters coming and going, as well as through
the week, as weekday and weekend travel differ. The role
of vehicle congestion is emphasized by the relationship
of pollutants produced at different driving speeds. For
CO and VOCs, by far the greatest emission rate occurs
with vehicle movement below 24 km/h (15 mi/h), and
the curve rises again above 60 mi/h. In contrast, NOx
emission is relatively low at lower speeds, and rises
above about 80 km/h (50 mi/h). Within residential
areas, vehicle emissions per housing unit increase with
lower housing density. Lower connectivity of streets
also results in more emissions. In effect people drive
and pollute more in sprawl areas.
Figure 5.11. Visibility commonly limited to about three blocks Intersections of busy streets also have high PM
due to diverse air pollutants. Street trees including Sophora japonica
apparently pollution-resistant; school children (foreground) doing concentrations, due to the concentration of vehicu-
exercises. Beijing. R. Forman photo. lar exhaust and the continual lifting of particles from
street surfaces by moving vehicles and people. In
downwind. Urban industrial areas typically are sources Kuala Lumpur, PM in a street intersection peaked dur-
of condensation nuclei that spur cloud development and ing morning and afternoon commuter-traffic times
potential precipitation, a case of air pollution affecting (Carpenter, 1983). Street dust contains a long list of
weather (Moran and Morgan, 1994). Precipitation may chemical elements. For example in Urbana (Illinois,
be greater in a city (e.g., Detroit, USA) or greater down- USA) the primary elements measured were manga-
wind of it (Chicago, St. Louis) (Marsh, 2010). nese, zinc, barium, nickel, strontium, and chromium,
Within an urban area, however, pollutant levels while arsenic, uranium, calcium, cadmium, cesium,
correspond to land uses at finer scales. For example, potassium, sodium, silver, lead and mercury were also
in Hyderabad (South-Central India) particulate mat- common. Other elements in the street dust were at
ter is a primary air pollutant (Sekhar, 1998). Over a lower levels (Spirn, 1984). Noses and lungs on street
4-month measurement period, the rate of dust fall was corners are bathed in such a mix.
consistently highest in commercial areas, intermedi- Air quality inside vehicles and buildings not sur-
ate in industrial zones, and lowest in residential zones. prisingly can be much worse than in outside urban air,
The author hypothesizes that dust in commercial areas due to sources of concentrated pollutants, limited vol-
largely comes from heavy traffic using poorly main- ume, and limited ventilation (Spengler and Chen, 2000;
tained road surfaces. Industrial operations produce Frumkin et al., 2004; Benton-Short and Short, 2008).
dust in the industrial areas, and construction activity Cooking and heating with wood, animal dung, or kero-
mainly contributes dust in residential zones. sene give off considerable PM and CO, the latter being
Particulate matter, being heavier than gas, tends to especially dangerous in an enclosed space. Similarly, in
be densest in small air domes or plumes around local cars and other vehicles the range of vehicle-related pol-
sources. In Rio de Janeiro, a concentration of industry lutants (Figure 5.10), including CO, may accumulate to
is the major PM source, and a plume across the city high levels. Respiratory disease is particularly preva-
occurs during certain wind conditions (Habbel et al., lent with inside air.

146
 Air pollutants and effects

Some air pollutants, such as NOx and O3, increase

with temperature and are especially problematic
Global warming and urban air
Is global climate warming a major cause of the urban
in intense urban heat islands (Sarrata et al., 2005;
heat island, or is urban heat a major cause of global
Kuttler, 2008). In Taiching (Taiwan) with a 0 to 4°C
warming? Neither of the above seems to be correct
urban-heat-island intensity, CO2 concentration did
(Peterson, 2003; Parker, 2004; Parmesan, 2006; IPCC,
not change with temperature, CO increased linearly,
2007; Alcoforado and Andrade, 2008; Alberti, 2008;
SO2 showed a steep increase between 2 and 3°C, PM
Rosenzweig et al., 2011).
(both PM10 and PM2.5) steeply increased between 3
Certainly urban areas, as contrasted with the heat
and 4°C, and NO2 sharply increased between 4 and
directly given off from them, affect global climate. For
5°C (Lai and Chengb, 2008). Thus, as air temperature
example, about 85% of the human-produced CO2,
rises, different pollutants are sequentially added to the
CFC, and ozone (smog in troposphere) is generated in
problematic mix.
or near urban areas (Oke, 1997b). Also considerable
Finally, cities in arid land are special cases for sev-
particulate matter and aerosols are produced by urban
eral reasons. Usually regional air temperature is high,
areas. CO2 is a prime greenhouse gas leading to higher
humidity is low, and considerable PM arrives from
global temperature. Meanwhile PM and aerosols block
upwind soil erosion. Silt is the predominant incom-
some incoming net radiation, effectively cooling the
ing particulate matter, since heavier sand grains
urban air.
drop out quickly and lighter clay particles are carried
Over a century or so, global atmospheric CO2 has
higher and long distances (Knox et al., 2000). Most
increased several percent and temperature has risen
such urban areas, such as Phoenix and Albuquerque
a few degrees centigrade. Urban air temperature typ-
(USA), developed in valleys where water was avail-
ically correlates well with area of urbanization, or
able (Parlow, 2011). Ventilation is somewhat lim-
distance inward from edge of urbanized area. Thus,
ited, so pollution accumulates in the city. Also, many
as many cities have expanded outward over a few
people live and drive further out. With abundant
decades, urban temperature has risen at a consider-
solar radiation, plus NOx and HCs from vehicles,
ably faster rate than global warming (Alcoforado and
this is a formula for ozone smog development in the
Andrade, 2008). Urban areas are expected to greatly
city’s valley.
expand in the upcoming few decades, promising really
Local construction sites provide lots of PM to the
hot cities.
air. Continuous dust input, with a paucity of rain, cov-
Urban areas cover less than 1% of the land surface,
ers and damages leaves of plants. Trees from moister
and directional heat plumes only extend kilometers or
climates are often planted and irrigated across arid
tens of kilometers downwind of cities (Alcoforado and
urban areas. Pollen levels rise, causing respiratory
Andrade, 2008). Thus, direct urban heat is considered
problems. In the past half century, air conditioning
to be essentially a negligible factor in producing global
has become widespread, and chlorofluorocarbons in
warming. [Note that considerable uncertainty exists
refrigerants have markedly increased the damage to
in diverse global-climate models for the regional scale
our protecting stratospheric ozone layer (fortunately
(especially in incorporating city effects) (IPCC, 2007;
a recent drop in use of these chemicals has rapidly
Alcoforado and Andrade, 2008; Oleson et al., 2008;
reduced the problem). Wind also carries urban-gen-
Rosenzweig et al., 2011). Many other conditions may
erated pollution to areas out of the city, such as pollut-
have greater effects on model predictions, such as anti-
ants from Los Angeles covering the downwind Mojave
cyclones, urban heat dissipation with vertical instabil-
Desert.
ity, changes in heating/air conditioning, and altered
Heavily polluted Cairo air highlights further
snowmelt/cover.]
dimensions of arid cities (Benton-Short and Short,
Many indirect effects may be important in evalu-
2008; Parlow, 2011). With vehicles using leaded fuel,
ating the urban and global heat relationship. Global
lead levels are high in Cairo’s air. The burning of wastes
warming seems to heat the non-urban surroundings
producing black-particle soot, diesel traffic exhaust,
more than the urban area (Alcoforado and Andrade,
and unpaved or poorly maintained road surfaces, all
2008; Erell et al., 2011). That decreases, rather than
in the urban region, seem to dominate the PM present.
increases, the heat intensity difference and the urban
The smokiness of the air also results from biomass
heat island.
burning for cooking and heating.

147
 Urban air

Decreasing the temperature difference between highly significant compared with other sources. Yet the
city and surroundings also means less breeze from the urban heat directly given off is limited or minuscule
country, and less cool air drainage from adjoining hills/ compared with heat from the Sun, land, and oceans
mountains. Consequently, at night less incoming cool air (IPCC, 2007; Erell et al., 2011). Thus, urban CO2, not
means higher urban temperature. Similarly, increasing urban heat, increases global warming (Alcoforado and
ocean temperature would reduce, and alter the timing of, Andrade, 2008). Cities worldwide are expanding, so
sea breezes and offshore breezes. This may lead to slightly the picture could change.
higher temperature in coastal urban areas. More extreme Meanwhile, global warming seems negligible in
weather events, such as severe droughts, floods, freezes, raising the urban heat intensity. Overwhelmingly,
and cyclones, predicted by global models could produce energy from the Sun absorbed, stored, and emitted as
both temporary cooling and warming periods for cities. heat by extensive urban impervious surfaces creates
In short, cities are funnels of concentrated green- the urban heat-island intensity. In essence, heat moves
house gases, heat, and other pollutants rising into the both from city to “globe” and globe to city, but the rela-
global atmosphere. The total amount of urban CO2 is tive amounts are tiny.

148
 Part II Ecological features

Urban water systems

Chapter

6
We never miss the water till the well runs dry. toxics from industrial sites and carry off inappropri-
ately located urban structures.
James Kelly, A Complete Collection of Scottish
In contrast, out in natural land water generally
Proverbs, 1721
flows more slowly, less predictably, and in crooked
Tortuous, fissured, unpaved, crackling, interrupted by routes full of objects creating friction. The chemical
quagmires, broken by fantastic bends, rising and fall- mix washed down by rain and carried over surfaces
ing illogically, fetid, savage, wild, submerged in obscur- is typically rather depauperate, often dominated by
ity, with scars on its pavements and gashes on its walls, inorganic macro-nutrients. No pipe squirts in hyper-
appalling, seen retrospectively, such was the ancient clean water, and no pipes carry off tubfuls of human
sewer of Paris. Ramifications in every direction, cross- wastewater. Clear water fills most rivers, while streams
ings of trenches, branchings, multiple forkings, stars as appear curvy, heterogeneous, often nutrient-poor, and
if in mines, cul-de-sacs, arches covered with saltpeter, seem to flow unendingly.
foul cesspools, a cabby ooze on the walls, drops fall- Urban areas also display an array of special water
ing from the ceiling, darkness; nothing equaled the structures absent or scarce in both natural and agri-
horror of this old voiding crypt, Babylonian digest- cultural lands. Water fountains and fire hydrants are
ive apparatus, cavern, grave, gulf pierced with streets, familiar. Yet a closer look may reveal a green roof, rain
titanic molehill in which the mind seems to see prowl- garden, stormwater basin, vegetated swale, gray-water,
ing through shadows, in the excrement that has been aquaculture, serpentine cleaning-channel, riparian
splendor, that enormous blind mole, the past. … Today pond, daylighted stream, and biofilter. Engineering
the sewer is neat, cold, straight, correct. … Do not trust predominates, but ecological engineering appears
in it too much, however. Miasmas still inhabit it. (Ma, 1985; Mitsch and Jorgensen, 2004; van Bohemen,
2005).
Victor Hugo, Les Misérables, 1862 On the subject of water, two quantity-and-qual-
No place even mimics the water flows of an urban area. ity questions always arise. How much? How clean or
We have straight, fast predictable flows over hard sur- polluted?
faces and through pipes. Streams are channelized, even Most wetlands in the land around today’s cities
disappearing into pipes and “magically” reappearing. were long ago drained or filled by farmers, so today’s
Rain brings down the rich chemical mix arcing over remaining small wetlands tend to be scarce habitats
us. Stormwater quickly washes the city clean, carrying with uncommon species. In dry climates during much
away dust from streets and sidewalks and an even richer of the year, stream and river water may be invisible, as
cornucopia of chemicals from buildings and other sur- it slowly flows in the oft-sandy sediment. In wet climes,
faces. A water-supply pipe squirts a small addition of streams and rivers may be considered as hydraulic con-
hyper-clean water (except for chlorine, fluorine, and duits to drain the land, and thus stream-corridor trees,
other chemicals) into the system. Another pipe or ditch which fall and disrupt flows, are discouraged.
system carries off and partially cleans the eternal con- Flooding greatly depends on the land upstream/
centration of human wastes so they don’t build up in upriver of the city, where land-use change may cause
the city. River water bulging with sediment and count- so-called 100-year floods to occur twice a decade.
less pollutants often squeezes through a city, sometimes Alternatively, upstream water diversions may leave
with roaring floods, which clean out the accumulated barely any visible flow in an urban river. Recent dramatic

149
 Urban water systems

Shanahan and Jacobs, 2007; Welty, 2009). Hydrologic

(or water) budgets of inflows and outflows are use-
fully determined for a whole urban area, or any of its
components (see equations, Appendix B). A very small
amount of urban water is cycled or recycled in the
urban area, normally using pumps.
In the water or hydrologic cycle, atmospheric water
vapor cools and falls as precipitation (mainly rain in
the warm air of cities) (Carpenter, 1983; Alberti, 2008).
Some falling water is “intercepted” by buildings, roads,
Water-table
and soil, where it directly evaporates back to the atmos-
Medium flow
phere (Figure 6.1). Some water infiltrates through
Figure 6.1 Urban water or hydrologic cycle. Precipitation on an cracks in the hard-surface cover and into the soil of
urban area results overall in both major and medium water flows greenspaces and smaller vegetated spots. The infil-
(dark shaded arrows), while clean water piped into an urban area
produces smaller flows. In addition to climate, the amounts of trated water may be absorbed by roots and pumped
water flow vary according to percent impervious-surface cover, upward by plants in transpiration to the atmosphere.
subsurface human modifications, and effectiveness of urban- Evapo-transpiration, the combination of evaporation
infrastructure functioning. Distinctive flows create an urban water
cycle unlike that in natural and agricultural lands. from non-living surfaces and transpiration from plants,
in urban areas typically correlates with the percent of
vegetation cover and its extensive leaf surface (Berthier
flooding of coastal cities worldwide emphasizes that walls
et al., 2006).
of water also come from the sea in hurricanes/cyclones,
Alternatively, water infiltrating into the soil may
monsoonal storms, and tsunamis. Rising sea level prom-
move by subsurface flow nearly horizontally to a
ises worse things ahead for coastal metro areas.
stream, river, or other water body. Any remaining
Meanwhile clean freshwater supply is running
infiltrated water flows further downward into the
short worldwide, creating scarcity and raising costs for
groundwater. However, most of the water falling on
cities, which then ponder environmentally damaging
urban hard surfaces, especially in heavy rains, quickly
alternatives (Ma, 2004; Ghassemi, 2006). Ironically,
flows as “surface runoff ” across the surfaces and into
these cities seem oblivious to the abundant water flow-
stormwater drainage systems composed of pipes and/
ing through them, an obvious water source when kept
or ditches. This surface runoff water mainly empties
clean or cleaned up. Even migratory river-and-sea fish
into water bodies, sometimes causing floods. Evapo-
would welcome renewed passage through a city from
transpiration from land and water body then transfers
cleaning up river pollution.
water back to the atmosphere as water vapor.
Clearly water runs through the core of urban ecol-
In addition, usually a constant flow of clean drink-
ogy. In this chapter we explore the subject in five big
able freshwater is piped into urban areas (Figure 6.1).
steps: (1) urban water flows and cycling; (2) ground-
Except in arid cities, this addition is typically tiny com-
water; (3) clean water supply; (4) sewage and septic
pared with the amount of incoming precipitation. An
wastewater; and (5) stormwater and pollutants.
extensive, usually old and leaky pipe system carries the
clean water to all users (Galloway, 2011). Urban resi-
Urban flows in the water cycle dents then rapidly convert much of the piped clean-
Global water is distributed in five major places: atmos- water to wastewater flushed down drains and toilets.
phere (mainly as water vapor); land surface (lakes, Some of the clean water is used for irrigating parks and
rivers, vegetation, etc.); subsurface (groundwater and lawns and for other uses. In many outer urban areas, the
shallow subsurface water); ice; and sea. Of the liquid wastewater commonly passes through septic systems
water on land, <2% is in lakes and rivers while 97% or cesspools (e.g., holes filled with gravel) directly into
is subsurface water, overwhelmingly groundwater the ground, where the liquid becomes subsurface flow.
(Gibert et al., 1994a). With denser populations using sewer systems, instead
As part of the “global water cycle,” urban areas the wastewater is rapidly piped to a sewage treatment
contain a number of relatively distinctive flows (Hall, facility. From it cleaner water is channeled to a nearby
1984; Todd and Mays, 2005; Korhnak and Vince, 2005; water body.

150
 Groundwater

The extensive pumping out of groundwater from the Now let’s delve into the invisible. First, we explore
sandy soil of much-urbanized Long Island, New York groundwater flows, heat, and pollutants. Then ground-
illustrates additional dimensions of urban water (Todd water habitats and animals are highlighted.
and Mays, 2005). Over time hard surfaces spread, and
stormwater drainage systems carried water coastward. Flows, pollutants, heat
Sewage systems expanded, carrying wastewater to sew- Three-quarters of Europeans drink groundwater, while
age treatment facilities, and the water coastward. Wells half of the residents in the USA do (Gibert et al., 1994a;
reaching the groundwater had to be deeper. Stream Margat, 1994). For urban areas of concentrated people
flows decreased. Wetlands dried out. Clean ground- this clean groundwater comes mainly from aquifers.
water supplies became scarcer. A familiar story. Normally these are large sandy/gravelly underground
Overall, the most distinctive characteristics of volumes or porous rocks such as sandstone that store
urban water cycles are: (1) the extensive impervious/ water. Envision an underground lake full of sand.
hard surface; (2) the stormwater drainage system; and We use aquifer groundwater supplies for three
(3) alternative targets for the supplemental piped-in major objectives: (1) urban and rural drinking water;
water (Figure 6.1). All three features accelerate water (2) industrial uses; and (3) agricultural irrigation. Of
flow to local water bodies. The hard surface cover the three, drinking water is the major use in many
also evaporates considerable water and limits plant European nations including Italy, Austria, Denmark,
evapo-transpiration. Furthermore, hard surfaces add Hungary, and Russia. Industrial uses predominate in
a range of pollutants, including heat, to both the sur- Japan, South Korea, The Netherlands, and Norway.
face-runoff water and the soil-infiltrating water. The Agricultural use of aquifer water is predominant
piped-in water carries off wastewater pollutants and in India, China, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Greece,
pathogens. Natural water cycles, i.e., those without Spain, South Africa, Argentina, Mexico, and parts of
these core urban attributes, have noticeably less evap- the USA.
oration and surface runoff, but more infiltration, plant
evapo-transpiration, subsurface flow, and ground- Groundwater flows
water recharge. The distinctive urban characteristics Today’s cities commonly have higher land in the sur-
permit a concentration of people, buildings and roads roundings, so both surface water and groundwater
to thrive with minimal flooding and without drowning generally flow into, and then out of, the urban area.
in pollutants. With hills and valleys, the land surface varies consider-
ably. In contrast, the water-table surface beneath nor-
Groundwater mally only undulates gently (Winter et al., 1998; Marsh,
Groundwater normally refers to water in the water- 2005). Thus, the water-table often reaches the ground
saturated zone (phreatic zone) in the ground (Dunne surface in valleys and depressions, where flooding is
and Leopold, 1978; Todd and Mays, 2005; Shanahan, most likely.
2009). The upper surface of this zone is the water-table To visualize water flows more clearly, consider a
(Figure 6.1).Most of the time, a relatively small amount stream flowing between two low hills with a typical
of water is present in the aerated soil zone between soil mainly composed of small particles, i.e., silt and/
ground surface and water-table. Nonetheless, this aer- or clay. The water-table in the hills is at a higher eleva-
ated zone holds the bulk of the roots, microbes and soil tion than the surface of the valley stream (Winter et al.,
animals, and consequently is extremely important for 1998; Marsh, 2005). Rain falls on the hills, where some
water absorption and growth by plants. water infiltrates down to the groundwater and then
In natural land, groundwater and surface water, flows horizontally downward to the stream. In this way
such as streams and ponds, are normally connected as the stream is “recharged” with water and continues
a single resource (Winter et al., 1998). We see the top of flowing. But suppose the soil in the hills is predomin-
the resource that emerges, iceberg-like, above ground antly sandy, with large particles and considerable pore
level. However, in urban areas the surface waters and space through which water readily drains. In this case
groundwater are often disconnected. This results from the water-table in the hills typically is lower than the
extensive pumping, which lowers the water-table, leav- stream level. As the stream flows over the sandy area,
ing a non-saturated soil zone between groundwater the stream loses water, which flows downward into the
and stream, river, or lake. sandy soil, “recharging” the groundwater. Most cities

151
 Urban water systems

on clay soil began with groundwater near the surface

and frequent floods, whereas those on sand or other
porous material started with a relatively low water-
table.
Irrespective, the pumping of groundwater by wells
in and around cities, especially for industrial uses,
commonly lowers the water-table (Figure 6.1). The
amount of groundwater pumped from a porous rock
or unconsolidated soil material depends on the pore
space present (Chapter 4), plus the ability to pull water
through it (i.e., hydraulic permeability or porosity, plus
conductivity). For example, groundwater can be rap-
idly pumped from gravel, clean sand, (karst) limestone,
and permeable (igneous) basalt (Todd and Mays, 2005;
Marsh, 2005). But water is only slowly extracted from Figure 6.2. Community water supply pumped from
groundwater. Steel pillars reduce problems with elephants that
low-porosity shale, marine clay, and unfractured igne- also wish to use the water. Peri-urban area of Livingston, Zambia. R.
ous and metamorphic rock. Forman photo.
In the London Region, the distribution of porous
rock and soil causes groundwater from the northwest,
southwest, and south to flow (according to Darcy’s America though use a significant proportion of
law) (see equations, Appendix B) toward the center groundwater pumping for clean-water supply and
of London (Trafalgar Square) (Shanahan, 2009). Yet, industry (UN-Habitat, 2005; Todd and Mays, 2005).
unlike pre-London (pre-Roman) times with wetlands Much of the groundwater pumped for urban use is
in the area, today the city’s water-table is mainly >10 returned to local water bodies, but commonly in pol-
m (30 ft) down, and in some locations >40 m deep. luted form due to industrial processes, surface run-
Groundwater pumping caused that. off, or human wastewater. Thus, urban groundwater
Lowering the water-table by groundwater pumping pumping (withdrawal) especially leads to degradation
may lead to land subsidence, such as the ground-level of aquatic ecosystems and fish populations surround-
drop of perhaps a meter for Houston (Texas) and sev- ing and downriver of the urban area.
eral meters (15–20 ft) in central Mexico City (IPCC, A lowered water table may dry out wooden-foun-
2007; Shanahan, 2009). In the latter case, over five dec- dation pilings or pillars under buildings that have long
ades (1935–85) the ground surface dropped 1 m (3 ft) in been protected from decay by being immersed in essen-
7 years, but the water-table dropped an average of 1 m tially anaerobic (oxygen-free) groundwater. Pumping
each year (World Resources Institute, 1996). Naturally, lowered the water-table under important buildings
urban land subsidence causes problems for buildings with wooden foundations along St. James Avenue in
(especially on clay soils), and may lead to deeper and Boston (Shanahan, 2009). The wood of the ancient trees
larger wells for further water extraction (Shanahan, was rapidly oxidized, rotted by microbes, and chewed
2009). Even in Las Vegas (Nevada, USA), where sur- by invertebrates, requiring expensive replacement of
rounding mountains provide considerable ground- building foundations. The pattern is highlighted in the
water, pumping has lowered the water-table and dried following case of a 14-centuries-old city built on essen-
out springs (Todd and Mays, 2005). Moreover a near- tially oxygen-free mud.
surface underground reservoir of polluted stormwater Wherever you walk in Venice, not far beneath your
has formed. Cities in moist limestone areas typically overheated feet is one of over 22 million wooden stakes,
the majority of which are as sound as the day they were
have “sinkholes,” where a rounded area of land, often
driven into the soft silts of the lagoon.
with some buildings, drops meters rather quickly, as in
(David Bellamy, 1976, cited by Hough, 2004)
Orlando and Tampa (Florida) (Maire and Pomel, 1994;
Mangin, 1994; Marsh, 2005). Yet urban groundwater can also rise. Sharply reducing
The withdrawal of groundwater by pumping industry and its pumping, or abandoning old city wells,
(Figure 6.2) for urban uses worldwide is minor com- may cause the city water-table to rise (Foster et al., 1998;
pared with that for agriculture. Europe and North Shanahan, 2009). Thus, since 1980 the water-table in

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 Groundwater

the center of London has been rising. This results in hundreds of meters or more, with freshwater on top. In
ponding, sewer malfunction, concrete and masonry this case wells are commonly contaminated with salt,
degradation, and flooded underground transporta- and further or deeper pumping simply causes greater
tion. An abundance of leaky pipes adds to groundwater saltwater intrusion.
rise. If a reduction in groundwater pumping in a city is Although groundwater levels are normally quite
accompanied by increased pumping in exurban/peri- low under cities due to pumping, even in desert cit-
urban areas, the polluted city groundwater may then ies flooding may occur. The commonest cause in arid
flow outward to the exurban areas. land is the “flash flood” from heavy rains, whereby
Furthermore, relatively water-tight structures such surface runoff over the land far exceeds water infil-
as underground garages and subway stations project- tration, and sheets of water wash down slopes into
ing down into the groundwater have buoyancy, like the city. A more specialized case is where a “hard-
the lower portion of a ship. Rising groundwater puts pan” (somewhat impermeable layer of soil particles
upward pressure on the structures, which may crack. partially cemented together) has formed from previ-
Such problems are the harbingers of sea-level rise ous land use (Shanahan and Jacobs, 2007; Shanahan,
effects on coastal cities. 2009). Thus, as in Kuwait City, rainwater plus water
Urban groundwater may also rise from the exten- from urban greenspace irrigation, leakage from pipes,
sive removal of exurban woodland, either upslope and other sources can only infiltrate downward very
or downslope of a city (Thaitakoo et al., 2013). This slowly (Al-Rashid and Sherif, 2001). Therefore, the
removes the evapo-transpiration pumping-power of water simply puddles or floods.
trees, leaving more soil water, which raises the water-
table. More groundwater from upslope flows toward
Groundwater pollution
the city, while a rising water-table downslope on a plain Cities are epicenters of diverse groundwater contami-
may decrease groundwater flow from the city. nants. Consider the major sources and the pollutants
Groundwater around coastal cities has two add- (Fetter, 1999; Sharma and Reddy, 2004; Todd and Mays,
itional distinctive flows. First, the groundwater flowing 2005; Marsh, 2005):
from the higher land to the lower sea normally reaches 1. Industrial wastes. A wide array includes heavy
the ground surface in a narrow groundwater emergence metals, organic compounds, petroleum products,
zone, commonly within 100–200 m of the coastline or and radioactive materials. Groundwater in
shoreline (Todd and Mays, 2005; Forman, 2010b). On contaminated-soil brownfields reflects this array.
the landward side of the coastline the freshwater rises 2. Urban stormwater. Transportation is a major
to the surface in low areas, particularly floodplains, source and, though most stormwater goes
deltas, swamps and marshes. Urban areas on these to streams and other water bodies, some
locations may have ample freshwater for pumping, but contaminants infiltrate into the soil. Especially in
are especially subject to flooding, an acute problem sandy soils, groundwater receives heavy metals,
with sea-level rise. On the seaward side of the coast- organic compounds, petroleum residues, nitrates,
line, the fresh groundwater flows directly through the and road salt.
soil or rock to enter the sea underwater, just offshore. 3. Human wastewater. Septic systems, cesspools,
If not severely polluted, this near-shore (littoral) zone and outhouses directly incorporate nitrogen,
with arriving fresh groundwater is especially rich bio- phosphorus, sodium, and chlorinated organic
logically, in some areas characterized by mangroves, compounds into groundwater. Functioning
sea-grass, or coral reef. wastewater sewer systems reduce the input of these
The second distinctive groundwater flow of coastal chemicals to groundwater, but overflows (CSOs)
cities is saltwater intrusion (Acebillo and Folch, 2000; and leaks pollute the groundwater.
Todd and Mays, 2005). Excessive urban pumping, 4. Solid-waste dumps. Numerous chemicals such as
even in this zone where groundwater normally rises solid and hazardous wastes, as well as methane
toward the ground surface, can lower the water-table. and benzene from residential garbage, reach
With less pressure downward due to less groundwater, groundwater even in dumps (tips, landfills)
the deeper seawater seeps or intrudes landward into meeting government regulations. Small buried
the ground. Since freshwater is lighter than saltwater, dumps from former use are often abundant next to
the saltwater intrusion extends inland sometimes urban water bodies.

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 Urban water systems

5. Construction fill. The pervasive use of fill from below) (Notenboom et al., 1994). Nitrogen and phos-
varied sources, including building rubble and phorus compounds are used by groundwater microbes.
mining debris, creates a vast, highly heterogeneous Inorganic and organic toxic compounds, heavy metals,
complex of chemical sources enriching urban and pesticides seem to alter groundwater faunas. Acute
groundwater. The constituents of roads and toxicity levels are known for very few groundwater spe-
roadbeds are illustrative (Forman et al., 2003). cies. Slight evidence exists for the “bio-accumulation”
6. Farmlands. Perhaps least important in urban areas, of heavy metals, that is, the increasing concentration
nitrogen, phosphorus, and pesticides may reach of a pollutant in organisms higher in the food web. In
groundwater, though legacies of former agriculture some locations groundwater contains radioactivity,
persist. which may bioaccumulate to high levels in the ecosys-
7. Spills and leakage. Numerous chemicals from tem (Brenner et al., 2006).
roads, railways, industrial sites, and other sources Organic compounds from human sewage, waste-
leak from underground storage tanks, pipelines, water sludge, and other sources may be of particu-
and chemical storage sites. Also, residential lar concern, though the ecological effects of leaking
areas provide paint, cleaning compounds, oil, wastewater sewage pipes on groundwater seem to be
and gasoline to groundwater. At night certain little studied (Barrett et al., 1999; Shanahan, 2009). For
trucks illegally pour chemicals or wastewater into example, one sewage-polluted site had an abundance
stormwater drains. of surface-water organisms mixed with the ground-
water ones (Gibert et al., 1994a). Typically, increased
A waste site such as a dump or leaking tank is a organic matter leads to more microbial decompos-
“point source,” which creates an elongated chemical ition, which lowers dissolved oxygen levels, but in this
“plume” in the groundwater pointing in the direction case groundwater organisms thrive in the near absence
of groundwater flow. Since, except in limestone or karst of oxygen. Overall, evidence suggests that the ground-
areas, groundwater moves very slowly, the groundwater water animals are less sensitive to pollutants, including
remains polluted for a long time. Consequently, a small toxic substances, than are comparable surface-water
amount of pollution may contaminate a large area. species.
Normally groundwater can only clean itself slowly. As a postscript, a common approach recommended
Cleaning basically depends on four processes (Todd for stormwater pollution management is to channel
and Mays, 2005): filtration of the chemicals, adsorption stormwater to small ponds or basins, in part so that the
onto soil particles, chemical breakdown, and dilution. pollutants can move into the soil rather than be carried
Since microbes and oxygen are usually rather scarce in onward directly to water bodies such as streams and
groundwater, microbial decomposition, an important lakes. However, a pond itself has considerable weight,
process in cleaning surface water, is overall of limited often increased or maintained by rain, and thus the
importance in cleaning. bottom water and pollutants tend to be pushed down
However, most of the pollutant sources are dis- into the ground, even into the groundwater. As noted
persed “non-point sources,” so the urban groundwater above, groundwater moves very slowly and pollutants
as a whole is polluted. For example, approximately 324 there, in the absence of oxygen, persist for long peri-
leaking underground storage tank sites are known in ods. Urban stormwater management remains a chal-
the 47 km2 (18 mi2) area around a small Michigan city lenge for creative solutions.
(Genesee County, USA) (Marsh, 2005), yet many more
are unrecorded. The groundwater is doubtless a persist- Heat in groundwater
ent “witches’ brew” with gradually changing mixtures In many northern European cities with an aquifer
from location to location. That doubtless characterizes within a few meters of the surface, considerable heat
the groundwater of most cities (Todd and Mays, 2005), associated with the heat-island effect enters ground-
and illustrates why city drinking-water supplies seldom water (see Chapter 5) (Allen et al., 2003; Taniguchi
come from beneath the city. Even industries are moti- et al., 2005). Basically, solar (or net) radiation heats
vated to move outward where cleaner groundwater can constructed objects such as roads and buildings, which
be pumped (and then normally polluted). then radiate heat to the air but also transfer heat by
Relatively few studies are available on the effects conduction into the ground. In summer, Winnipeg
of pollutants on groundwater organisms (see section (Canada) groundwater temperature may be elevated

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 Groundwater

heat, the low-temperature heat is a modest heating

source, though increasingly used for heating buildings
and homes in some urban areas.
All three of the heat sources – solar-heated con-
structions on the surface, power-generation facilities
and pipe systems, and geothermal energy – could be
used for urban winter heating, and perhaps summer
cooling. Ecologically, the heat combined with water
provides great growing conditions for microbes, soil
animals, and plant roots. The relatively constant warm
groundwater conditions buffer the organisms from
environmental fluctuations and some human effects.
Urban vegetation and ecosystems are enriched by
organisms benefitting from the heat. Shut-downs of
Figure 6.3. Smokestacks indicating power facilities heating water a power-generation facility, however, may cause con-
that is piped underground to buildings. White roof in center reflects
considerable solar radiation (high albedo). City in Jilin Province, siderable mortality of mostly underground organisms,
China. R. Forman photo. followed by recycling of nutrients and growth of the
next generation of organisms. Heated groundwater
may also flow into local water bodies, with analogous
as much as 5°C, with heat penetrating to 130 m depth enhanced and disruptive effects on aquatic ecosystems
(Ferguson and Woodbury, 2004). The groundwater and fish.
temperature increase seems to be most related to heat
loss from buildings, with the effect extending outward
in the ground a few hundred meters (several hundred
Groundwater habitats and animals
feet) from a heated structure. Groundwater is essentially an invisible zone, unseen
Electric-power generating facilities scattered across by ecologists or anyone else. Strange and amazing ani-
an urban area are another source of heat into the soil mals lurk, awaiting discovery. Some of us share the
and groundwater (Figure 6.3). Scattered smokestacks excitement of exploring caves and mines, and sense
often mark their locations. Thus, the combustion of that the animals there are quite different from what we
coal, oil, gas, organic solid waste, and other energy see on land. Unfortunately, as yet few ecologists study
sources heats water, which in turn is piped under- groundwater.
ground to government buildings, skyscrapers, high Groundwater animals and microbes seem to func-
rises, and other locations. Heat loss from the combus- tion, move, and vary at a wide range of time and space
tion process at the power-generator site and from the scales. These are estimated at 1 to 100 years, and 1 to
diverging pipeline network is then conducted into the 100 m3 (Gibert et al., 1994b). Aquifers ranging from
urban soil and groundwater. 100 to 10 000 years in duration, and 100 to 100 000 m3
Moreover, the core of the Earth itself is a heat source in volume, seem to be particularly important locations
for groundwater, soil, and urban areas. This geother- or habitats for groundwater organisms.
mal heat maintains groundwater at a rather constant
temperature, often about 16°C (62°F), and prevents Habitat conditions
winter freezing of underground water pipes. In areas Groundwater microbes include bacteria and fungi, plus
with many hot springs and spas such as Iceland and protozoans as primary consumers (Gounot, 1994). All
Yellowstone Park, so-called “high-temperature” geo- the microorganisms are fed on by multicellular animals
thermal energy is readily available for human use. in groundwater, i.e., micro- and macro-invertebrates,
However, normally the high-temperature energy is at a which have a generalized diet.
considerable depth and is expensive (if not hazardous) Groundwater animals are concentrated in the
to drill and use. Nonetheless, “low-temperature” geo- upper zone of groundwater, especially in the sediment
thermal energy, such as that keeping the soil somewhat under and near flowing water (Gibert et al., 1994a).
warm, is widely available and relatively inexpensive Here microbes and dead organic matter (detritus)
to drill and use. Unlike high-temperature geothermal filter downward from above and are food for the

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 Urban water systems

Figure 6.4. Water-saturated zones with distinctive hyporheic animals in groundwater. Three characteristic locations for groundwater
animals: (left) surface-water sediments from mountains-to-sea; (center) river sediments in floodplains; (right) carbonate (karst) rock with
fractures and groundwater. These rarely seen, and hence strange-looking, animals live with microbes in very-low-oxygen groundwater
beneath, e.g., the oxygenated water in flowing rivers and river-bottom sediments in urban areas. Based on Gibert et al. (1994b), Creuze des
Chatelliers et al. (1994), Maire and Pomel (1994), Mangin (1994).

groundwater animals. This interaction zone between Habitat heterogeneity is low, habitats are small, and
groundwater and surface water, the hyporheic zone, is habitat fluctuation is limited with high predictability
prominent in two types of substrates, limestone-karst (Gibert et al., 1994b). Eternal darkness prevails.
areas and porous rocks and sediments. Limestone-
karst rock readily dissolves in water, and therefore, in Animals and microbes
moist climates, contains caves, sinkholes, numerous Overall the total population density of groundwater
crevices, and rapidly flowing water as underground animals at a location is low, especially at greater depth
streams and rivers (Figure 6.4) (Gibert et al., 1994a). (Gibert et al., 1994b). Species diversity (richness)
Groundwater organisms beneath karst cities have as is low. Seldom does one species dominate an area.
yet received little study. So here we focus on habitats Organisms are heterotrophic, predominantly feeding
and organisms in the groundwater of porous rocks and on dead organic matter. Productivity is low. Food webs
sediments (Figure 6.4). are short and simple.
This porous substrate or medium (interstitial space) Species exhibit many adaptations for this distinct-
usually has elongated, rounded, varied-size, and inter- ive environment (Gibert et al., 1994b). Organisms gen-
mixed soil particles or rock minerals (Zilliox, 1994). erally lack pigmentation and have limited development
Groundwater flow is slow with curvy routes. “Porosity” of ocular and other sensory organs. Appendages are
defines the percent volume of water in an underground typically long, numerous, and with highly developed
reservoir or aquifer. “Permeability” describes the flow mechanical and chemical receptors. Organisms such
or flux through this underground reservoir, and “dis- as Annelids (roundworms), Planaria (flatworms), and
persivity” defines the dispersion of, e.g., organisms or Crustacea are often longer and thinner than their sur-
pollutants, in the reservoir. Oxygen levels may vary face-water relatives. Slow metabolic rates, infrequent
significantly from spot to spot, though some evidence reproduction, and long life spans characterize these
suggests that at ≥2 m (6 ft) depth below surface water groundwater organisms. The species must be adapted
relatively constant “hypoxic” (very low oxygen) con- to surface-water flooding that temporarily disrupts
ditions are present, with <0.2 mg/l dissolved oxygen subsurface species assemblages, as well as to particu-
(Pospisil, 1994; Strayer, 1994). lar water temperatures and the amount of incoming

156
 Clean water supply

organic matter, but these are apparently little stud- species, almost all stygobites. The third site had 35 spe-
ied. Basically a tub of intriguing animals lies beneath cies. In the first two sites the most abundant organisms
our feet. were ostracods and cylopoids. In contrast, the third
Excluding the surface-water species that feed on, site had an occasional amphipod and an abundant
or are fed on by, groundwater species, two types of snail species. Finally, it seems likely that an altered but
groundwater organisms may be recognized (Gibert persistent groundwater fauna exists in slightly polluted
et al., 1994b): (1) those that occasionally use the surface- sites on the upslope side of urban areas and away from
water environment (“stygophiles,” including Plecoptera, industries. In contrast, the diverse array and heavy dose
nematodes, oligochaetes, mites, copepods, ostracods, of pollutants under the central portion of a city must
cladocerans, tardigrades, and larvae of stream-bottom severely degrade or eliminate the groundwater fauna.
aquatic insects); and (2) those restricted to ground-
water (“stygobites,” such as amphipods and others only
in deep groundwater). Clean water supply
Around rivers, groundwater animals vary in all Worldwide most cities get their water supply from
three river dimensions, longitudinal, lateral, and ver- reservoirs, though some extract drinking (potable)
tical (Figure 6.1) (Gibert et al., 1994b). Longitudinal water from a lake, river, stream, deep groundwater, or
studies from 1 to 500 km along rivers suggest that the even shallow groundwater (Forman, 2008). Relatively
groundwater fauna does not correlate with the patterns small amounts of water are derived from coastal desa-
of surface-water stream/river species, but rather seems linization facilities or from rooftop and other cisterns
to be distributed in smaller patches. Laterally across catching rainwater. To some people, water in Northern
a floodplain, the density of groundwater organisms Europe has a different taste than that in the USA. The
and their species assemblages apparently vary at scales former mainly uses clean deep groundwater while
from meters to tens of meters, but do not correlate well American cities overwhelmingly use surface water,
with observed floodplain boundaries. Vertically, strik- which is therefore treated with chlorine and often
ing differences in total density and species composition other chemicals. Most towns and major industries get
are evident at the scale of tens of centimeters, even at >1 their water supply from a convenient local inexpensive
m depth, below the surface-water level in river-bottom source.
sediments. The vertical pattern may largely reflect pro- Surface-water supply almost always comes from
gressively lower dissolved-oxygen levels in ground- upslope or upriver of a city, thus avoiding the pollution
water beneath a river. produced by the city. Damming a river to create an ade-
Apparently the only relatively detailed urban study quate-sized reservoir can produce a dependable clean
is of groundwater organisms just downriver of Vienna water supply only if the upslope river and stream areas
with nearby seepage from a solid-waste dump (land- are sufficiently protected with natural or semi-natural
fill), plus perhaps pollutants from a construction site vegetation. With insufficient land protection, usually
(Pospisil, 1994). Three sites were studied here by the day-by-day and year-by-year eroded soil is carried and
Danube River and associated floodplain wetland. The deposited as sediment in the reservoir. However, the
groundwater species present were widespread, includ- bulk of the sediment normally arrives in one or a few
ing species characteristic of both Eastern and Western mega-storm events. Sedimentation of the reservoir
Europe. The upper groundwater reached 8°C higher bottom progressively decreases the capacity or water
in mid-summer than that at deeper levels. The “spe- volume of the reservoir, thus reducing the available
cific conductance” (a measure of the concentration of water supply for the city. New York and Boston both
certain pollutant ions) overall was slightly higher in have good land protection around their rather distant
the groundwater than in the surface water. Dissolved- reservoirs, which provide dependable water with little
oxygen levels were high in the upper groundwater zone, water-treatment cost (Platt, 2004).
quite variable at 0.5 m depth, and very low and stable at In the erosion process, fine clay and organic particles
≥2 m below surface water. tend to be eroded first, even in light rains. These are the
One site, relatively close to oil seepage from a harbor, most valuable soil particles for holding nutrients and
had 86 groundwater animal species, 7 of which were maintaining fertility for plant growth. The fine parti-
stygobites restricted to groundwater. Measurements cles tend to stay suspended in solution in the water, like
at a second site with deeper groundwater recorded 21 tiny clay particles keeping a glass of water murky for

157
 Urban water systems

hours. Therefore, most of the eroded clay particles con-

tinue on downstream/downriver to the sea, where they
slowly filter to sea-bottom. Silt particles are eroded by
somewhat heavier rain and readily transported to the
reservoir, where water velocity is minimal and the silt
filters to the bottom. Reservoirs tend to fill up mostly
with silt. Sand is still heavier, requiring heavy rainfall
for erosion. But also a significant portion of the sand
may be deposited in the stream/river floodplain before
reaching the reservoir.
In wet periods reservoir water backs up a bit into
tributaries, where some water moves laterally into the
nearby soils as “bank storage” (Winter et al., 1998).
Droughts or upstream water diversions that lower the
reservoir level also slowly draw out bank-storage water Figure 6.5. Aqueduct to carry clean water a few kilometers from
a source to a Roman city. For the intermittent channel at bottom,
as a kind of stabilizing mechanism. Development or water rushes over sand in wet periods, and slowly flows beneath the
other cutting of the stream bank reduces the effect- surface in dry periods. Built by Augustus Caesar ca. 25 BC; cut stones
iveness of bank storage as a clean-water supply. Land fit together without mortar. Tarragona, Spain. R. Forman photo.
protection around a reservoir also limits stream/river
flooding and its degrading effect on water quality during the inevitable facility break-downs and shut-
(UN-Habitat, 2005; Sekercioglu, 2011). downs.
Suburbs and small cities commonly have wells Over four decades (1955–95) in the USA, water
pumping shallow groundwater, which comes from withdrawal from the groundwater by industry has
rainwater infiltrating through the suburban land. Each decreased in part due to increased industrial efficien-
well has a “cone of influence,” i.e., a cone-shaped soil cies (Todd and Mays, 2005). However, tighter pollution
volume beginning at the bottom point of the well pipe regulations mean that less acceptably clean water from
and widening to the ground surface. The surface of industry is recycled back into natural systems. Urban
this cone is roughly the area where pumping lowers water uses during the period have changed consider-
the water-table (Winter et al., 1998). A lowered water- ably. The total urban public water-supply increased 2.3
table tends to dry out wetlands, ponds, vernal pools, times, electric-power-generation water use increased
and streams. Development with impervious surfaces 2.6 times, and industrial water use decreased by 25%.
accentuates this drying out of surface water resources. As cities expand outward, even becoming mega-
Therefore, natural vegetation and land protection are cities, the problem of obtaining sufficient clean-water
especially important atop a well’s cone of influence, supply becomes serious. Roman aqueducts brought
which is thus called the “wellhead protection area.” clean water kilometers or tens of kilometers usually
Most users of the water supply are urban residents from sources upslope and within the drainage basin of
who require clean pathogen-free water for drinking the city (Figure 6.5). Today such water sources are usu-
and cooking. They also typically use the clean water ally scarce and/or polluted.
for other uses such as flushing toilets, washing, clean- “Inter-basin or inter-regional water transfers” are
ing, watering plants, and so forth that do not require one solution, but with big problems (Wang, 1999). The
such clean water. A separate water supply is typically Romans and Incas both sometimes transported water
provided for other major users, i.e., electric-power- in canals, tunnels, and aqueducts from one drainage
generation facilities, some large industries, and urban- basin to another. The heavily urbanized San Diego-
agriculture irrigation, which do not require rigorous Los Angeles-San Francisco region mainly transports
water-cleaning treatment (Westerhoff and Crittenden, water supplies from far-northern California, the
2009). Power production and most industries use Sacramento Valley, and the Colorado River, all hun-
water for cooling, and liberate warm or hot water into dreds of kilometers distant (Hartshorn, 1992; Thayer,
the environment. Unusual aquatic ecosystems and fish 2003; Ghassemi, 2006). Volga River water is pumped
populations capitalize on this added heat, but large fish a similar distance to Moscow, the megacity (Golubev
kills and other ecological disruptions typically occur and Vasiliev, 1978).

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 Clean water supply

Such water transfers sharply reduce water in the and its species are temporarily altered. In 2010 a major
source areas. Streams, rivers, wetlands, lakes, ponds, water-supply pipe (3 m =10 t diameter) for Boston
and groundwater either have lowered water levels or ruptured, causing 2 million people in the city and 29
disappear altogether. Ships lie on their sides in today’s surrounding suburbs to have to boil their drinking and
almost waterless former Aral Sea. Habitat loss and cooking water for 4–5 days. Water pressure was appar-
species disappearance occur on a massive scale in the ently maintained for fire hydrants and toilets during
dried-out source areas. Ironically, the cities receiving the period.
the distant water have lots of water, but it is polluted Another huge but almost invisible ecological effect
and needs cleansing, either chemically or by being results from the hundreds or thousands of kilometers
channeled through natural ecosystems. of secondary to tiny pipes leading from the water
Extensive and diverse infrastructure is required mains to almost every building and other water user
for water supply in a metro area (Westerhoff and (Westerhoff and Crittenden, 2009). Water is main-
Crittenden, 2009). Because clean water is centrally tained under pressure in these pipes. Imagine how
involved, each component of the system has consid- many of these pipes and joints of different types, some
erable ecological effect, either positive or negative. On old and some new, leak. No-one knows how many. A
balance, a dammed reservoir can be extremely bene- relatively big leak often results in repair, but trickles,
ficial. Its protected area of natural vegetation is one gradually increasing, go unnoticed. The water-supply
of the largest, if not the largest, natural areas in the system endlessly contributes small amounts of water to
urban region. The large green area typically sustains countless spots across the metro area. Benefits of the
high habitat diversity, high species diversity, many added water may flow to deep tree roots and upward
rare species, viable populations of interior species, tree growth, to soil animals and microbes, to polluted
large-home-range vertebrates, clean groundwater, ground water, to urban stream-flow, and to wetlands
connected streams, a semi-natural disturbance regime and ponds. On the other hand, if the soil is already
favoring certain species, a buffer against flooding, and rather wet, the added water seeping or squirting out of
a buffer against urbanization and climate change effects water supply pipes is bad news for many of the preced-
(Forman, 1995). The reservoir itself supports a popula- ing soil and water components.
tion of warm-water fish and often contains some deep Worldwide a much higher proportion of urban
water that may support cool-water fish. Diverse aquatic residents than rural residents has “safe” drinking
and semi-aquatic habitats are often prominent around water (UN-Habitat, 2006). But in numerous cit-
the reservoir margins. ies extreme differences in water quantity and qual-
Water is commonly piped from reservoir to water- ity exist from section to section within a city. Thus,
treatment facility where chemicals such as chlorine water-related illnesses are extensive, as illustrated by
and fluorine are often added to purify the water. The 65% of hospital patients in India reportedly being
facility is frequently located on a protected greenspace treated for illnesses from water. Water piped to taps
of moderate size, typically supporting species import- (faucets) in housing units predominates, though
ant in its surrounding urbanized area. Often wet spots public taps, e.g., at wells or fountains, predominate
are visible even during droughts, though also relatively in some areas (Figure 6.2) (UN-Habitat, 2005). In
toxic chemicals (when concentrated) are transported Johor Bahru (Malaysia), Hong Kong, and Beijing,
to and stored on site. Small cities often have distinctive 100% of the population has house taps, while in
water tanks on towers or tanks on nearby hills. These Colombo (Sri Lanka), Almaty (Kazakhstan), and
tanks provide water pressure throughout the urban Chennai (India), 26–29% of the people are served
area. Relatively small pump buildings, sometimes on by public taps. However, in Jakarta (Indonesia) and
small greenspaces, are scattered over the built area to Cebu (Philippines), three-quarters (73–77%) of the
keep water moving. population is without piped water to either housing
Water mains (the large water pipes) periodically unit or public tap. Residents in such urban areas get
burst, causing water distribution problems, urgent water from tube wells, dug wells, rainwater collec-
repair activity, and news stories. The unruly water bub- tors, ponds, rivers, and other sources.
bling up mainly flows into the storm drainage system In North America, total indoor household water use
leading to a local water body, which is promptly altered averages about 265 l/year (70 gallons/year), and var-
by both more and clean water. The aquatic ecosystem ies rather little from region to region (Westerhoff and

159
 Urban water systems

Crittenden, 2009). On the other hand, outdoor water

use varies widely, for instance from ca. 5 gallons/year in
Sewage and septic wastewater
Waterloo (Ontario) and Cambridge (Massachusetts) to Is there a toilet in the home and a tap for hand-washing?
If not, is there a well maintained toilet in easy reach? If
225 gallons/year in Phoenix and Scottsdale (Arizona).
this is a public toilet and there is a charge for using it,
In the desert city of Phoenix, warmer night tempera- is it kept clean, can low-income households afford to
tures result in more outdoor water use by residents use it and is it safe for women and children, especially
(Guhathakurta and Gober, 2007). In these dry Arizona after dark?
cases, the added water supports trees, shrubs, flow- Is there provision to remove human wastes and
ers, lawns, birds, mammals, insects, and other ani- household wastewater?
mals that would quickly perish without the water. The (UN-Habitat, 2005)
species dependent on supplemental water would be
No-No-No-No are the emphatic answers for the
largely replaced by native dry-country species from the
majority of urban residents in Asia, Sub-Saharan
surroundings.
Africa, and Latin America. Variation from city to
Water-supply pipes lead to fire hydrants, fountains
city in the proportion of the population connected to
and wells for public use, fountains and ponds in parks,
the city’s sanitary sewage system ranges, for instance,
irrigation systems for greenspace lawns, and of course
from <30% in Buenos Aires, Belem (Brazil,) and San
people’s kitchens, bathrooms, and water closets. Spills
Juan (Puerto Rico) to >90% in Medellin (Colombia),
and leaks occur in all of these locations, and many kinds
Monterrey (Mexico), Caracas (Venezuela), and Greater
of species take advantage of these key bits of added
Santiago (Chile) (UN-Habitat, 2005).
water. Our water-supply system permeates the city and
Yes-Yes-Yes-Yes for the above questions describes
provides a cornucopia of mostly positive though tenu-
conditions in high-income sections of most cities.
ous ecological benefits.
But even in these sections the piped water supply may
In short, the water-supply addition seeps into an
be intermittent and of poor quality. The percentage
urban area in numerous spots associated with the
of households with flush toilets (in cities of >100 000
water-supply infrastructure permeating the area. In
population) ranges from about 95% in North Africa
most spots the added water supports microbes, inver-
to 83% in Southeast Asia, 70% in South and West
tebrates, vertebrates and/or plants that would other-
Asia, 68% in Latin America to 24% in Sub-Saharan
wise die and be replaced by drier-adapted species, or
Africa.
not be replaced. Overall the added resource and associ-
This section begins with human sewage systems,
ated microhabitat diversity sustains an enrichment of
wastewater aquaculture, and the ecological effects
urban biodiversity.
of sewage systems. Then septic systems and other
Finally, potable-water reuse is a special form of
approaches for dealing with household wastewater
treatment that, in several steps, transforms human
mainly on-site are introduced.
wastewater into potable drinking water (Law, 2003; du
Pisani, 2006).
Wastewater sewage systems and
Water should be judged not by its history but by its
quality.
associated effects
Lucas Van Vuuren, 1970s, quoted by Law (2003) We explore this intriguing subject with three lenses: (1)
wastewater and pipe systems; (2) wastewater sewage
Using a sequence of technologies, including reverse treatment; and (3) wastewater aquaculture for food.
osmosis, ozone with activated carbon, microfiltra-
tion, and a membrane bioreactor, Windhoek, the Wastewater and pipe systems
arid-land capital of Namibia, has had potable-water Sanitary sewage or wastewater is generally a combin-
reuse since 1968. Singapore, Brisbane (Australia), ation of human wastes (feces and urine), household
and Orange County (California) also apparently wastewater (from sinks, basins, tubs), commercial
reuse some water. In many cities of the world where wastewater, industrial wastewater, and stormwater
clean freshwater-supply is increasingly scarce and infiltrating into a sanitary-sewage pipe system. Human
expensive, converting clean water to wastewater and wastes are full of microorganisms, many being patho-
back to clean water becomes an increasingly compel- genic or disease-causing, and thus are of exceptional
ling idea. ecological and public health importance.

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 Sewage and septic wastewater

(a) (b) Figure 6.6. Eight network and flow

patterns in urban areas. (a) Street network
grid in city center (Lima, Peru). (b)
Stormwater drainage system in suburban
Boston. Traditional form on right; reduced
flow amounts and velocities on left. (c)
Commuter rail system, Paris Region. (d)
Sewage wastewater system, Paris Region.
(e) Main telephone-cable system, Paris.
(f) Ring-rail network, early 20th century
Paris. (g) Heating and cooling pipe-
system for buildings, Paris. (h) Emerald
network of large connected green
patches, Barcelona Region. Adapted from
(c) (d) Clement and Thomas (2001), Forman
(2004b).

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Cities normally began by having wastewater car- outs continued to expand, as elegantly portrayed by
ried away to “somewhere” by streams or rivers, or the Musée des Égoutes de Paris (Paris Sewer Museum)
being diluted by the sea or estuary (Anderson and (Clement and Thomas, 2001). The pipe systems mainly
Otis, 2000). With urban population growth, sewage have acute-angled connections to reduce blockages,
pipe systems (Figure 6.6d) with “manholes” and clean- though blockages have been cleared with pipe-sized

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 Urban water systems

wooden balls and other technologies, even interesting

boats in tunnels. Gravity for moving the viscous sew-
age was seldom sufficient, so pumping facilities were
added. Interconnections among pipes were added to
circumvent blockages and keep the liquid moving. The
amount of sewage became excessive for simple disposal
into the environment. Therefore, sewage-treatment
facilities for cleaning wastewater were added to break
down the diverse sewage components for recycling
back into natural systems.
Usually all wastewater comes from the clean-water
supply. Typical water uses, and hence components of
the outgoing household wastewater are (e.g., in the
UK): 31% toilet (WC) flushing; 26% washing/bathing;
15% food preparation/drinking; 12% laundry; and 10%
washing-up (the remainder is mostly used outdoors) Figure 6.7. Electric-trolley public transit and manhole access
(Butler and Davies, 2011). to pipe system under street. Grass- and-block- covered surface
to increase water infiltration and reduce heat buildup. Zurich,
Wastewater from human toilet use is primarily Switzerland. R. Forman photo.
composed of water, organic matter, bacteria, nitro-
gen/phosphorus/other nutrients, and the disposal of
various solid materials (Westerhoff and Crittendon, 2008). Asbestos is present in significant amounts in
2009; Butler and Davies, 2011). Bacteria are decom- the municipal sludge of two-thirds of cities in the USA
posing the organic matter, while coliforms (e.g., E. (Manos et al., 1991).
coli) and streptococci may be pathogens. Wastewater In streets we see the familiar manholes, essentially
from household sinks, basins, and tubs contains vari- the top tiny circles of a gigantic connected network
ous organic and inorganic chemicals from food waste, (Figure 6.7). But sewage pipe systems beneath our feet
soap/detergent, dirt, and other sources. Salt and have problems. Growth and expansion of tree roots
pharmaceutical compounds from households are also cause a major portion of the sewer system backups and
environmental hazards warranting treatment. overflows in Los Angeles (Sklar, 2008). Rainwater infil-
The inputs from commercial areas may be rather trating through the soil seeps into holes and joints of
similar to those from residential areas, whereas inputs the pipes. Below the water-table, considerable ground-
from industrial facilities are quite different (Butler water often squirts from saturated soil into the sewage
and Davies, 2011). In addition, chemicals leach into pipe system. Indeed, if stormwater pipes are directly
wastewater from sewage pipes and connections that connected to the sanitary sewage system, stormwater
are composed of lead, copper, and other materials. pours in.
The heterogeneous mixture of materials in wastewater Above the water-table, cracks and holes permit
requires a set of contrasting approaches for treatment some “exfiltration” of wastewater from the pipe system
and cleaning. Even with normal sewage treatment, into the soil. So far apparently little evidence exists that
challenges persist for some chemicals that are toxic or this pollutes the groundwater, which in urban areas
persistent and/or bio-accumulate in the food chain. tends to be quite polluted itself. Nonetheless, toxic
Industrial chemicals, supposedly treated separately chemicals and pathogenic bacteria from wastewater
at the industrial site or elsewhere, find their way into would be bad in a sensitive water-supply area or a rare
sewage systems. A truck-farming area irrigated with natural ecosystem.
municipal sewage water (presumably partially treated) Many cities have a combined sewage/stormwater
from Paris contains high levels of copper, mainly asso- system composed of pipes that carry both sanitary
ciated with organic matter (Kirpichtchikova et al., wastewater and stormwater runoff directly to ditches,
2003). Also present are high levels of zinc and lead, streams, river, and/or estuary (Benton-Short and
mainly bound to mineral nutrients in the productive Short, 2008; Baker, 2009). The combined system thus
farming soil. Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) (dis- pours chemicals and solids from households, commer-
cussed below) contain industrial pollutants (Alberti, cial buildings, and industries, as well as from urban

162
 Sewage and septic wastewater

building and road surfaces, to local water bodies. The The separate wastewater/stormwater system offers
wastewater volume heavily pollutes areas near pipe significant ecological advantages over the combined
ends. Combined systems may also flow to sewage treat- system (Butler and Davies, 2011), including: (1) less
ment facilities. serious pollution of local water bodies; (2) smaller less-
Separate stormwater and human sewage systems have intrusive infrastructure (pipes, pump facilities, sewage
separate pipes for the two flows (US Environmental treatment facility), meaning less environmental deg-
Protection Agency, 2007; Butler and Davies, 2011). radation from construction and maintenance; (3) no
The sanitary wastewater sewage may flow directly into road grit (particulate material) carried to a treatment
a local water body. Alternatively and preferably, the facility and to its outflow: and (4) in floods, only storm-
flow leads to a sewage treatment facility, which par- water, without sewage wastewater, bubbles up from
tially or largely cleans the wastewater. In contrast, the manholes. However, some ecological advantages exist
urban stormwater system is usually composed of many for a combined sewage/stormwater system, such as: (1)
shorter separate pipe-systems, often with right-angle fewer pipes, meaning less construction-and-mainte-
connections, and with many pipe ends. Therefore, as nance effect; and (2) except in heavy rains, the sewage
described below, stormwater with its pollutants and treatment facility provides some cleaning treatment of
debris pours into many depressions, ponds, gullies, stormwater. Overall, separate systems, though more
streams, rivers, estuaries/sea, and even into under- expensive, are ecologically optimal for urban areas.
ground temporary storage spaces, as described below. Some decomposition processes occur in the sani-
Combined systems predominate in cities of devel- tary sewage pipes even before wastewater reaches a
oping nations, though they are also widespread in treatment facility (Anderson and Otis, 2000; Butler
developed nations, including several hundred cities in and Davies, 2011). “Hydrolysis” in the presence of
the USA (Benton-Short and Short, 2008). In dry wea- water and enzymes decomposes large organic mol-
ther, essentially only sewage wastewater flows in the ecules to smaller ones. “Aerobic bacteria” in the pres-
pipes. In light rains, stormwater typically somewhat ence of oxygen decompose large and small organic
exceeds the flow of wastewater in the pipes. In heavy molecules to simple stable end-products, including
rains, however, stormwater flows may be 50–100 times CO2, H2O, and various inorganic ions. Some “nitri-
greater in the system. If the pipe system leads to a sew- fication” by nitrifying bacteria produces nitrites and
age treatment facility, the facility is unable to treat the nitrates, and “denitrifying bacteria” convert nitrate to
heavy flow. nitrogen gas (N2). “Anaerobic bacteria,” essentially in
Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) refer to the tem- the absence of oxygen, slowly decompose organic mol-
porary direct outflow of combined wastewater and ecules to simple stable end-products. This last process,
stormwater into a natural system or environment (CSO however, produces smelly hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and/
also refers to the pipe structure that permits this over- or combustible methane (CH4). Sewage pipes them-
flow) (Paul and Meyer, 2001; Benton-Short and Short, selves are active places, though the volume of waste-
2008; Butler and Davies, 2011). In the USA some 75 water requires a sewage treatment facility or a natural
000 CSO events occur annually, most discharging into system for cleaning.
rivers (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2007).
Even though CSOs are predominately composed of Sewage treatment facilities
stormwater, it contains pollutants from urban sur- Wastewater sewage treatment facilities are typically
faces. Combined with some sewage wastewater, the built around the urban fringe, which then expands
CSO outflow pours considerable pollution into the outward, often leaving a moderately large greenspace
environment. in the metro area (Figure 6.8). Both water and nutrients
A flushing of chemicals from urban surfaces occurs are abundant. Consequently, sewage-treatment-facil-
early in a rainstorm (“first flush”) as water flowing over ity greenspaces are often valuable for the abundance
surfaces picks up and cleans the accumulation of par- and species richness of both plants and animals.
ticles and chemicals. Water from light rains, and espe- Bird-watching may be good around sewage treatment
cially from a series of light rains, carries a relatively facilities.
concentrated flush of particulates and dissolved chem- The effectiveness of a sewage-cleaning process
icals. The chemical flush is also evident early in heavy can generally be measured in four ways (Anderson
rainstorms and CSO overflows. and Otis, 2000). (1) BOD (biological or biochemical

163
 Urban water systems

Figure 6.8. Sewage treatment

facility by a river carrying considerable
sewage wastewater. Large dark circles
are secondary treatment tanks mainly
for oxygenating wastewater to reduce
organic matter with aerobic bacteria.
Upriver the population far outstrips
sewage treatment capacity. Small
vegetable-garden plots in floodplain;
sometimes midge populations
(chironomids) in rivers are pests.
During wet periods stormwater may
fill or overflow the channelized-river
concrete banks, sometimes causing huge
floods. Note small access roads used by
infrastructure maintenance vehicles and
local residents. Besos River, Barcelona. R.
Forman photo courtesy of Mark Montlleo.

oxygen demand) estimates the quantity of biodegrad- Increasingly an advanced or tertiary wastewater
able organic material. (2) TSS (total suspended sol- treatment is included to reduce total phosphorus and
ids) measures the concentration of undissolved solid total nitrogen. This is particularly important because
materials. (3) TN and TP measure the concentration of these two mineral nutrients are the primary causes of
the nutrients, total nitrogen and total phosphorus. (4) eutrophication of water bodies, especially phosphorus
The fecal-coliform-bacteria level indicates the potential in freshwater and nitrogen in saltwater. Typically TP
occurrence of pathogenic bacteria of enteric (intes- and TN are reduced by >90%, and BOD and TSS by
tinal) origin. Three levels of sewage treatment are >95%, in tertiary treatment. In wetland soils, treatment
usually recognized in reducing and removing these of phosphorus may be more effective in drier condi-
components of wastewater (Anderson and Otis, 2000; tions and nitrogen in wetter conditions (Fischer and
Kalff, 2002; Baker, 2009): primary, secondary, and ter- Acreman, 2004). Disinfection to further eliminate
tiary treatment. microbes commonly occurs where effluent from the
Primary sewage treatment removes large solids and tertiary process enters aboveground or into surface
most other solids that settle to the bottom of a tank, as waters.
well as greases, oils, and varied solids that float at the Of course many variations and technologies are
top. The remaining effluent is composed of suspended used in the primary-secondary-tertiary treatment pro-
solids, dissolved organic materials, and other soluble cess. For instance, screens, aerators, sludge recycling,
pollutants. drying, incineration, reverse osmosis, chemical addi-
Secondary treatment removes much, commonly tions of iron, aluminum, or calcium, or ultra-violet
>85%, of the dissolved organic materials (BOD) and radiation may be used (Kalff, 2002). Because people
suspended solids (TSS), and significantly reduces bac- are pouring into cities, wastewater solutions are a glo-
terial numbers. Typically disinfection, e.g., by adding bal priority.
chlorine to reduce microbes, especially fecal-coliform Since municipal sewage-treatment facilities are
bacteria, occurs at the end of the process. expensive to construct and maintain, smaller neigh-
For the majority of centralized sewage treatment borhood (or package) treatment facilities sometimes are
facilities in the USA, secondary treatment effluent built for dense apartment, condominium, or neighbor-
is discharged into water bodies. Some facilities with hood locations. Too often these small sewage-treatment
advanced secondary treatment achieve a >95% reduc- facilities have soon malfunctioned, causing significant
tion in BOD and TSS. The effluent from secondary environmental pollution and public health problems.
treatment contains relatively low levels of organic To sustain neighborhood wastewater treatment facil-
material, suspended solids, and live bacteria, but still ities seems to require permanent municipal resources.
contains most of the original wastewater nitrogen and Sludge that builds up at the bottom of secondary
phosphorus. treatment facilities is sometimes used as fertilizer for

164
 Sewage and septic wastewater

Figure 6.9. Pond-marsh wastewater

treatment, wildlife, and recreation area.
Sewage wastewater treatment serves the
>15 000-population of Arcata (California).
Numbers trace the route of flow during
treatment. Water is twice chlorinated and
de-chlorinated. The estuarine Arcata Bay
is a center of oyster production. Adapted
from City of Arcata brochure (ca. 1991),
Stewart and Streishinsky (1990), France
(2003).

agriculture and even lawns, because of its richness in just described. Primary, secondary, and tertiary treat-
nitrogen and phosphorus. However, sludge also nor- ment goals are met by having wastewater flow through
mally contains heavy metals, other pollutants, and liv- marshes and/or ponds. The total area required, usually
ing spores of bacteria that are then both diluted and many hectares or acres, is related to the human popu-
widely distributed in the environment. As discussed lation size served.
below, natural systems instead of built treatment facil- The amount of treatment cleaning is mainly deter-
ities are sometimes used for secondary and tertiary mined by the (1) length of route and (2) rate of flow
treatment. Almost always, sewage systems deposit through wastewater systems, so routes tend to be con-
their effluent water downslope or downriver of a city, voluted. Generally pumps are required to keep the
and hence upslope or upriver of the neighboring flows moving, since the wetland terrain is relatively
municipality. flat. Many other technologies may be added to comple-
Recycling of the water in sewage through ground- ment the natural processes.
water recharge is of increasing interest and promise For decades, a pond/wetland complex has suc-
(Todd and Mays, 2005). This is only considered in cessfully treated the wastewater for >15 000 people in
exurban/peri-urban areas that still have, and are likely Arcata, California (Figure 6.9) (Gearheart, 1992). The
to continue to have, clean groundwater, normally a site provides two major additional benefits. Primary
scarce commodity in urban areas. Basically the organic treatment occurs in a building, secondary treatment in
carbon, nitrogen, pathogens, and in some cases heavy 18 ha (45 acres) of pond and 2.4 ha (6 acres) of marsh,
metals in wastewater have to be intensively treated and tertiary treatment in a similar-sized marshes-and-
(cleaned) before the effluent water enters the ground- pond area. The site supports dense wildlife popula-
water. Eliminating parasites, bacteria, and viruses, tions. It is also a significant feeding and rest stop for
including resistant spores of the first two types, is par- migrating birds, especially waterfowl, in a state that has
ticularly important for public health. After cleaning, drained or filled 90% of its wetlands. Secondly, the nat-
the water enters (recharges) the groundwater, which ural system sewage-treatment facility is a major recre-
then is pumped upward as clean-water supply for ation area, with loop trails, viewing towers, ponds with
drinking and other household uses. waterbirds, and valuable educational facilities.
Natural systems wastewater treatment, especially
using marshes and ponds, may clean wastewater from Wastewater aquaculture for food
whole communities (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007; Adding fish food to ponds and other water bodies to
Vymazal et al., 2006). This approach depends on natural gain impressive production of one or a few fish species
physical, chemical, and biological processes, such as for human consumption has a long history (Costa-

165
 Urban water systems

Pierce et al., 2005; van Bohemen, 2005). In the present designs, and products for urban wastewater aquacul-
case of aquaculture, urban wastewater is used as both ture of course exist (Edwards, 2005). Nevertheless, the
nutrient and food input. The addition of nitrogen is greatest benefits of the approach is in addressing sev-
especially important in catalyzing growth in estuaries eral major worldwide urban issues concurrently, i.e.:
and other habitats of coastal cities. Huge growing urban the increasing need for food, especially locally pro-
populations have a major need for food, and produce duced food; growing amounts of wastewater produced;
an enormous amount of wastewater rich in nitrogen. huge excess of nitrogen put into natural systems; and
The wastewater is thus used for local food produc- reduction of pollution in local urban water bodies.
tion, a central goal in achieving food security for an
urban area (Koc et al., 1999). In addition, the produc-
tion process helps to treat or clean the wastewater, thus Effects on local water bodies
reducing seawater pollution effects, especially due to In general three types of wastewater are discharged
nitrogen. Since the rate of population growth exceeds from sewage systems (Butler and Davies, 2011): (1) nor-
that of constructing tertiary treatment facilities, sea- mally functioning sewage treatment facilities produce
water nitrogen pollution is expected to increase. For continuous low-level pollutants; (2) separate wastewa-
instance from 2000 to 2050, nitrogen output is expected ter and stormwater systems produce intermittent large
to increase by 21–27% in Los Angeles, New York, and loads of suspended solid material and/or ammonia;
Sao Paulo; 100% in Jakarta; and 117–120% in Mumbai and (3) combined wastewater and stormwater systems
and Kolkata (Calcutta) (Costa-Pierce et al., 2005). produce intermittent CSOs, which consist of mixed
Various experimental and technological systems stormwater, residential-commercial-industrial waste-
for aquaculture are used in North America, includ- water, and deposits from the sewage pipes. Leaks and
ing tanks, pumps, inputs/outputs, and recycling proc- illegal discharges along the sewage pipe system gen-
esses. Europe grows several species aquaculturally, erally add pollutants to the soil rather than directly to
including Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and blue water bodies. The major wastewater discharges enter
mussel (Mytilus edulis) in saltwater, and rainbow trout into and pollute local water bodies, especially streams,
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), European eel, and African cat- rivers, lakes, and estuaries in and around metro areas.
fish in freshwater. Urban rivers are more likely to receive CSOs, because
However, Asian cities have been at the forefront the volume of flowing water can dilute the pollution
of aquaculture using urban wastewater (Costa-Pierce (Paul and Meyer, 2001).
et al., 2005; McGregor et al., 2006). Kolkata (India) has Consequently, four primary ecological problems
wastewater aquaculture pond-systems growing Indian are particularly prominent in these local receiving
vegetables and fish, as well as fish polycultures, espe- waters (Kalff, 2002; Butler and Davies, 2011):
cially of three carp species. Hanoi (Vietnam) pond sys- 1. Insufficient dissolved-oxygen
tems grow fish polycultures of tilapia and carp species,
2. Excessive nutrients, especially phosphorus and
as well as rice and fish. Particularly interesting are the
nitrogen
diverse wastewater aquaculture ponds around Ho Chi
3. Excessive sediment in both the water body and on
Minh City (Vietnam) (Van and De Pauw, 2005). Crops
its bottom
harvested in different ponds include: water morn-
4. An excess of toxic substances, both inorganic and
ing-glory (Ipomea aquatica); lotus (Nuphar lotus);
organic
lotus plus duckweed (Lemnaceae); water mimosa
(Neptunia oleracea); duckweed, and tilapia and mixed In general, low dissolved-oxygen is likely in slow
fish species. streams, large rivers, lakes, and small estuaries, and
Lots of problems exist for such wastewater aqua- highly likely in small rivers. Nutrient excess is likely
culture systems, including pollution types and levels, in deep lakes and small estuaries, and highly likely in
pests, public health, economics, sustainability of the shallow lakes. Excessive sediment is likely in all local
systems, and effects on the surroundings. If wastewater water bodies except fast-flowing streams. Excessive
from industry enters the system, toxic substances such toxic-chemical concentrations are also likely in all local
as heavy metals and organic chemicals are probably water bodies except large estuaries. In addition, patho-
present. Perhaps public acceptance of food grown with gens, including parasites, bacteria, and viruses, are
urban sewage is the greatest hurdle. Future proposals, highly likely in all local water bodies. Disease-causing

166
 Sewage and septic wastewater

pathogens not only affect humans, but perhaps all ani- triggers a sequence of ecological changes leading to
mal species in and associated with the water bodies. anoxic conditions in most of the water body. Anoxic
The processes in water bodies that “treat” or clean “dead zones,” some covering hundreds of square kil-
up wastewater effluent are nearly the same as those ometers, are characteristic in the sea off of many coastal
operating in sewage treatment facilities (and to the cities.
soils in and under septic drainfields). Physical proc- Sediment particles from wastewater also prod-
esses include dilution, mixing, flocculation, sedimen- uce varied ecological effects in the local water bodies.
tation, thermal breakdown, and aeration (Kalff, 2002; Heavy sediment such as sand and most silt quickly
Butler and Davies, 2011). Chemical or biochemical accumulates on the bottom (Paul and Meyer, 2001;
processes include aerobic oxidation, anaerobic oxida- Kalff, 2002). In large streams and small rivers the sedi-
tion, nitrification, and adsorption of metals and other ment smoothes the bottom surface, greatly reducing
toxic substances. Biological or microbiological proc- habitat diversity. Sediment smoothing also renders the
esses include decomposition by aerobic and anaerobic bottom unsuitable for successful reproduction by some
bacteria, blooms or massive growth of green algae and fish, including salmon and trout. Sediment accumula-
blue-green algae, and massive die-offs of algae and tions in flowing water commonly alter the water-flow
other microbes. An aquatic biologist can usually esti- patterns. Lighter-weight sediment such as clay, fine silt
mate the degree of wastewater pollution in a water body and some organic matter remains in the water a long
simply by looking at the species present, a surprisingly time before settling to the bottom, and thus clogs the
effective bioassay. gills of fish and feeding structures of filter-feeding ani-
A low level of dissolved-oxygen creates anaer- mals. The suspended sediment also reduces light pene-
obic or “anoxic” conditions, commonly resulting in tration and algal photosynthesis.
fish kills. Almost all organisms of the natural aerobic Toxic substances come in an array of forms (Kalff,
aquatic ecosystem also die. Consequently, anaerobic 2002). Inorganic compounds including ammonia,
bacteria and other microbes predominate in low- or arsenic, and heavy metals may be directly toxic and kill
no-oxygen conditions, with CH4, H2S and bad smells aquatic organisms. Some inorganics also “bio-accumu-
produced. late,” that is, increase in concentration at each step in
An excess of phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients the food chain. Thus, predators such as many fish, and
commonly leads to algal blooms, i.e., “eutrophication” herons and raptors feeding on the fish, get a heavy dose
(Kalff, 2002). The dense floating algae produce shade, of heavy metals, which may be toxic to the predators.
so algae photosynthesis (which produces oxygen) is Toxic organic compounds, such as hydrocarbons from
essentially limited to a thin upper layer of the water transportation and chemical by-products from indus-
body. In freshwater, excess phosphorus commonly try, are exceedingly diverse. Some quickly break down
catalyzes blooms of green algae, though nitrogen while others are quite persistent in the water body. Both
may also. A very high level of nutrients often causes acute and chronic effects on the aquatic ecosystem
blooms of blue-green algae, which in turn commonly occur from wastewater inputs. Almost all the inputs
produce toxic substances in the water. In salt water, reduce biodiversity of the natural water body.
added nitrogen is more likely to cause the bloom. An Microbial densities, especially of coliform bacteria,
extensive growth of algae has additional big ecological tend to be high in almost all urban water bodies, espe-
consequences. cially those receiving water from sewage treatment
A concurrent massive death of algae cells occurs, facilities and CSOs (Paul and Meyer, 2001). Protozoan
and the cells gradually filter downward in the water. pathogens including the protozoan Giardia may also
With oxygen present, aerobic bacteria then massively be widespread. Wastewater pollution by organic mat-
multiply and decompose the organic matter of these ter seems to sharply decrease invertebrate biodiversity.
dead cells. Howevetr, this bacterial decomposition This often results in water bodies dominated by midges
quickly uses up the dissolved-oxygen present, thus cre- (Chironomidae, Diptera) and oligochaetes (worms on
ating anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic bacteria take the bottom).
over, and decompose both the dead algal cells and the In general, urban streams have low species rich-
dead aerobic bacterial cells. Most fish and other aquatic ness in response to toxic substances, sedimentation,
animals also die in the anaerobic conditions. In this and organic compounds. In contrast, the abundance
way, the input of wastewater phosphorus and nitrogen of invertebrates typically decreases with more toxins

167
 Urban water systems

and siltation, but increases with added inorganic nutri- downslope of wells (McGregor et al., 2006). A “cess-
ents and organic compounds. Wastewater effluent pool” as a hole, e.g., filled with gravel and covered, takes
discharged to local water bodies can be expected to both human waste and household wastewater. Or a
degrade aquatic habitats, degrade food sources, have hole may contain a bucket for human waste that, when
direct and indirect toxic effects, and eliminate most full, is transported for disposal, composting, or treat-
organisms by organic-matter enrichment. As in the ment off-site. For centuries, “night soil” (human feces)
case of algal blooms described above, considerable has been recycled as valuable fertilizer for urban agri-
added organic matter stimulates a massive growth of culture. The latrine may contain a tank, often partially
aerobic decomposing bacteria, which quickly deplete filled with water, that is periodically emptied by pump-
the dissolved-oxygen, resulting in fish kills. ing. The “outhouse” or “privy” is usually a latrine with
Some of the wastewater microbes in water bod- roof and walls, an object made vestigial in many areas
ies are of considerable public health importance in by water closets or toilets within residences. Latrines
urban areas (UN-Habitat, 2005, 2006; Butler and normally provide very little treatment of waste.
Davies, 2011).“Water-borne diseases” include chol- In contrast, the septic system is designed to provide
era, typhoid, roundworms, and hookworms. Often on-site waste treatment (Anderson and Otis, 2000;
most prevalent are diarrheal diseases resulting from Marsh, 2010; Butler and Davies, 2011). The system
viruses, protozoa, and coliform bacteria such as E. depends on belowground processes to convert most of
coli. “Water-related diseases” are even more diverse. the wastewater from toilets, basins and sinks to sim-
These include mosquito-transmitted malaria, dengue, ple stable end-products including CO2, H2O, and inor-
and yellow fever. Worm diseases involve tapeworms, ganic compounds. Three major components constitute
roundworms, schistosomiasis, and varied eye and skin the system: (1) a septic tank (generally >1 m3); (2) a
infections. Slow-moving water is often optimum for drainfield (leachfield) containing subsurface trenches
public-health disease microorganisms. with perforated pipes or jointed tiles; and (3) aerated
Typically very few surface water bodies in and soil beneath the drainfield.
around metro areas retain natural aquatic ecosystems. Wastewater from a building is piped to the septic
Some urban water bodies are slightly or somewhat pol- tank, where most solids settle to the bottom as “sludge.”
luted by wastewater, stormwater, and other inputs, and Anaerobic bacteria slowly decompose some of the
might be considered as having semi-natural aquatic sludge. Grease, oils, and other materials float on top of
ecosystems. These are often categorized as “not swim- the wastewater as “scum.£ The septic tank is regularly
mable or fishable.” Swimmers would be at high risk of pumped out to remove both sludge and scum.
pathogenic infection, and fish are likely to contain high Liquid from the septic tank then is spread in the
levels of toxic substances. Many other urban water bod- soil by flowing through the perforated pipes in the
ies are highly polluted, and have aquatic ecosystems drainfield. Finally, the fluid flows downward through
with a considerable anaerobic component, short food the aerated (non-saturated) soil beneath. A richness
webs, and very low species richness. of physical, chemical, and biological processes in soil
treats the wastewater (Anderson and Otis, 2000).
Physically the soil disperses and filters solid particles.
Septic and other systems The soil chemically removes dissolved pollutants by
High-density residential areas and adjoining low-den- adsorption, cation exchange, chemical precipitation,
sity areas are normally best served by a sewage waste- and forming chemical complexes. Aerobic soil bacteria
water system of pipes leading to a treatment facility. A decompose organic molecules. Nitrifying and denitri-
lower-density housing area might be well served by a fying bacteria transform nitrogen compounds. Plant
small government-maintained neighborhood sewage- roots absorb nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium,
treatment system. Most common, however, is for each and other nutrients including heavy metals.
isolated house to handle its wastewater on-site. Thus, in a well-functioning septic system, the tank
Various types of latrines, basically holes in the and soil treat (clean) most of the wastewater on-site,
ground for human waste, are the longest serving leaving harmless natural substances in the soil or nearby
method of human-waste disposal (Anderson and Otis, water body. Pathogenic bacteria from the wastewater
2000; Hardoy et al., 2004; UN-Habitat, 2005). To min- apparently are virtually eliminated. Almost all organic
imize water-supply contamination, latrines are placed matter is broken down to simple inorganic substances.

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 Stormwater and pollutants

Nitrogen and phosphorus are largely absorbed by the the liquid fertilizer is readily collected and elimi-
soil, and hence do not eutrophicate the local water nated from the wastewater stream and its treatment.
body. In short, the septic system accomplishes primary, Finally, numerous other interesting technologies and
secondary, and tertiary treatment on site. In this way approaches and their combinations provide variations
water is also released to the soil on a site. on the three basic approaches for disposing of wastewa-
Significant constraints limit where a septic sys- ter, i.e., latrines, septic systems, and sewage treatment
tem is effective or legal (Anderson and Otis, 2000; systems (Anderson and Otis, 2000; Marsh, 2010).
Marsh, 2010). A sufficient soil area is needed for the “Composting toilets” are still another option for
drainfield. A sufficient depth of aerated soil [e.g., 1.3 m some urban conditions (Van der Ryn, 1978). For these,
(4 ft)] beneath the drainfield is needed. A “percolation suitable conditions of temperature, moisture, chem-
test” measures how readily or fast water moves down- istry, and air are maintained to facilitate the natural
ward through soil (Marsh, 2010).Percolation of water decomposition of human feces. Composting toilets
through a sandy soil is too fast and too much pollution have the great advantage of recycling wastes on site and
reaches groundwater or a local water body. Percolation not using water to transport wastes. The combination
through a clayey soil is too slow, so the wastewater and of avoiding water use and minimizing the movement
pollutants tend to accumulate, puddle, and smell. Just of pollutants into water bodies is highly significant
as for most agricultural crops, the best soils for septic ecologically.
treatment are loamy or silty soils. Finally, which is environmentally better for an
Indeed, apparently a significant proportion of sep- exurban/peri-urban area or outer suburb: septic sys-
tic systems do not accomplish the wastewater treat- tems or a sewage treatment system? Both have advan-
ment goals. Many reasons exist: built on inappropriate tages and disadvantages (Anderson and Otis, 2000). A
soil; water-table has risen due to nearby development, sewage treatment system: (1) minimizes water-quality
dam, or beaver activity; soil compaction due to trucks, pollution problems in water bodies, groundwater, and
construction or a temporary swimming pool; tree- or soil across the landscape; and (2) reduces the number
shrub-root disruption of the drainfield; toxic chemi- and dispersion of untreated or poorly treated waste-
cals killing the important aerobic bacteria of the drain- water releases into the environment. Numerous sep-
field and soil beneath; regular pumping of the septic tic systems: (1) put water into the soil across the land
tank interrupted; and other factors. Any of these fac- rather than hydrologically funneling it to a single
tors results in an excess of pathogenic bacteria, waste- downriver spot; (2) reduce the drying out of wetlands,
water organic matter, and/or nitrogen and phosphorus ponds, and streams; (3) have no CSOs (combined
reaching groundwater or local water bodies. A rotten- sewer overflows); and (4) provide tertiary treatment
egg smell of hydrogen sulfide indicates that the septic that minimizes eutrophication-causing phosphorus
system is seriously malfunctioning. and nitrogen inputs to water bodies. Therefore, when a
Gray-water recycling is another approach that sig- residential population becomes sufficiently dense, it is
nificantly reduces the amount of domestic wastewater normally best to connect houses to a sewage treatment
needing treatment, thus enhancing the efficiency of system. Then old septic tanks can be pumped, crushed,
human-waste treatment (van Bohemen, 2005; Butler and covered.
and Davies, 2011). Gray-water is the drainage from
sinks, basins, and tubs. One major use is for flushing Stormwater and pollutants
toilets (WCs), thus recycling or using the same water
Cities get rid of rainwater as fast as possible, yet pump in
for two different uses in sequence. The other gray-water
scarce freshwater. Is rainwater a waste or a resource?
use is for watering plants, as in gardens and lawns. Gray-
Hard or impervious surfaces, plus a storm-drain-
water contains considerable phosphorus (and organic
age pipe system, concentrate and accelerate stormwa-
matter). The phosphorus typically stimulates plant
ter flows. Flooding in and downslope of the city is a
growth and reduces the need for other fertilizers.
frequent result. The rapidly flowing stormwater picks
A further variant on recycling that enhances waste-
up and carries off pollutants. That effectively cleans the
water treatment is “urine recycling” (van Bohemen,
city and dirties the local water bodies.
2005; Butler and Davies, 2011). Urine is rich in nitro-
To provide suitable conditions for both people
gen and low in heavy metals, thus being good as a fer-
and nature, we would keep water levels below flood
tilizer for plant growth. Using special no-mix toilets,
stage, minimize pollutants entering water bodies, and
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 Urban water systems

(a) Figure 6.10. Impervious surface cover,

stormwater runoff, and pollutants.
Patterns from urban sites in USA. (a)
Presumably nitrogen and phosphorus =
TN and TP. 1 pound/acre/year = kg/ha/
year. Based on Marsh (2010). (b) Dotted
lines roughly indicate common range
of variation (where data were available).
At 10% impervious surface, low to high
points = residential, cemetery, sports-
field; at 60%, the point = 20–25 units/ha;
at 75%, low and high points = light and
heavy industry. 1 ha = 2.5 acres. Based
on US Environmental Protection Agency
(2001), Forman et al. (2003), Dunnett
and Kingsbury (2004), Vince et al. (2005),
Berke et al. (2006), Wessolek (2008), Marsh
(2010).
(b)

keep adequate flows in streams during dry periods. urban surface as stormwater runoff. The percent runoff
In essence, four treatments or approaches are used to (amount of runoff divided by rainfall) normally cor-
accomplish these goals: reduce, slow, infiltrate, and relates with the percent of impervious surface (or hard
filter stormwater. Both water quantity and quality are or impermeable or sealed) cover (Figure 6.10) (Butler
addressed at different spatial scales (Walesh, 1989; and Davies, 2011). Roofs, driveways, sidewalks, streets,
Loizeaux-Bennett, 1999; Alberti, 2008), from sprawl highways, and other such surfaces are considered to be
areas (Frumkin et al., 2004; Korhnak and Vince, 2005) impervious (Lee and Heaney, 2003; Breuste, 2009).
to dry-climate urban areas (Westerhoff and Crittenden, Imperviousness of an individual surface type ranges
2009). from <10% for grassland or woodland to 80% for roof
surfaces and 100% for very high-quality roads.
Many approaches and equations are used for deter-
Impervious surfaces and water flows mining percent stormwater runoff (see equations,
Rainwater falling on an urban area in effect either Appendix B) (Butler and Davies, 2011). Urban areas
evaporates upward from impervious surfaces, is tran- in the UK composed of many surface types have the
spired upward by plants, infiltrates downward into following stormwater-runoff percentages on average:
the soil, or flows nearly horizontally over or under the 5–30% parks and gardens; 30–50% low- and medium-

170
 Stormwater and pollutants

density housing; 50–70% high-density housing, apart-

ments, and suburban business areas; 50–90% industrial
areas; 65–100% city commercial areas; and 70–95%
city center.
Residential areas in North America on average
have approximately the following percent impervious
surfaces (Figure 6.10) (US Environmental Protection
Agency, 1993; Schueler, 1995; Arnold and Gibbons,
1996; Paul and Meyer, 2001; Forman et al., 2003) (1 acre
= 0.4 ha): 20% impervious surface for 1-acre house-
plots; 25% for ½-acre plots (about 12% for cluster
development); 30% for 1/3-acre; 38% for ¼-acre; and
65% for 1/8-acre house-plots. Other urban land uses
approximate 75% impervious surface for an industrial
area; 85% commercial area; and 95% shopping center. Figure 6.11. Small stormwater detention basin where runoff from
roofs and parking lot accumulates. City of Lake Placid, Florida. R.
Woods may produce 5–10% stormwater runoff, Forman photo.
while lawns and other planted areas normally produce
10–20% runoff (Schueler, 1995; Arnold and Gibbons,
1996; Lynch and Hack, 1996; Paul and Meyer, 2001; A more informative indicator of stormwater con-
Alberti, 2008). A 20% impervious surface produces ditions is referred to as drainage connection or con-
about 20% stormwater runoff; 35–40% impervious- nected impervious cover. This is the percent of an area
ness produces about 30% runoff; and 85–90% impervi- with impervious surface directly connected to a water
ousness produces about 55% stormwater runoff. Thus, body (Taylor et al., 2004; Ladson et al., 2006). A roof
adding impervious surface in an exurban area gener- or carpark for instance, may be directly connected by
ates more runoff than does the same surface area added a pipe system to a pond or river. In this case essentially
to an inner suburb. no reduction, slowing, infiltration, or filtering of the
This increase in runoff with more impervious sur- stormwater occurs, so the water body receives max-
face also means a decrease in evapo-transpiration and imum water quantity and quality impacts. On the other
infiltration. Evapo-transpiration is reported to drop hand, a low drainage connection normally means that
only slightly (from 40% to 38%) in going from 10% to water from the roof or carpark drains to an adjacent
90% impervious surface. However, infiltration into the (Figure 6.11) or distant vegetated soil. Such soil is often
soil drops sharply from some 50% to 15% along that in a basin or depression where some or all of the four
imperviousness gradient. Along the gradient, the shal- treatments (reduce, slow, infiltrate, and filter) occur.
low infiltration of water, which supports vegetation Reducing drainage connection provides many eco-
growth and some stream flow, drops from about 25% logical and societal benefits.
to 10%. But deep infiltration potentially reaching the Since greenspaces and spots of green cover typically
groundwater drops more, from 25% to 5% along this have very low runoff percentages, the spatial arrange-
increase in impervious cover. ment of impervious and vegetated surfaces is a key to
These broad percentages of impervious surfaces stormwater flows. For example, in an urban area grad-
or stormwater runoff provide a preliminary overview, ually sloping down to a river, impervious areas alter-
but understanding stormwater flow patterns depends nating with green corridors parallel to the river could
on the types and permeability of individual surfaces have almost all stormwater treated in the corridors.
and their spatial arrangement. Making a smooth sur- Virtually no surface runoff into the river occurs; only
face rougher and adding objects to reduce water flow cleaner subsurface flows enter the river. Alternatively,
increase “surface depression storage” (see equations, stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces could be
Appendix B). This reduces stormwaterr runoff and funneled to a reasonable density of scattered green-
increases evapo-transpiration.. This solution is espe- spaces across the urban area. Spatial pattern remains
cially effective for light rains. Adding soil and plants an opportunity for stormwater research.
increases both infiltration and transpiration, thus Wooded greenspaces are particularly effective at
reducing percent runoff. reducing stormwater runoff (Lynch and Hack, 1996;

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 Urban water systems

Gartland, 2008). Most urban impervious-surface cover, Grabowiecki, 2007). The surface pores permit some
however, replaces former farmland with its furrows, runoff water to infiltrate into the voids and downward
ditches, and roads. This surface transformation only into the sandy soil beneath. In a light rain most water
modestly increases stormwater runoff, though it con- may infiltrate through porous pavement, whereas
siderably changes the pollutants carried in stormwater. the proportion infiltrating is much less in heavy rain.
The highly pervious sand and gravel used in and around Porous pavements are prone to clogging and reduced
impervious surfaces, and covering railways, tends to effectiveness within a few years, though they may be
absorb water and reduce runoff. Transportation struc- cleaned by expensive vacuuming or pressure washing,
tures including roads and carparks often compose more plus pollution collection and disposal. Technology
than half of the urban impervious surface (Southworth research attempts to reduce or eliminate the clogging
and Ben-Joseph, 1996). A 0.4-ha (1-acre) carpark may problem. At present, porous pavement may be most
produce 16 times as much stormwater runoff as does a useful in sidewalks and light-traffic areas such as drive-
meadow (Schueler, 1995), an irony, since commercial ways and some carparks.
carparks are often only 30–40% used (Benfield et al., Permeable pavements, in contrast, are concrete
1999). Narrow streets have significantly less impervi- blocks or plastic structures with large voids (holes)
ous surface than do the usual wide streets of suburbia containing gravel or soil and grass (Figure 6.7) (Scholz
(Girling, 2005; Frazer, 2005). and Grabowiecki, 2007). Thus, rainwater readily
Drainage ditches or swales with grass or other plant infiltrates downward and evapo-transpires upward.
cover provide several functions – friction, infiltration, Occasionally the soil is inoculated with decompos-
transpiration, and retention – that reduce stormwater ition microbes to aid in treatment (cleaning) of storm-
runoff (Spirn, 1984; Hill, 2009). Tiny “check dams” in water pollutants. Permeable pavements reduce, treat,
ditches further reduce runoff (Marsh, 2005). Indeed, and increase infiltration of stormwater. In so doing,
attempting to mimic nature by using a decentralized the pavements increase water recharge to the soil (and
stormwater-infrastructure system to disperse human potentially groundwater), decrease water input to the
effects is a core of “low-impact development” (Richman stormwater pipe network, and reduce pollutants in the
et al., 1997; Forman et al., 2003; France, 2003). The use stormwater.
of vegetated rather than impervious infrastructure can A study of flows through asphalt/tarmac and four
greatly reduce stormwater runoff (France, 2003). types of permeable pavements in a Seattle (USA) car-
For instance in a small residential watershed or park found virtually no runoff from the permeable
catchment, instead of funneling most stormwater pavements (Booth and Leavitt, 1999; Brattlebo and
in a pipe network to a large water-detention basin, Booth, 2003). Compared with runoff from the asphalt,
in low-impact development a decentralized collec- all the permeable pavements’ runoff had lower levels
tion of small water collectors distributed across the of copper and zinc, plus no motor oil, a characteristic
watershed sharply reduces runoff. These collectors, of carpark pollution. Furthermore, less atmospheric
variously called rain gardens, swales, depressions, heating occurs over carparks with permeable pave-
drainage ditches, wetlands, biofilters, detention ponds, ments than over tarmac/asphalt carparks (Asaeda and
and retention ponds, effectively catch, hold, and treat Ca, 2000).
rainwater. In low to average rainfall periods, such an A hydrograph typically portrays the amount or dis-
approach results in little to no stormwater runoff at the charge (cubic meters or feet per second) of stormwater
bottom of the watershed. Runoff from heavy rains is runoff in a stream or ditch or pipe, before and following
sharply reduced. The decentralized vegetation-domi- a storm event (Hartshorn, 1992; Marsh, 2005; Vince
nated system typically increases in efficiency over time et al., 2005; Butler and Davies, 2011). Compared with a
as vegetation matures, and is less costly, less subject to non-urban area, several hydrograph patterns are char-
variations in government budgets, and less likely to fail acteristic of stormwater flows from an urban area.
in heavy rains. Peak flow, the maximum height of water, occurs
Another approach for reducing stormwater runoff earlier in an urban area, due to more rapid runoff. Peak
is to make pavement surfaces more porous or perme- flow is higher, meaning that the potential flood level
able. Porous pavements are composed of a material such is higher and flood damage greater. Peak flows, and
as tarmac/asphalt or concrete that is full of 3-dimen- hence potential floods, are more frequent. The total
sional spaces or voids (Ferguson, 1998; Scholz and amount of stormwater flow is greater, reflecting less

172
 Stormwater and pollutants

infiltration and evapo-transpiration, further increas- stormwater pollution, i.e., the excess materials, chemi-
ing flood potential (see equations, Appendix B). Low cals and heat carried by runoff, originates from many
flows following the storm event are lower, and there- sources and is quite diverse. The pollutants come from
fore streams and other water bodies are prone to drying rainwater, dry aerial deposition (including wind-borne
out, with loss of fish. The daily variation in streamflows material), vehicles (leaks, wear, exhaust), commercial
may be greater (Konrad and Booth, 2005). These pat- waste, industrial waste, construction sites, rubbish
terns of urbanization effects on stormwater runoff from people, animal wastes, road de-icing, urban agri-
highlight the hydrologic value of reducing peak flow culture, and lawns and parks. Pollutants are dissolved
and maintaining adequate flow (base flow) in streams from, and picked up by, stormwater running over urban
during low-flow periods. surfaces, including concrete, bricks-and-mortar, tar-
The lag time between rainstorm and peak-flow mac/asphalt, metals, roofs, and vehicles. For instance,
urban runoff is commonly a few to several hours. water running over concrete or mortar between bricks
Frequent spikes in a hydrograph record indicate short- dissolves and picks up calcium carbonate, and water
duration high-peak discharges of stormwater follow- running over tarmac/asphalt picks up hydrocarbons
ing storms, highlighting the flashiness of urban runoff. (including PAHs) (Frazer, 2005).
Flashy discharges over time tend to degrade stream The first flush of stormwater runoff after a rainstorm
channels and widen rivers. normally is richest in pollution, because the water
In Singapore, a highly efficient storm drainage-pipe quickly washes off much of the material accumulated
system accelerates stormwater flows to rivers, resulting on surfaces since the previous rainstorm. The longer
in severe river flooding. Cities in developing nations the time between storms, the richer the first-flush pol-
typically have less-efficient stormwater-drainage sys- lution. Stormwater, especially the first flush, effectively
tems, and therefore more water infiltration into the soil cleans the city’s surfaces.
that tends to somewhat limit river flooding. Indeed, The array of stormwater pollutants in turn includes
channeling stormwater runoff into ditches or “swales” oil, fecal coliform bacteria, nitrogen and phosphorus
containing grass, herbaceous vegetation, or woody from lawn fertilizers and other sources, plus sediment,
vegetation produces an array of generally useful results: road salt, numerous chemicals from leaks and spills,
more friction, more infiltration, more subsurface water and heat. Pesticides mainly come from domestic lawns,
flow, more groundwater recharge, a higher water-table, gardens, parks, and golf courses. Carparks are normally
less subsidence of the surface, more evapo-transpira- key sources of heavy metals and hydrocarbons (Mielke
tion, less surface-water flow, less erosion, less sedimen- et al., 2000). Stormwater pollution is often separated
tation, longer lag time to peak flow, lower peak flows, into two components: (1) suspended solids that can be
and less flooding. That’s a bundle of benefits. filtered or, in still water, settle to the bottom; and (2)
Dutch studies illustrate how stormwater discharge dissolved substances that are chemically in solution
rate relates to percent impervious (sealed) cover in the water. To give a sense of the characteristic com-
(Tyrvainen et al., 2005). Increasing impervious sur- position of stormwater, the following are averages (in
face cover from 0% to 5% to 10% to 20% to 30% to 40% mg/l) for a single stormwater event in the urban UK
had increasing stormwater discharges of 14 to 16 to 24 (ranges from place to place and event to event are wide)
to 42 to 60 to 80 m3/s. Runoff rate changed little at the (Butler and Davies, 2011):
outset (0% to 5% impermeable surface). But from 10%
upward, discharge increased linearly with increasing • 90 total suspended solids (TSS)
impervious surface cover (Schueler, 1995; Arnold and • 85 chemical oxygen demand (COD, a measure of
Gibbons, 1996). organic matter that is decomposable by a strong
oxidizing chemical)
• 9 biological oxygen demand (BOD, a measure of
Stormwater pollution and local organic matter that is decomposable by microbes
water bodies in the presence of dissolved-oxygen)
One estimate suggests that 70% of the urban-related • 0.56 ammonia nitrogen
water pollution in the USA is due to stormwater run- • 3.2 total nitrogen (TN)
off, far exceeding that directly from industry or human • 0.34 total phosphorus (TP)
wastewater (Loizeaux-Bennett, 1999). Not surprisingly, • 0.30 total zinc (Zn)

173
 Urban water systems

• 0.14 total lead (Pb) 4. Absorption (or adsorption) by humus and mineral
• 1.9 total hydrocarbons soil on the bottom
• 0.01 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 5. Decomposition of organic matter by microbes
• 400 to 50 000 (“most probable number” MPN/100 These pollutant-cleaning processes, however, are
ml) fecal coliform bacteria (E. coli) highly sensitive to, and inhibited by, pollution itself.
Analogous stormwater concentrations occur in Furthermore, some of the stormwater pollutants
urban USA (Schueler and Holland, 2000; Marsh, are extremely toxic, or quite persistent, or accumu-
2005). Total suspended solids include organic matter late through the food chain to become toxic to fish
as well as soil particles and other inorganic particles. predators.
The COD and BOD organic matter comes from dead The combination or interaction of stormwater
leaves, garbage, combined sewer overflows, and other quantity and quality produces most ecological effects
sources. Nitrogen and phosphorus come from almost in local water bodies (Paul and Meyer, 2001). For
all types of urban area including lawns, transporta- example, rapid flows and flooding pick up and carry
tion, industry and commercial areas. Heavy metals more pollutants to water bodies than do slow flows.
originate from many sources, especially industry, Typically in polluted streams, the quantity and diver-
transportation, and flows through metal pipes (see sity of algae present are low. Likewise, compared with
Figure 5.10). Hydrocarbons primarily originate from more-distant natural streams, the quantity and diver-
petroleum products, and fecal coliforms from human sity of invertebrates are low. Fish communities nor-
wastewater. mally are degraded. A study of midges (chironomids),
Local water bodies such as streams, rivers, lakes, the tiny biting pest insects common in urban waters,
and estuaries are the main recipients of stormwater found similar densities in streams along an urban-
pipe or ditch flows. The impervious surface cover of the to-rural gradient, even though species composition
urban area drained is sometimes considered to be the changed along the gradient (Gresens et al., 2007).
primary factor determining conditions for aquatic eco- Particularly detrimental to fish populations in urban
systems and fish in these water bodies (Paul and Meyer, streams are low flows, which have high water tempera-
2001; Lee and Heaney, 2003). For example, increased ture, concentrated pollution levels, semi-isolated pools
accelerated water flows and flooding strongly alter or deep holes, and frequent fish kills.
erosion/sedimentation patterns and fish populations Finally, stormwater pollutants often affect clean-
(Konrad and Booth, 2005; Frazer, 2005). The area of water supplies. In exurban/peri-urban and suburban
a water body close to the ends (outfalls) of stormwater areas, typically stormwater rushes through many short
pipe systems is usually strongly polluted and altered by pipe-networks to local wetlands, ponds and/or streams.
periodic heavy stormwater flows. Water in these water bodies commonly recharges the
Water bodies, including wetlands, contain five groundwater, which in turn serves as the source for
important processes that tend to reduce the ecological water-supply town and private wells. Infiltrating polluted
effects of stormwater pollutants: water through the soil partially cleans the water, as illus-
trated by 30 cm (1 ft) of soil significantly reducing heavy
1. Settling to the bottom by suspended solids or metal (zinc) levels in stormwater (Remmler et al., 1998).
particulates in calm water Analogously for a city, major stormwater pipe-systems
2. Filtration of debris and particulates by underwater often funnel stormwater pollutants into a river, which
plants, stems, dead leaves and branches serves as water-supply for a downriver urban area. Both
3. Assimilation, the uptake of nutrients (including arresting the water flows and cleaning the water pollut-
metals) by growing rooted plants and algae ants enhance potential water supplies for urban areas.

174
 Part II Ecological features

Urban water bodies

Chapter

7
There are no fixtures in nature. a wetland, these three key characteristics are important
The universe is fluid and volatile. in determining the wetland boundary or limit (Marsh,
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Circles, 1841 2005). Generally wetland vegetation covers the small-
est area, wetland soil a somewhat larger area, and wet-
Ye nymphs that reign o’er sewers and sinks, land hydrology the largest area. Thus, a developer may
The river Rhine, it is well known, prefer using wetland vegetation, and a conservationist
Doth wash your city of Cologne; using wetland hydrology, to delimit a wetland bound-
But tell me, nymphs, what power divine ary. In locating septic systems, the presence of wetland
Shall henceforth wash the river Rhine? soil is a clear sign of a wetland. However, a percolation
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, test for water flow through soil typically provides a
The City of Cologne, 1800 more conservative measure for determining suitable
non-wetland conditions.
Virtually all cities began by a water body. After centur-
Thus, with freshwater, swamps often have a visible
ies or decades of expansion, today a city can claim lots
water surface for about 1–3 months (“hydroperiod”),
of urban water bodies of many types. We now dive into
and marshes about 2–5 months, during a year. Coastal
six key topics: (1) urban wetlands and ponds; (2) con-
saltwater wetlands are mainly tidal, with saltmarshes
structed basins, ponds, wetlands, biofilters; (3) urban
mainly in temperate zones and mangrove swamps in
streams; (4) urban rivers; (5) flooding by river and
the tropics (Figure 7.1) (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007).
stream; and (6) urban coastal zones.
Ponds may be present within wetlands.
Human perceptions of wetlands have traditionally
Urban wetlands and ponds been negative – places full of mosquitoes and flies, dis-
eases, odors, and evil spirits, places to get lost in, use-
Wetlands less waste space. Consequently, wetlands have been
The types and definitions of wetlands vary widely. We extensively eliminated by filling or draining, especially
refer to wetlands as vegetation-covered areas where by early farmers in the land today urbanized.
water is at or above the ground surface for an extended In recent decades, perceptions have changed in
period most years (Keddy, 2000; Marsh, 2005; Mitsch many regions so that wetland functions and values are
and Gosselink, 2007). Such a water regime produces more important than the negatives. Accordingly, wet-
three major characteristics of wetlands: land protection, even restoration, has become a pri-
1. Hydrology – water in sufficient quantity flows into ority (Middleton, 1999; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007).
and maintains the wetland. Wetlands as habitats in natural land are well studied
ecologically (Keddy, 2000; Mitsch and Gosselink,
2. Soil – wetland soil is often saturated, contains
2007). Therefore, we simply introduce a handful of
considerable organic matter, and mainly exhibits
wetland characteristics that are particularly relevant to
anaerobic decomposition.
urban areas.
3. Vegetation – plants adapted to wet soil
“Surficial wetlands” normally are shallow and form
predominate.
over a buried hard layer such as clay, concrete, or tar-
In exurban/peri-urban and suburban areas where mac/asphalt, or form where flowing water is blocked,
regulations limit development within a fixed distance of e.g., by a road or building construction (Marsh, 2005).

175
 Urban water bodies

highly variable water levels, receiving considerable

pollution input, and being heavily disturbed by the
surrounding concentration of people. Urban wetlands
are especially dynamic sites where biodiversity reflects
diverse ongoing alterations (Middleton, 1999; Keddy,
2000). The seasonal fluctuation in water level means
that wetlands normally have both an upper aerobic
zone and a lower anaerobic zone. Wetlands are usually
covered with dense vegetation, which may or may not
be species rich, usually containing large patches each
dominated by a single species.
Wetland functions are especially rich, creating the
Figure 7.1. Planting small mangrove trees by tall marsh grass classic multi-functional ecological habitat. Even tiny
along edge of brackish water. Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) urban swamps and marshes perform most of the func-
and reed grass (Phragmites) at high tide. Rio de Janeiro. R. Forman tions. Wetlands reduce flooding. They absorb many
photo.
pollutants. They decompose pollutants. They improve
water quality. They recharge groundwater. They pump
Such sites often dry out during dry seasons and are water upward in evapo-transpiration. They pro-
sometimes called seasonal wetlands. Surficial wetlands tect shorelines and harbors. They provide habitat for
themselves tend to be temporary, appearing and disap- diverse wildlife. They serve as roosts for local birds, and
pearing. In contrast, “groundwater wetlands” receive rest stops in the urban matrix for migrating birds. They
water from the groundwater and the wetland surface support rare species in the metro area. So, in addition
water is essentially at water-table level (see Chapter 6). to providing various values for people, urban wetlands
Pollutants in urban groundwater reach the wetland. are of greater ecological importance than their abun-
“Riparian wetlands” form alongside streams and riv- dance would indicate.
ers, and thus are especially sensitive to annual and peri- A closer look at a few of these urban functions
odic fluctuations in flowing water. is useful. Wetlands are sometimes compared to a
Finally, coastal wetlands (Figure 7.2) are especially sponge, because of an ability to absorb and hold water.
complicated because they often receive stream or river But when wetland soil is saturated, the wetland can
flows, plus freshwater from groundwater (upwelling), absorb very little water. So the sponge analogy is only
but also receive saltwater in varying amounts from valid in the months when the water level is well below
daily tides and periodic storms. Coastal wetlands fre- the soil surface. Wetland microorganisms decom-
quently appear sequentially in saltwater, brackish, and pose many common organic and inorganic pollutants
freshwater zones, though the types often intermix in into harmless by-products or mineral nutrients (see
complex patterns. Chapter 4) (Campbell and Ogden, 1999; Mitsch and
The freshwater tidal wetland is a particularly rele- Gosselink, 2007). Microbes in the aerobic soil zone
vant one for coastal cities by rivers (Figure 7.2) (Mitsch have a high rate of decomposition compared with
and Gosselink, 2007; Guntenspergen et al., 2009). These the low decomposition rate of anaerobic microbes
distinctive wetlands appear along rivers with daily salt- beneath.
water tides rising and falling at the river mouth. These Much of the phosphorus entering a wetland is
tides cause flowing river water to also rise and fall for basically absorbed and held in the wetland soil, though
some distance upriver. On a flat plain, the vegetation some is used in vegetation growth. In contrast, many
and fauna in freshwater tidal wetlands extend a con- transformations of nitrogen occur in a wetland (Keddy,
siderable distance upriver, where freshwater wetlands 2000; van Bohemen, 2005). In the water, nitrogen fix-
appear. The species are adapted to these highly unusual ation, ammonification to NH4+, volatilization, nitri-
conditions, and thus many rare species are normally fication to NO2 and NO3, de-nitrification to N2, and
present. Upriver pollution and riverside development decomposition of organic compounds containing
extensively degrade these distinctive wetlands. nitrogen occur. Assimilation of ammonia (as NH4+)
As suggested, urban wetlands are generally charac- occurs in sediments, while the air contains N2, N2O,
terized by being relatively small and isolated, having and NH3 gases. Wetlands may reduce phosphorus,

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 Urban wetlands and ponds

Figure 7.2. Land and water patterns by

a coastal-estuary river-mouth city.

nitrogen, and other pollutants in water when function- York, New Orleans, and Mumbai. Other San Francisco
ing well. But high levels of pollution tend to reduce the marshes have been diked, harvested, degraded, elimi-
effectiveness of, or eliminate, the water-cleaning func- nated, and/or restored.
tion. Therefore, to provide sufficient wetland water- The East Kolkata (Calcutta) wetlands contain the
cleaning requires having a sufficient wetland cover and world’s largest (125 km2) wastewater ecosystem (see
distribution relative to the incoming level of pollution. Chapter 6) (Costa-Pierce et al., 2005). Located on river
A wetland often has considerable habitat hetero- deltas, the area was long ago canalized and partially
geneity, for instance with tree areas, shrubby areas, drained, with ponds created for harvesting salt. Today,
varied zones or patches of herbaceous vegetation, and sewage wastewater feeds fields, paddies, and ponds that
even open ponds (Keddy, 2000; Mitsch and Gosselink, annually produce thousands of tons each of vegetables,
2007). Frequent diverse disturbances mean that sev- rice, and fish for food. Furthermore, the area is a rich
eral successional stages are often present in patches. reservoir of biodiversity.
Plant diversity may be rich. Waterbirds such as herons, Finally, Indonesia’s capital, Jakarta, is one of the
egrets, rails, and ducks are often conspicuous (Parsons, world’s largest metro areas, covering some 650 km2
2002). Amphibians and reptiles thrive in wetlands of delta and other land surrounding the mouths
without too much pollution. Invertebrates are abun- of approximately 19 rivers emptying into the sea
dant and diverse. Since most of these species are scarce (Marshall, 2005a). Much of the area was former wet-
in a metro area, urban wetlands may not only be bio- land, about half of which has been eliminated by fill-
diversity “hot spots,” but also valuable educational and ing for buildings and roads. Much of the remaining
recreational sites. wetland, however, is home to informal squatter set-
A glimpse of a few urban wetlands highlights add- tlements. Residents create their own homes, lanes,
itional key characteristics. San Francisco Bay was ori- schools, boat transport, electrical lines, and so forth in
ginally ringed with salt marshes, many of which over the mangrove and other swamp vegetation. Although
time have been filled and built on, a common pattern many of the swamp species remain, much of the wet-
for many coastal cities, including Tokyo, Manila, New land habitat is intensively degraded.

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 Urban water bodies

Ponds
Ponds appear to be scarce in urban areas, yet the diver-
sity of pond types is typically quite high. “Ponds” are
small water bodies encircled by land. The combination
of smallness, apparent scarcity, and heterogeneous
types indicates that, in total, ponds harbor a large num-
ber of species. However, the small habitats are relatively
isolated and have rather different species assemblages,
and species movement among ponds is probably lim-
ited. The relative scarcity of ponds also means that by
themselves they are of limited use in absorbing and
treating urban pollutants. However, pollutant-cleaning
by ponds can be important where stormwater or waste-
water is channeled to a pond for filtering and decom- Figure 7.3. Park pond with floating green algae and bordered
posing pollutants (Costa-Pierce et al., 2005; Butler and by cattail marsh. Algal eutrophication probably due to excess
Davies, 2011). phosphorus from park management, stormwater, and waterfowl.
Nesting boxes added to enhance insect-eating birds; cattail (Typha)
Four major external factors mainly control char- and weeping willow (Salix babylonica) behind. Toronto. R. Forman
acteristics in an urban pond (Colburn, 2004): (1) the photo courtesy of Jessica Newman.
surrounding land use; (2) surface-water and storm-
water runoff to the pond; (3) subsurface groundwater from the shoreline, tiny islands in a pond may be suit-
flow to the pond; and (4) shoreline conditions. If the able nesting habitats for some animals threatened by
surrounding land is the lawn of a park or golf course, terrestrial predators.
the pond may receive considerable phosphorus, nitro- A ring of trees around the shoreline provides some
gen, and pesticide, whereas surrounding roads provide water cooling, while fallen branches and leaves provide
considerable hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Surface- aquatic habitat (Figure 7.3). Dense shoreline vegeta-
water runoff typically comes from the immediate sur- tion offers cover for water-dependent frogs, salaman-
roundings, whereas piped stormwater runoff often ders, turtles, snakes, and alligators or crocodiles. Some
drains from several square kilometers of urban area. ponds eutrophicated with excess phosphorus contain
Normally groundwater slowly brings water and urban abundant rooted aquatic-vegetation as well as float-
pollutants from a large area in one direction, and flows ing algae in the water. Other ponds may have a dense
underground into the pond. Shoreline conditions of cover of floating plants such as duckweed (Lemnaceae)
an urban pond also range widely, from natural wood- or water hyacinth (Eichhornia). One or two species of
land (see Figure 1.4) to a ring of trees, lawn, eroded soil, plant often predominates in a particular microhabitat.
rock-pile (rip-rap) border, or concrete wall. Small fish and some larger fish are usually present. With
Pond shape varies from round to having a convo- relatively high microhabitat heterogeneity present, the
luted margin (Kalff, 2002). Although ponds are usually overall biodiversity in a pond is usually relatively high.
only up to a few meters (several feet) deep, a rounded Their being small and surrounded with people and
pond may be deep enough in the center to support some intensive land uses means that pond ecosystems are
relatively large fish. On the other hand, a convoluted frequently disturbed. On average that further enhances
pond has an extensive edge or shallow “littoral zone,” biodiversity. However, pond-repair mechanisms vary
which provides important aquatic-habitat heterogen- from very good (e.g., beavers repairing a leaking dam)
eity, and consequently pond biodiversity. The littoral to minimal (a worn-out pump for water input is not
zone may drop down steeply or may deepen grad- replaced).
ually from the pond margin. A gradual littoral zone, As suggested, urban ponds are highly subject to
in addition to being safer for people, provides a series incoming pollutants from surrounding lawns, roads,
of habitats (Kalff, 2002). Typically one sees a sequence buildings and people, as well as distant pollutants
of emergent, floating, and submerged vegetation, each entering in stormwater pipes and groundwater. Urban
type being a different microhabitat for aquatic insects, ponds frequently look green due to phosphorus and
amphibians, small fish, and larger fish. If far enough nitrogen eutrophication (Figure 7.3). Pond water is

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 Constructed basins, ponds, wetlands, biofilters

nearly still, so sediment and pollutants such as phos- of removing pollutants and of supporting biodiver-
phorus readily settle to the bottom. Eutrophication and sity also vary enormously. Some species movements
extensive algae production in a still pond not infre- between ponds are known, such as amphibians mov-
quently leads to rampant microbial decomposition, ing through suitable habitat between vernal pools
loss of dissolved-oxygen, anaerobic conditions, and (Colburn, 2004). However, linking the diverse scatter
death of fish and other aquatic organisms. Pathogenic of ponds together to provide integrated functions for
coliform bacteria from wastewater-pipe leakage, or the metro area remains a research frontier and plan-
CSOs (see Chapter 6), or from feces of ducks, geese, ning opportunity.
and pets, live in most urban ponds. To counteract some
pond-pollution problems, chlorine is sometimes added Constructed basins, ponds,
to kill most pathogens, and water may be oxygenated
with an air bubbler. wetlands, biofilters
At least 16 types of ponds are present in urban A distinctive feature of most urban areas is the array
areas: of tiny ponds, basins, wetlands, swales, and biofilters
constructed to deal with stormwater and its pollutants
• Natural pond. Surrounded by woods; scarce in
(Rowney et al., 1997; Pitt and Voorhees, 2003; France,
urban area; biodiverse.
2003; van Bohemen, 2005; Davis et al., 2009; Hurley
• Vernal (ephemeral) pool. Water body dries out in
and Forman, 2011). Some of these constructed basins
dry season; often supports rare species.
or depressions (or “best management practices”) (Jing
• Oxbow on floodplain. Scarce (little river migration et al., 2006; Hogan and Welbridge, 2007) end up as ugly
in urban area); biodiverse. rubbish collectors, while others with attractive plant-
• Beaver pond. On dammable stream; usually ings are welcome contrasts with the surrounding built
temporary in urban area; biodiverse. area. Usually all of the basins are ringed by a shallow
• Dammed pond. For recreation, power or flood shelf for safety, and often with a narrow strip of aquatic
control; repairs keep it going. or wetland vegetation. Basins have relatively steep sides
• Pond in former gravel pit. Often quite acid, deep, with a weir or weirs or an outlet pipe near the top.
steep banks, low biodiversity. All constructed basin types are designed to
• Pond in golf course. Receives fertilizers/pesticides; receive and at least temporarily hold stormwater so
eutrophicated ; often used for irrigation. that it does not quickly pour into a local water body.
• Pond in city/suburban park. Fertilizer/pesticide/ Effectively these basins reduce peak flows (cut the tops
animal inputs; ringed with people. off hydrographs) and flooding. Some also treat and
• Public swimming pool. Chlorine added; intensively clean stormwater pollutants. Furthermore, designs dif-
used; nearly void of species. fer depending on whether the underlying urban soil
• Swimming pool in backyard house plot. Chlorine is contaminated or not. If the soil is chemically con-
added; nearly void of species. taminated (e.g., a brownfield), it is best to avoid hav-
• Backyard pond in house plot. Often changing/ ing stormwater flow through it, due to the probability
temporary; many types of species. of leaching out chemicals and carrying them to a local
• Institution or business-center pond. Fertilizers/ water body. Bioretention basins are typically used on
pesticides; some biodiversity. uncontaminated soil.
• Blocked-drainage pond. Surrounding inputs; no Bioretention or retention basins are small con-
maintenance; may be biodiverse. structed ponds or wetlands that retain (hold) and treat
• Constructed stormwater-runoff pond. Peak flows (clean) stormwater runoff (Hammer, 1997; Thompson
and pollutants enter; see below. and Solvig, 2000; Hsieh and Davis, 2005; Davis et al.,
• Pond at wastewater-treatment facility. High in 2009; Hurley and Forman, 2011). If the basin is above
microbial pathogens and/or nutrients. the water-table, usually a clay or other rather imper-
meable layer is placed at the bottom, on which a more-
• Industrial-waste holding and/or treatment pond.
porous soil mix is added (Campbell and Ogden, 1999).
Rich in toxic chemicals.
A key to constructing wetlands is to get the incoming
This array of pond types is equally diverse in their water flow right (Kusler, 1990; Larm, 2000; Braskerud
locations within the metro area. The broad functions et al., 2005).

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 Urban water bodies

Wet-tolerant grasses and other herbaceous vege- runoff, letting it slowly continue onward. This water
tation are common in bioretention wetlands, though detention produces flooding (cuts off the peak flows of
some shrubs and trees provide shade, habitat diver- hydrographs). Between storm events, detention basins
sity, and more evapo-transpiration. Some bioretention remain ponds if fed by groundwater, but often dry out
wetlands above the water-table dry out during dry sea- over time if the water-table is deeper. A small amount
sons or dry periods. Bioretention ponds, though often of evaporation, infiltration, and settling of suspended
eutrophicated by incoming phosphorus and nitrogen, solids occurs (Mallin et al., 2002), but unlike bioreten-
typically also retain good levels of dissolved-oxygen tion ponds/wetlands, almost all the water from deten-
and aerobic decomposition partly because of mixing tion basins and ponds keeps flowing onward. Hardly
by incoming stormwater (Mallin et al., 2002; Tanji any of the stormwater reaches the contaminated soil
et al., 2002; Lavielle and Petterson, 2007; Vollertsen beneath. Detention basins are often seen near the lower
et al., 2007). end of large carparks, where they accumulate trash
Stormwater entering the bioretention depression is and require continued maintenance. In effect, deten-
stored, gradually evapo-transpired upward, and infil- tion basins and ponds slow stormwater flow but do not
trated downward into the soil, potentially recharging really treat (clean) it.
the groundwater (Larm, 2000). Furthermore, storm- Biofilters, usually tiny enclosed wetlands designed
water pollutants are treated (cleaned) by several proc- to both slow water flow and treat pollutants, are used
esses (see Chapter 6) (Mallin et al., 2002; Barrett, 2005; over both uncontaminated and contaminated soils
Braskerud et al., 2005; Dunnett and Clayden, 2007; (Welch and Jacoby, 2004; Dietz, 2007; Weiss et al., 2007
Hogan and Welbridge, 2007): settling, filtration, assimi- Hurley and Forman, 2011). Normally these are tanks
lation, adsorption, and degradation/decomposition. containing engineered soils and wetland plants that
Suspended solids (particulate matter), includ- mainly depend on incoming stormwater flows. Evapo-
ing attached pollutants such as phosphorus, settle in transpiration occurs and water infiltrates through the
the soil or pond bottom. Aerobic microbes decom- internal engineered soils, where the various pollution-
pose organic matter. Anaerobic microbes beneath cleaning processes take place. If the bottom of a biofilter
also decompose organic matter at a slower rate. Other is above the water-table and an underdrain or subdrain
microbes oxidize inorganic compounds, including pipe is present (Dietz and Clausen, 2008; Davis et al,
nitrogen compounds. The soil filters and absorbs/ 2009), water flows out the bottom and onward in the
adsorbs many pollutants out of stormwater infiltrating pipe. If the water-table is higher, water typically flows
downward. Consequently, bioretention basins, which out in a pipe near the top, and onward. Thus, tiny bio-
typically require little maintenance, are the flagship filters both slow stormwater flow and treat stormwater
of constructed stormwater structures because they pollutants.
accomplish so many key functions for society. “Street swales,” instead of stormwater drain pipes,
Swales, as wide shallow ditches covered with grass alongside suburban streets in Seattle and Portland
or other low herbaceous plants, are designed for storm- (Oregon, USA) are effective in both slowing and clean-
water flows, with the grass providing some friction ing water (Dunnett and Clayden, 2007; Hill, 2009). Also,
compared with smooth flow in a pipe (Thompson and stormwater running off the street flows directly to the
Solvig, 2000). In light rains much of the stormwater roots of street trees. With street swales, the stormwater
ends up in the swale, where evapo-transpiration and functions are combined with, and enhanced by, attract-
infiltration occur as well as the varied processes of pol- ive plantings and other features. Indeed, biodiversity
lutant treatment. In heavy rains, most of the stormwa- can be noticeably enhanced with street swales.
ter flows along the swale to its end, though in the days The appealing term, “rain-garden,” usually refers
following, some water and pollutants infiltrate into to a tiny vegetated depression that absorbs stormwater
the soil under the grass-covered swale. Because of this (Dunnett and Clayden, 2007; Dietz and Clausen, 2008.
water infiltration, although limited, swales are most This idea can apply to a tiny bioretention wetland as well
appropriate on non-contaminated soil. as a biofilter. But it also applies to simple depressions
Two structures are particularly used over contami- created in parks and house plots, for example, to absorb
nated soils: detention basins or ponds, and biofilters stormwater from the downspout of a roof drain. Other
(biofiltration cells). Detention basins or ponds (some- tiny stormwater structures include a “rain barrel” that
times called catch basins), basically detain stormwater captures roof runoff, which in turn is used to water a

180
 Constructed basins, ponds, wetlands, biofilters

garden. A “roof cistern” or roof surface catches rain- atmosphere), if any, of the pollutants? What is the
water that is stored in a tank and available for house- output rate (e.g., in surface water or groundwater
hold uses. An underground empty structure or simply a flow) of pollutants?
hole filled with gravel will temporarily hold stormwater. 2. With the chemical concentrations present in the
Green roofs, porous pavements, permeable pavements, soil, will the plant species selected grow rapidly for
and green roofs do too (see Chapters 6 and 10). a sufficiently long period? Will it survive droughts,
As small structures in the urban environment, heavy-rain periods, and other disturbances?
these basins and other solutions are highly subject to 3. Are the soil organic matter, available water, main
disturbances (Middleton, 1999). Droughts, heavy rain- root mass, and any necessary microorganisms
fall events, chemical spills, and human vandalism only sufficient and at the right level in the soil, so that
hint at the range of disturbances that must be withstood the plants effectively absorb the target pollutant
for continued effectiveness in dealing with stormwater. (s), or otherwise lead to its breakdown or
Designing for change, for example using diverse rather detoxification?
than monoculture wetlands, is valuable. Minimizing 4. If the plants absorb the pollutant, how often will
maintenance and repair costs and effort sustains the they be harvested and where will the harvested
array of stormwater treatment structures. plant material go?
Usually the various small constructed stormwater- 5. Is the expected rate of pollutant reduction in
structures outlined are not considered appropriate the soil, or time until achieving a clean soil, cost
for wastewater treatment, because of the high levels effective, ecologically appropriate, and reasonable
of organic matter and pathogenic microbes (Vymazal for society?
et al., 2006). However, large ponds and wetlands fed by
wastewater are used in various metro areas for grow- Such questions emphasize the challenges of brown-
ing vegetables, rice, and fish for food (see Chapter 6) fields and remediation, so continued research and pilot
(Costa-Pierce et al., 2005). projects are important.
Soil remediation commonly refers to the use of one or a Many studies show the effectiveness of individ-
few species for treating or reducing the pollutant levels in ual small constructed basins, ponds, wetlands, and so
a contaminated soil, though many other definitions exist forth (Rowney et al., 1997; Tilley and Brown, 1998; Jing
(Field et al., 1993; Terry and Banuelos, 1999; Kirkwood, et al., 2006). However, much less is known about their
2001; Hollander et al., 2011). “Phytoremediation” uses a cumulative effectiveness for an urban area, say, of tens
rapid-growing plant such as a grass or tree species, while or hundreds of hectares or acres.
“bioremediation” usually uses bacteria or fungi. Two or A modeling study evaluated the amount of phos-
more plant species may be combined (Kadlec and Knight, phorus reduction in stormwater using bioretention
1996), and a range of technologies and materials are ponds and biofilters distributed across 80-ha (200-
commonly used, especially in bioremediation (Margolis acre) industrial and institutional areas close to Boston’s
and Robinson, 2007). Even polluted stormwater could Charles River (Hurley and Forman, 2011). For each
be remediated (Carleton et al., 2000). However, remedi- area, 1 to 40 detention ponds covered 5–15% of the
ation is especially considered for the contaminated soils total surface, and ca. 900 to 4300 biofilters covered
of brownfields. Typically such soils contain the products 5–10% of the surface. The greatest phosphorus reduc-
and by-products of former industrial or manufacturing tion was achieved when all stormwater flowed through
processes, and consequently contain a range of chemi- a constructed treatment basin, irrespective of basin
cals that degrade ecosystem processes and are toxic to types, numbers, sizes, and locations. For basins cover-
many organisms. ing 5% of the total land surface, a single pond achieved
Perhaps most relevant and useful here in the con- a 65% P-reduction, while biofilters with no underd-
text of urban water is to simply pinpoint the key issues rain achieved a 75% P-reduction. Doubling the total
in evaluating when remediation, in this case phy- surface covered by basins only slightly improved the
toremediation, is promising for effectively cleaning a results. The arrangement of treatment basins was more
contaminated soil. important than their total area.
1. What chemical pollutants are of prime concern, at The combination of swales and bioretention ponds/
what concentrations, and at what levels in the soil? wetlands in urban areas is designed to mimic stormwa-
What is the continuing input rate (e.g., from the ter processes in nature, accomplishing some of the key

181
 Urban water bodies

functions of streams, wetlands, and ponds (Thompson

and Solvig, 2000). As much as possible, the constructed
water features are fit to the form and contours of the
watershed or catchment. If swales are curvy or con-
voluted, water flows are further slowed and reduced,
and pollutant treatment increased. In a convoluted
swale, typically considerable phosphorus settles out
in the early portion and much nitrogen is absorbed
and metabolized in the latter portion. The local down-
stream water body receives relatively little stormwater
and pollution from a swale-and-bioretention system.
Low-impact development (see Chapter 6) uses an
integrated array of small stormwater solutions, such as
swales, bioretention ponds/wetlands, detention ponds,
biofilters, green roofs, permeable pavements, and Figure 7.4. Stream directly receiving stormwater and pollutants
from roofs and streets. Large rocks and logs, which survive the
so forth to minimize the amount of stormwater and high-velocity spring flows, cover much of the stream bottom,
its pollutants flowing off a site or out of a watershed thus causing splashes that oxygenate the water and providing
(US Environmental Protection Agency, 2000a,; Hood potentially good fish habitat. Rascafria, peri-urban town north of
Madrid. R. Forman photo.
et al., 2007; Dietz, 2007; Booth and Bledsoe, 2009).
Sometimes called a “begin-at-the-source” solution,
this contrasts with an “end-of-pipe” solution in which Traditionally, and well before the rise of modern
most stormwater is funneled off-site to a large deten- ecology, urban streams were basically considered to
tion basin or local water body. be a component of the stormwater drainage system
One study found no difference in the total stormwa- (Figure 7.4) (Malcom et al., 1986; Carpenter et al.,
ter runoff, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus flowing 2003). The “pipe-like” urban stream carried stormwa-
out of a low-impact development compared with that ter away as fast as possible to a local “receiving water”
from a semi-natural area (Dietz and Clausen, 2008). (Butler and Davies, 2011). Furthermore, stormwater
However, total runoff, nitrogen, and phosphorus were was the essential cleaning mechanism for the city. The
a hundred times (two orders of magnitude) less from a water carried off commercial wastes, manufactur-
low-impact development than from a standard hous- ing wastes, solid wastes, surface accumulations, and
ing development (subdivision). The array of small human wastewater. How else could they have been effi-
stormwater solutions was exceedingly effective. ciently removed from a city?
For the pollutant levels typical in urban stormwater, Engineered streams as lifeless sewers, designed to reduce
the best solution is probably the conservation, recovery, flooding in one location [which] compounds the prob-
and protection of natural systems including wetlands lem downstream
and ponds. However, at present the main alternative Michael Hough, Cities and Natural Process, 1995
seems to be treatment in constructed basins, ponds, wet-
lands, and biofilters. Otherwise local water bodies will Several characteristics of urban streams, including
continue to be polluted or, more likely, become worse. stormwater, flooding, processes treating pollutants,
and low-impact development, have been introduced
in Chapter 6 and the preceding section. Here we pre-
Urban streams sent urban stream-related concepts in two groups: (1)
Unlike most of the preceding water features, which watershed, floodplain, stream; and (2) water quantity,
are unique to or characteristic of urban areas, the next quality, biology.
three water-body types, i.e., streams, rivers, and coastal
zones, are primarily non-urban. An extensive eco- Watershed, floodplain, stream
logical literature exists for each of the three. Rather than Water quantity, water quality, and stream-channel
attempting to encapsulate that knowledge, instead here habitat conditions are three major direct controls
we briefly highlight characteristics of each that make on the ecology of urban streams (Rabeni and Sowa,
the urban versions unusual or distinctive. 2002). In general, water quantity is strongly affected

182
 Urban streams

by conditions of the broad watershed or urban land. short, the streamside strip is a dynamic place (Resh
Water quality is primarily affected by watershed condi- et al., 1988).
tions but also by some local site conditions. Channel Riparian vegetation, particularly woody plants
habitats are mainly affected by local site conditions but along urban floodplains, is another central feature that
also by some broader watershed conditions. Thus, a affects stream ecology (Groffman et al., 2003; Binford
stream site receives water and pollutants from the large and Karty, 2006). The vegetation reduces streambank
upslope urban area but also from a single stormwater erosion, shades and cools the water, serves as habitat
pipe just upstream. Both inputs strongly determine and wildlife corridor, is well used by birds (Knopf et al.,
the stream vegetation, algae, invertebrates, and fish, 1988), drops branches that provide aquatic habitat, and
indeed how the aquatic ecosystem functions at that plays many other ecological roles. In effect, riparian
site. In essence, stream ecology reflects the effects of vegetation is important functionally and for biodiver-
urban land at both broad and site scales (Marsh, 2010; sity (Naiman et al., 1993). Protecting existing riparian
Wenger et al., 2009). vegetation (Ozawa, 2004) seems best, restoring semi-
At the broad scale, the amount and arrangement of natural vegetation is almost as good, and covering the
impervious surfaces, stormwater pipe systems, green- riparian zone with lawn and rows of trees is better than
spaces, and the varied basins, ponds and wetlands impervious surface. Still, much remains to be learned
greatly determines how much water flows in the stream about the ecology of urban-stream riparian zones.
(Jennings and Jarmagin, 2002). As noted above, much More than 130 000 km (80 000 mi) of streams and
less water flows out of a low-impact development than rivers in the USA bear the marks of urbanization (Paul
from a standard housing development. A “small-scat- and Meyer, 2001). Given the branching or converging
tered-patches” perspective of a landscape applies well form of stream networks commonly leading into a city,
in urban areas, and is useful in understanding urban it is likely that most of the total could be called “urban
streams (Forman, 1995; Corry and Nassauer, 2002). streams” (e.g., with >10% impervious cover in the sur-
Even stream restoration sometimes focuses on the rounding area; Arnold and Gibbons, 1996). Probably
concept that “it takes a watershed to make a stream” rivers constitute a small portion of the total length,
(Williams et al., 1997a; Walsh et al., 2005). A viable and semi-natural streams predominate in exurban/
urban stream requires greenspaces of both urban area peri-urban areas (with, say, <10% impervious surface
and stream site. cover).
Since the urban groundwater water-table is often A stream is a narrow water body with perennially
low, perennially flowing streams usually begin lower flowing water on the surface, though periodically it
on the slope or valley, and hence almost all urban may dry out in severe droughts (Giller and Malmqvist,
streams are on a previously formed floodplain. The 1998; Cushing and Allan, 2001; Kalff, 2002). An “inter-
streams theoretically could migrate back-and-forth mittent channel” or gully only has visible surface flow
across the floodplain, but typically human structures during wet seasons, and “ephemeral channels” only
such as bridges and rock-lined banks keep the stream have surface flow during some storms. In dry cli-
channel in a fixed position. Throughout history, urban mates water usually flows beneath the ground surface
floodplains, like wetlands and pond sides, have been in ephemeral channels. Much is known about urban
magnets for dumping rubbish and debris. Hundreds, stream ecology (Booth and Jackson, 1997; Wang et al.,
even thousands, of small mostly buried dumps line the 2001; Paul and Meyer, 2001; Booth and Bledsoe, 2009),
water bodies of an urban area. All kinds of chemicals, though variability is so great that discoveries doubtless
some toxic, enter the stream water from such adjacent lie ahead.
buried sources Headwaters of a stream or river refer to the beginning
More familiar and conspicuous is the infrastructure network of tiny streams (e.g., 1st–3rd-order) (Cushing
on, over, and alongside urban floodplains (Carpenter and Allan, 2001; Kalff, 2002; Allan and Castillo, 2007).
et al., 2003; Forman, 2008): wastewater pipes, storm- Roads cover about 30% of American cities, and it is
water pipes, water-supply pipes, oil/gas pipelines, elec- said that “streets are the headwaters of urban streams.”
tric powerlines, roads, and railroads largely pass in and (Stephanie Hurley, personal communication, 2010).
out of cities along floodplains. Bridges, culverts, and This may increase “stream density” (see equations,
even dams cross these periodically flooded surfaces. Appendix B), and is especially evident where rainwater
All the structures require maintenance and repair. In runs from road surface to roadside ditch to stream. The

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 Urban water bodies

(a) (b) Figure 7.5. Invertebrate species

richness, urbanization, and stream
characteristics. (a) Stream characteristics
relative to urbanization (percent
urbanized land) at two spatial scales.
Local riparian zone = 200 m on both
sides of the stream, and extending 1 km
upstream of a sample site. (b) Species
richness relative to stream characteristics.
Mayflies-stoneflies-caddisflies are
especially characteristic of natural
streams. Clingers typically cling to stones
and rock, often on the underside. A
10-variable “benthic index of biological
integrity” was significant for roughness
and flashiness; not significant for bottom
fine-pebbles and peak flow. Based on
Spearman rank correlation coefficient (r);
7–18 streams in the Seattle Region (USA).
Adapted from Morley and Karr (2002).

roads and roadside ditches thus serve as ephemeral rocks, gravel, sand, and silt often make a mosaic-like
channels. But in a more built-up area, the road-surface stream bottom. Each of the bottom surfaces, and many
water typically flows into a stormwater drain, and then more, is a habitat used by different aquatic species.
continues through a pipe network to a local water body, Stream bottom heterogeneity means habitat diversity,
which might or might not be a stream. which supports biodiversity. A familiar way to increase
Indeed, in suburban areas of moist climates, it is stream habitat diversity, biodiversity, and fish is to sim-
not uncommon for a small semi-natural stream to dis- ply add logs and rocks.
appear into a pipe. Then downslope the water reappears Urban streams are relatively straight because of
in a straightened (“channelized”) urban stream, which human straightening or channelizing. Water velocity is
further downslope also disappears. The channelized greater in straight (sinuosity ratio <1.5; see equations,
stream is frequently armored, that is, lined with rock Appendix B) than in curvy streams. Fast-flowing water
(rip-rap) or concrete (Vince et al., 2005). Hydrologic washes away small particles such as silt and sand, leav-
equations are used for water flow in the heterogeneous ing a mainly rocky, gravelly stream bottom. Slower-
semi-natural stream; engineering hydraulic equations moving water permits silt and sand to settle and cover
for water in the pipe; and something in between for the the bottom, greatly reducing its habitat heterogeneity.
channelized-stream water (Marsh, 2010 Butler and In the Seattle Region (USA), the relative roughness
Davies, 2011). of stream bottoms decreases with percent-urbanized
The bottom of a stream is especially important eco- land in both the broad drainage and the adjacent ripar-
logically (Figure 7.5) (Cushing and Allan, 2001; Kalff, ian zone (Figure 7.5a). The species richness of may-
2002). Water flowing past large rocks and logs usually flies-stoneflies-caddisflies and clinger-invertebrates in
scours out deep holes where big fish (and little) often the stream, both groups characteristic of natural con-
stay, as fishermen know. Tiny headwater streams (first ditions, increases with stream-bottom heterogeneity
order) may have a “step dam” appearance, a series of (Figure 7.5b). However, total invertebrate diversity and
tiny dams and pools formed by rocks, logs, branches, long-lived-species diversity increase with the flashi-
accumulated leaves, and diverse dumped debris. Larger ness of water flows (Chapter 6).
semi-natural streams (second to ca. fourth order) may Normally, straight streams are incising or cut-
have a “pool-and-riffle” bottom, a sequence of alternat- ting the land. Yet also sediments, from stream banks,
ing deep pools with low water and fast-flowing splash- from construction sites, from development-covered
ing water being oxygenated. Various combinations of eroding hillsides, and from stormwater that cleaned

184
 Urban streams

urban surfaces, accumulate on the stream bottom. and intermittent channels with greenspaces and green
Periodically a heavy storm causes a high-velocity cover is especially effective.
high-peak-flow to wash away most of the sediment, Water temperature in urban streams tends to be
leaving a wider, deeper, steep-sided stream channel high and the dissolved-oxygen level low, especially
(Neller, 1988; Paul and Meyer, 2001; Vince et al., 2005; in low-flow periods. Several factors contribute to the
Marsh, 2010). This urban stream channel has low habi- warm water, including urban “heat island” air tem-
tat diversity. perature, scarcity of streamside riparian trees provid-
ing shade, typical lack of inflowing cool groundwater,
and stormwater absorbing and carrying heat from
Water quantity, quality, biology urban surfaces (Paul and Meyer, 2001). In Roanoke
The typical low water-table of urban areas means that City (Virginia, USA), reduced shade and increased
streams are discharging water that infiltrates into the channel width were found to be more important than
soil, rather than being sustained by water entering the urban-surface heat in stormwater for increasing
from the groundwater (to support base flow). Also, an stream-water temperature (Krause et al., 2004). A
extensive impervious surface-cover greatly reduces the slight temperature increase may occur from the input
shallow infiltration of rainwater, which would (via sub- of sewage (CSO) wastewater (Kinouchi et al., 2007).
surface flow) provide water to the urban stream. Thus, Water quality, as discussed above, is normally poor
urban streams are typically water-starved, except for in urban streams (Novotny and Olem, 1994; Paul and
periodic flushes by stormwater from pipes and surface Meyer, 2001; Miltner et al., 2004). A rich mix of heavy
runoff (Carpenter et al., 2003; Walsh et al., 2004). metals and hydrocarbons from transportation, organic
Considerable variation in day-to-day streamflow is matter from wastewater, nitrogen and phosphorus from
common (Brown, 2005). More distinctive is the alter- many sources, and diverse toxic and other inorganic
nating regime of brief high-velocity high-peak-flows and organic substances from industry is characteristic.
and prolonged sluggish low-flows. The flashiness of Typically, the changing mix mainly reflects conditions
peak flows, and the alternating peak- and low-flows, of a local site rather than the whole watershed (Rabeni
characterize almost all urban streams. The pattern and Sowa, 2002). For instance, local woodland cover
tends to be most accentuated in small headwater urban increases ammonium-nitrogen in a stream, while
streams (Cushing and Allan, 2001; Roy et al., 2005; local residential land and stormwater inputs strongly
Allan and Castillo, 2007). Few species are adapted to affect levels of dissolved-oxygen and chemical oxygen
such a fluctuating environment, though as noted below, demand (COD). Nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in
some urban species are (Figure 7.5b). small suburban streams may be higher than in larger
Consider the water flows around a stream in a suburban/urban streams, due to runoff from lawns
small suburban watershed (catchment, basin) (Marsh, and other sources (Pouyat et al., 2009). Total-nitrogen
2010). In a small storm event, visible surface water levels in urban streams are important in affecting the
may slightly widen the stream, which mainly remains abundance of midges (chironomids) and other inver-
within its streambanks (if present). In a medium storm tebrates, as well as the complexity of aquatic food webs
event, the stream may widen some distance across the (Lawrence and Gresens, 2004).
floodplain, but also, surface water is often visible for a In a city-to-exurban gradient, herbaceous vegeta-
considerable distance up the intermittent and ephem- tion lining streams varied enormously in density, spe-
eral channels/gullies. In the occasional extreme storm cies diversity, and species composition (Urban et al.,
event, rushing water may cover the floodplain, and 2006). The vegetation patterns seemed to reflect char-
will normally be visible further up the ephemeral acteristics of the stream, as well as vegetation and built-
channels. area patterns in the surrounding urban area.
Furthermore, in valleys and gullies where surface Herbaceous vegetation along “wet ditches” tends to
water is virtually never seen, considerable (invisible) be dense and species rich (Geertsema and Sprangers,
subsurface-water flows to the ephemeral channels. The 2002; Williams et al., 2003; Blomqvist et al., 2003). Water
subsurface flows do not clean surfaces or cause erosion, flows along the ditch, especially in wet periods. Wildlife
but they do flood basements and cause septic systems such as amphibians, reptiles, and raccoons (Procyon)
to malfunction. From the perspective of water quantity, often use it as a movement corridor. The vegetation
peak flow, and flooding, the protection of ephemeral appears to be highly dynamic, changing in density and

185
 Urban water bodies

species, and particularly sensitive to ditch bank condi- Bernhardt and Palmer, 2007). As noted above, stream
tions such as aspect, angle, height, and erosion. restoration may be a component of urban watershed
Invertebrate diversity in urban streams, compared improvement (or restoration) (Williams et al., 1997a;
with streams out in natural land, is usually quite low at Walsh et al., 2005). A review of 24 urban stream res-
a site, though may add up considerably along the length toration projects concluded that problems and failures
of a stream (Paul and Meyer, 2001; Fletcher et al., 2004). were greatest where an attempt was made to re-create
In most cases population levels are low, probably result- natural channel geometry (Brown, 2000). Basically,
ing from heat, toxins, siltation, organic matter, low surrounding land-use patterns have greatly changed
flows, and other factors. However, a few species thrive, over time, and today’s streamflows respond to today’s
the “urban-stream species,” including types of chirono- urban patterns, not to former natural or other land-use
mids, isopods, amphipods, and oligochaetes. Indeed, patterns. Recovering major characteristics of stream,
some may be adapted to periodic dry conditions. floodplain, and vegetation cover, rather than attempt-
A common riparian-zone salamander species ing to restore detailed forms, vegetation types, and spe-
(Desmognathus fuscus) in Atlanta (Georgia, USA) was cies, is a more promising solution.
scarce along urban streams where scouring from urban Stream daylighting, the exposing of a previously
runoff had eroded streambanks (Orser and Shure, (piped) waterway, has emerged as a component of
1972). Also the reduction or removal of herbaceous recovery (Riley, 1998; Pinkham, 2000; Bernhardt and
groundcover in the riparian zone along urban streams Palmer, 2007). Hydrologically, daylighting relieves
reduced salamander populations. inadequate-capacity culverts and choke points, and
As expected, the fish community of urban streams reduces downstream flooding by using the stream’s
appears to be characterized by few species at a site, and floodplain to hold and slow flowing water. Ecologically,
modestly more along a stream (Karr and Chu, 1999; the goal is to recover semi-natural stream-related func-
Wang et al., 2001; Paul and Meyer, 2001; Fletcher et al., tions and biodiversity. The enhanced sun, air, and soil
2004). Very few species are characteristic of riffles conditions support a significant increase in infiltra-
(stony stretches with splashing/turbulent flow) (Roy tion, evapo-transpiration, aquatic species, riparian
et al., 2005). The fish community appears to change vegetation, and associated wildlife populations. The
seasonally in response to the prevalence of low flows daylighted stream corridor provides a wildlife move-
and flashy peak flows. ment route, and may reconnect fragmented green-
Canals, generally on a floodplain paralleling a river spaces of the urban area. Local residents seem to relish
and with a steady slow water flow, are a distinctive vari- daylighted streams.
ant of a stream/river (Braithwaite, 1976; Gilbert, 1991;
Compagnie National du Rhone, 1996). Lots of charac-
teristics make canals a distinctive ecological feature in Urban rivers
urban areas: (1) eutrophication and plankton commu- Perhaps half of the world’s cities are located by a sig-
nities; (2) steep banks and a relatively homogeneous nificant river, and a fifth of those at the intersection of
silt-covered bottom; (3) flat towpath and a sequence two rivers (Forman, 2008). Rivers run down a crease
of small structures alongside; (4) generally less pol- in the land, so tributaries and pipe systems draining
lution than in urban rivers; (5) locks facilitating fish land and built surfaces on both sides carry water and
movement and the transfer of aquatic species between pollutants to the crease. Urban rivers commonly pro-
watersheds; and (6) usually a sequence of elongated vide boat transportation of both people and goods, as
wetland-vegetation patches. In cross-section, the canal well as waste disposal of stormwater, human wastewa-
corridor may support several fairly distinct plant com- ter, and industrial pollutants. Air movement along the
munities (Gilbert, 1991). Lengthwise the corridor river limits urban heat buildup and also helps clean out
serves for movement of commercial or recreational the city’s air pollutants. Rivers make memorable cities.
boats, recreational walkers, and doubtless lots of birds, In an urban region, the river not only connects the
mammals, and other species. land and people in these ways, but forms a barrier to
Finally, stream restoration usually focuses on some movement across. Bridges, especially near city center,
combination of stormwater management, bank stabil- provide connectivity for vehicles and trains but not
ization, channel reconfiguration, and riparian planting for wildlife. The water and pollutant characteristics of
(Brown, 2000; Carpenter et al., 2003; Walsh et al., 2005; river water mainly reflect the urban region or broad

186
 Urban rivers

watershed (catchment) (Binford and Karty, 2006; restoration often focuses on the river channel and
Galster et al., 2006; Barber et al., 2006; Bryant, 2006). floodplain (Laenen and Dunnette, 1997; Nolan and
Only a fifth of 38 urban regions analyzed world- Guthrie, 1998; Palmer et al., 2005), but as described
wide have >80% natural vegetation covering the land below for Curitiba (Brazil), also includes solutions for
within 2.5 km of streams and rivers (Forman, 2008). headwater areas, riverside parkland, and riverbanks.
Most urban regions have less than a third of the land A worldwide survey suggests that in humid and
near streams and rivers in natural vegetation. Two- temperate areas, urban river channels now have been
fifths of the urban regions have considerable built land enlarged on average 2 to 3 times, and some rivers up
(10–40% cover) present near waterways. Cropland to 15 times the pre-city size (in cross-section) (Chin,
dominates the land near streams and rivers in the great 2006). Tropical urban rivers, however, may be some-
majority of urban regions, and is a major source of sedi- what smaller. A channelized river has a steeper slope,
ment and agricultural chemicals in urban rivers. flows faster, has more high-peak flows, has lower low-
flows, and has a more homogeneous bottom (Brooks,
1998). The lower low-flows mean that solar radiation
River channel and water heats the shallow water, reducing its dissolved-oxygen
A natural river normally migrates on its floodplain, and most fish populations.
that is, has its channel moved from side to side dur- In some urban regions, a huge ongoing amount of
ing major floods (Gregory and Walling, 1973; Dunne silt is eroded from cropland and deposited on river bot-
and Leopold, 1978). This river migration leaves small toms. This sediment accumulation may require regu-
mounds, depressions, wetlands and ponds (oxbows), lar dredging to maintain boat traffic, though dredging
which provide rich habitat heterogeneity and biodiver- also tends to undercut the urban riverbanks, as in the
sity on the floodplain. Near cities, people effectively Brisbane River in Brisbane, Australia. Urban hillside
almost eliminate river migration by construction in the development, construction sites, and riverbanks may
floodplain, including bridges, piers, abutments, cause- be supplementary erosion sites and sediment sources
ways, levees, dams, buildings, and various engineered to the river.
banks (Brooks, 1998). Some of these structures squeeze Riverbanks represent a sequence of habitats them-
or narrow the river through the city, so that water flow selves, containing upland, riverside, and aquatic
is accelerated (by the Venturi effect) (Forman, 2008). hyporheic species (see Figure 6.4) (Gilbert, 1991;
Also the river may be straightened or channelized Postel and Richter, 2003). A study of vegetation along
through the city, further speeding up water flow. riverbanks with fluctuating water levels by the River
The Los Angeles River is an extreme illustration Thames (London Region) highlighted the importance
of some of these attributes (Gumprecht, 1999; Orsi, of riverside microhabitat heterogeneity (Francis and
2004). Before the city, the river and its mouth migrated Hoggart, 2009). An abundance of plants and animals
back-and-forth across a broad plain and delta with lives on river walls with various materials (stone, brick,
lots of wetlands. Such an area is highly heterogeneous, concrete, wood, steel), angles, surfaces, cracks, depres-
dynamic, and species rich (Keddy, 2000; Acebillo sions, drainage, sediment accumulation and exposure,
and Folch, 2000). Over time, almost all the water was and subject to varied maintenance and disturbance
diverted for other uses and groundwater feeding the regimes. Two widespread plant species grew on most
river was pumped elsewhere. Therefore today, except walls sampled, whereas almost all other species were
in flood times, the river trickles with barely any wet- only found on one or two walls. No invasive species
land. Also urban construction initially constrained were recorded. Vegetation cover and species richness
any migration of the seemingly unruly river, and then increased with more wall cracks and heterogeneity.
progressively much of its length was engineered into a Downriver species richness was low, whereas upriver
wide concrete trough. The water trickle is mostly fed richness and vegetation cover were higher (many envir-
by stormwater pipe systems from across the city. Since onmental conditions vary from upriver to downriver).
the natural mechanisms of flood reduction were essen- The vertical dimension from river-bottom to “water
tially eliminated and more peak flows were funneled to column” to surface layer is also ecologically distinct-
the still-called river, flooding can be severe. Residents ive in the three-dimensional urban river (Giller and
and government have restored bits of the water flow Malmqvist, 1998; Allan and Castillo, 2007). Rivers
and wetland in short sections of the channel. River mainly with low-flow conditions may have a diversity

187
 Urban water bodies

Figure 7.6. River water quantity and

quality in urban region. Water runoff
into the river decreases with loss of
agricultural land, and increases with
urbanization expansion. Tributary
stream-water is commonly piped
through the all-built metro area. Ag
= agriculture; Ind = industrial; Stw =
stormwater; p = pollutants.

of rooted vegetation scattered across much of the river much less known (Thaitakoo et al., 2013). Such big
bottom (Gilbert, 1991). Otherwise, rooted vegetation is urban floods are expected to increase with global cli-
mainly limited to the riverside, and attached algae cover mate change (IPCC, 2007).
underwater structures such as bridge piers and logs. On the other hand, most cities have “adapted” to
Floating algae (phytoplankton) are abundant in the the frequent regular seasonal increases in river flows,
upper water column with abundant light, and are much e.g., by building riverside embankments, providing
less dense deeper down. Numerous tiny herbivores feed depressions in adjoining parkland to hold floodwater,
on the algae, and abundant aquatic insects feed on both constructing a secondary greenspace route for flood-
tiny herbivores and fine organic-matter from upriver water flows, and protecting headwater areas. In urban
vegetation. Deeper into the river-bottom sediment are areas that have not been narrowed or channelized, sea-
an array of highly distinctive low-oxygen-requiring sonal flooding provides access to rich floodplain habi-
groundwater (hyporheic) animals and microbes, as tats for fish and aquatic insects (flood-pulse model)
described in the Danube River sediment downriver of (Junk et al., 1989; Kalff, 2002). Nutrients are available
Vienna (see Chapter 6) (Pospisil, 1994). for rapid growth, young fish have an assortment of nur-
A river slicing through an urban region exhibits a series to avoid predation by big fish, and nutrients are
relatively predictable changing pattern of water qual- carried back into the main channel. Even individual
ity (Figure 7.6), based on the sequence of pollution heavy-storm events provide some of these benefits. I
sources along the water-flow route. Also, water quan- recall the Sarapiqui River in Costa Rican rainforest ris-
tity patterns follow somewhat predictably (Figure 7.6). ing 7.3 m (24 ft) in about 18 hours due to heavy rain in
In the hydrologic case, four water levels are ecologically the distant mountains. The muddy floodwater briefly
important: (1) normal flow; (2) water-table; (3) flood- spread out across a forested and pastured floodplain,
ing; and (4) low flow. dispersing seeds and covering everything with nutri-
In flood time, water rushes to the city. Then the ent-rich tree-growth-stimulating sediment.
many stormwater drainage-pipe systems lining the Urban rivers also have low-flow times. In non-urban
river pour in some more water, so that the downriver areas groundwater entering the river from below keeps
urban area may suffer large and many floods. The effects an adequate water level (base flow) for supporting fish
of big urban floods on society are well known. But the populations (Orsi, 2004). However, most cities have a
important ecological effects, as described below, are lowered water-table due to pumping. In addition some,

188
 Urban rivers

such as the Los Angeles River mentioned above, have Two pesticides, DDT and chlordane, heavily used
diverted water or its supporting groundwater away for in agriculture have been recorded at high concen-
irrigation, industry, and/or urbanization. Low urban- trations in New York’s Hudson River (Wohl, 2004).
river flows, especially when combined with water pol- Hundreds to thousands of tons of heavy metals (Cd,
lution, are highly degrading to the aquatic ecosystem. Cu, Pb, Hg) during the 1960s were annually dumped
Cities, particularly in dry climates, may pump gray into New York’s Hudson/Raritan river areas. Long after
water or sewage-treatment effluent to support riverside four decades of dumping polychlorinated biphenyls
floodplain wetlands. (PCBs) in Connecticut’s (USA) Housatonic River, fish-
ing is still banned. Pesticides – at least 8 herbicides, 8
fungicides, 17 insecticides, 2 nematocides – and indus-
River pollution and fish trial organic compounds (including dioxin, PCBs, and
In general, river high-flow or flooding time is espe- five others) in rivers are known to cause reproductive
cially characterized by water high in turbidity (in and endocrine-disrupting effects.
this case, muddiness) and sedimentation (Hartshorn, The ecological effects of various pollutants have been
1992; Laenen and Dunnette, 1997). Low flows particu- outlined above under streams as well as in Chapters 4
larly show the detrimental ecological effects of thermal to 6. Thus, simply a few river-focused dimensions are
pollution, low dissolved-oxygen, pollutant toxicity, mentioned here (Novotny and Olem, 1994; Laenen and
salinity (where relevant), and excessive algal growth. Dunnette, 1997; Korhnak and Vince, 2005). Mainly
Indeed, where low flow is mainly fed by groundwater, sediments and agricultural chemicals wash right
urban groundwater is usually quite polluted. Any flow through the city, and have effects in downriver lower-
level may have elevated microbial pollution, including flow areas. A legacy of industrial-waste dumping in riv-
fecal coliform bacteria such as E. coli. ers is mirrored in today’s decades-later degradation of
It seems that if a river species is primarily limited by the aquatic ecosystem (Grimm et al., 2008). Hazardous
hydrologic water flow, the percent of impervious cover waste spills, with toxic chemicals commonly washed
is a useful predictor (Allan, 2004). On the other hand, into the river, are concentrated in urban areas, along
if the species is mainly limited by pollution, the per- with industries and transportation (Wheeler et al.,
cent of urbanized land in the watershed may be a better 2005). Heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
predictor. bons (PAHs), especially from transportation, degrade
Urban rivers, as the traditional major cleaning aquatic invertebrate populations (Paul and Meyer,
structures, carry away sewage wastewater and indus- 2001; Wheeler et al., 2005). Many chemicals, including
trial wastes, as well as stormwater-drainage pollut- some heavy metals, bio-accumulate up the food chain
ants from residential, commercial and industrial to toxic levels (Wheeler et al., 2005). Mercury channeled
areas. Industries and sewage-treatment facilities are into the Sudbury River in suburban Boston more than
often concentrated on the downriver side of a city 70 years ago accumulated in river-bottom sediments at
(Figure 7.6). In flood times, combined sewer overflows levels such that the fish are still unsafe to eat for 50 km
(CSOs) and cleanouts of industrial-waste sites are downriver. Partially treated wastewater entering a river
common. In effect, downriver urban areas (and further produces a well-known downriver sequence of species
downriver) are both flood-prone and subject to a large types, ranging from highly tolerant to highly intolerant
dose of water pollution. of sewage (Carpenter, 1983; Gilbert, 1991). Nitrogen
Conspicuous cases of river pollution are illustrated at elevated levels was recorded down the Seine River
by the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland (Ohio, USA) catch- for 100 km from Paris’ major sewage-treatment facil-
ing fire in 1936, and again in 1952 (Wohl, 2004). In ity (Chesterikoff et al., 1992). Stormwater-runoff pol-
1990, mainly untreated sewage from 12 million people, lution seems almost innocuous compared with these
chemical pollution from >1000 industries, diverse pol- river inputs, but, as described in Chapter 6, it has sig-
lutants from upstream tributaries, and tons of rubbish nificant ecological effects on the aquatic ecosystem.
was dumped into the Tiete River of Sao Paulo. After Even moderately clean urban rivers are generally
considerable cleanup, the river today is less polluted not “swimmable or fishable.” For example, the Charles
even though the city has grown much larger. Still, many River slicing through the Boston Region has had
cities of the world are squarely on the trajectory of the excessive phosphorus, mainly originating in storm-
Tiete before clean-up. water runoff from almost all urban land uses (Hurley

189
 Urban water bodies

and Forman, 2011). Nutrients do not recycle much in floodplains serve as “fish refugia,” where the fish can
urban rivers; mainly they simply flow through the city. stay until suitable water conditions occur for long-dis-
Reducing the phosphorus source is the main key to tance movement (Carolsfeld, 2003).
making the river swimmable and fishable.
Few fish thrive in urban rivers (Gilbert, 1991;
Laenen and Dunnette, 1997; Karr and Chu, 1999; Riverside structures and riparian vegetation
Allan, 2004). Muddy sediment from upriver agri- City riversides are typically lined with low rises, high
culture clogs up gills, tends to homogenize the river- rises, old industries and infrastructure, along with
bottom, and degrades food sources. Then add all the scattered parks. Promenade walkways along the river
urban pollutants, and urban-river fish survival is dif- are particularly attractive to tourists and residents.
ficult. Most resident fish tend to be slow-water fish in Upriver, more greenspaces and low-density residential
little patches of slow water, while species of fast-water areas typically appear. Downriver, more industries, a
riffles are especially scarce. The relative abundance of sewage treatment facility, and more flooding are char-
impervious surfaces and scarcity of riparian vegetation acteristic. About half the riverside cities get a major
in riversides may have a significant effect on fish popu- portion of their water supply from the river, mostly
lations (Karr and Chu, 1999; Binford and Karty, 2006). within 15 km upriver of city center (Forman, 2008).
The importance of vertical and horizontal structure Close human interactions with an urban river are
within the river is illustrated by heat pollution from an considered to be important for residents, tourists, and
electric-power facility located by Boston’s Lower Charles river commerce, as illustrated in Paris, Firenze (Italy),
River. The government permit for the facility apparently Moscow, Melbourne, St. Louis, San Antonio (USA),
allows water heating of deeper river-water to extend only and other cities. Generally this means not separating
a short distance from shore, while in the upper water- the people and river by a railway or highway, though
level, heated water can extend outward about two-thirds sometimes a walkway or tree-lined promenade is a
of the river width. In this way, river fish have a consider- solution (Figure 7.7d). A wide linear greenspace or
able area of bottom for feeding, but more importantly, greenway is a favored solution for residents, as well as
can swim past the polluting power facility in normal- ecologically for the river corridor (Cole, 1993; Baschak
temperature river water near the far shore. and Brown, 1995; Asakawa et al., 2004; Erickson, 2006;
Indeed, structural habitat heterogeneity seems to Hellmund and Smith, 2006; Bryant, 2006).
increase fish populations and diversity even in somewhat A diverse, heavily used riverside infrastructure par-
polluted urban rivers and other waters (Wolter, 2008). allels rivers in urban areas. Gas pipeline, oil pipeline,
Suitable heterogeneous and semi-natural shorelines are electric powerline, water supply conduit, sewage waste-
particularly valuable for the urban fish community. water pipeline, railway, and highway are common.
River water pollution close to cities blocks fish These all require local maintenance roads, some of
migration up and down river, such as (anadromas) which are often on the floodplain. Also, sand and gravel
fish mostly living in the sea and breeding in freshwater mining for construction creates pits in floodplains.
(Lucas and Baras, 2001; Wolter, 2008). Different types Small objects lined up along the urban floodplain
of river fish often migrate following large water dis- are common. Stormwater pipe outlets, ditches, and
charges or floods. This is illustrated during especially tributaries pour water into the river. Fill on the down-
high flows in a Manchester (UK) ship canal, when pol- slope sides of roads is particularly prone to erosion. In
lutants are diluted and dissolved-oxygen levels high exurban and suburban areas, wildlife moving between
(McCleave et al., 1984; Lucas and Baras, 2001). Fish land and river cross the infrastructure barriers through
movement in a local area of a river may track food avail- occasional suitable bridges and culverts, such as along
ability, while longer-range movement may be mainly a Washington’s Potomac River. Specifically designed
search for suitable food sources. wildlife underpasses would facilitate movement.
For a city in Brazil, migratory fish were not recorded Typically, urban riversides have a dock area for rec-
within 300 km downriver (Alex Bager, personal com- reational boats, ferryboats, and shipping (Figure 7.7g
munication, 2010). But after the city built a sewage and h). Though heavily polluted, the aquatic habitat
treatment facility, migratory fish moved up close to heterogeneity provided by piers and docks often sup-
the city on the downriver side. In the river network ports some relatively uncommon urban species. In
of tributaries, apparently forested parks with natural some river cities, harbors or lagoons have been dug out

190
 Urban rivers

(a) (b) Figure 7.7. Nine alternative forms of

urban riversides. Based on Wrenn et al.
(1983), Holzer et al. (2008), Brown (2009)
and other sources.

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

(i)

for boats, e.g., in a former wetland, and doubtless con- land, but do provide beneficial conditions for riverside
tain high pollutant concentrations plus some uncom- aquatic species, as well as terrestrial vertebrates mov-
mon aquatic species along edges. ing along the river. Floodplains, especially in suburban
The more natural land uses on riversides con- and exurban areas, may contain productive commu-
trast with the hard engineered borders. Small or tiny nity gardens (see Figure 6.8), and, if wide, may provide
wetlands typically appear scattered along the shore market-garden production for the city.
(Gilbert, 1991; Giller and Malmqvist, 1998). These Nine contrasting forms or types of riversides seem
collect a tiny amount of sediment and pollutants. to characterize urban areas worldwide (Figure 7.7).
The riverbank sometimes has stretches with a line of A comparison of the riverside types based on 16 eco-
shrubs, trees, and other vegetation. Such narrow strips logically related variables suggests several patterns of
do little for arresting runoff and pollutants from the interest (Table 7.1). Essentially all of the forms have

191
Table 7.1. Evaluation of environmental conditions on diverse urban riversides. See Figure 12.1. Overall evaluation for each environmental variable: + = positive; − = negative; . = not
relevant, or positive and negative dimensions about equal

(d)
(b) (c) Central (f) (i)
(a) Park over Park stair- large park (e) Wetland, (g) Flood
High-way, road/flood stepped to and green Industrial highway, Islands, (h) Tributary, diversion
buildings tunnel water walk area buildings docks harbors channel
Air, soil, water
Summer heat − + + + − . − + .
Wind − + + + − . − . −
Air pollution − + + + − . − + .
Soil organisms − + + + − + − . +
Erosion, deposits + . − . − + − − .
Pollution to river − + . + − . − . .
Flood- prone − + + . . . − + +
Wetland, aquatics − − . − − + . + .
Fish & migration − . . . − + + + −
Habitats, species
Vegetation cover − + + + . . − . .
Natural vegetation − . + + . + − . .
Habitat diversity − . + + . . . + .
Habitat connects − + + + − . − . +
Biodiversity − . + + . + . + .
Riverside trees − − + + . + − . .
Water- birds − . + . − + + + −
Positives 1 8 12 11 0 8 2 8 3
Negatives 15 2 1 1 10 0 11 1 3
 Flooding by river and stream

both ecologically positive and negative roles (relative

to plants, animals, soil, air, water). Negatives strongly Flooding by river and stream
outweigh positives in three cases (Figure 7.7a, e, and g). Floods strike fear in people due to the high risk of
Positives predominate in five cases (Figure 7.7b, c, d, f, property damage and drowning. Flooded basements,
and h). The relative riverside patterns for soil, air, and malfunctioning septic systems, and blocked roads and
water overall are similar to those for habitats and spe- driveways also cause inconvenience. Yet long-term
cies. Finally, individual variables or features play key floodplain farmers may like the deluge, the overflow
positive or negative roles on riversides. or expanse of water covering their land. Following the
Riparian vegetation, i.e., natural or semi-natural powerful rushing flows, receding waters normally leave
plant cover alongside a river or stream, is the most wet depressions and cover the land with an uneven
ecologically important component of the riverside. layer of silt rich in nutrients.
The vegetation provides dead organic matter in both So it is with urban stream and river flooding.
particulate and dissolved form, as well as terres- Puddles and ponds and wet depressions seem to prolif-
trial insects, to the river. These are important food erate. Wood and debris piles appear. Silt and mud paint
sources for aquatic insects and the river food web the place, filling cracks, lightly covering smooth sur-
(Baxter et al., 2005). In addition, the riparian vegeta- faces, and accumulating to impressive depth in spots.
tion provides friction, filtration, riverbank protection Plants and animals quickly respond and cover these
against erosion, some water storage in the soil, shade, new rich water and soil surfaces. The flooded urban
and fallen logs and branches. The wood creates valu- area is ecologically rejuvenated, while people are clean-
able habitat for fish and other organisms in an urban ing up and rebuilding.
river (Naiman et al., 1993; Binford and Karty, 2006; Flooded coastal cities instead get painted with
Naiman, 2009). salt, and sometimes sand. These surfaces quickly dry
The riparian vegetation may be essentially continu- out and rather few plants and animals colonize and
ous on one or both sides of the river, as in Washington, thrive. Overall, most of this new post-flood life in the
Edmonton (Canada), and Pamplona (Spain). Even city is gradually snuffed out by a long cleanup process.
passing under bridges, as in Washington, the wood- Indeed, pest species such as mosquitoes and midges
land connectivity, with few breaks for lawns, roads (chironomids) may stimulate people to accelerate the
or buildings, is useful for wildlife movement. Some cleanup. Nevertheless, the flood process provides a
migrating birds over a large metro area move and dis- successional-habitat toehold for some plants, butter-
perse seeds along riparian corridors (Tabacchi et al., flies, diverse invertebrates, birds and other animals that
1998). However, a three-decade (1966–97) compari- spread in the urban area, or are ready to spread with the
son of urban riparian-woodland patches along the next flood.
Furukawa River of Hiroshima City found that the Floods repeat. People in flood-prone areas can com-
riparian patches decreased in size, and became longer pare the present flood with those of the past. Society
and narrower (Tanimoto and Nakagoshi, 1999). often estimates or maps the area covered by a 50-year
A study of river riparian vegetation in an flood and a 100-year flood, and may have regulations
extensive, mainly built area roughly centered on against building in those zones. These are zones where
Manchester (UK) found more non-native plant spe- there is a 2% chance, or 1% chance, of a flood each year
cies in degraded river sites and in woodland, shrub, (see equations, Appendix B). But such flood zones
and tall-herb sites, compared with those in grassy change over time, depending largely on changing land
sites (Maskell et al., 2006). Sites with higher fertility use. For instance, Tulsa (Oklahoma, USA) apparently
and pH seemed to favor native species. Many later- had four “100-year floods” in 14 years (1970–84). Since
successional riparian sites (see Chapter 8) were domi- the flood zones had not been re-mapped for some
nated by a non-native species. Not surprisingly, given time, each flood was considered an extreme case. Like
the scarcity of urban riparian vegetation, rare species many flooded cities, each time the urban area seemed
may be present. Thus, a vireo species (small insectiv- to rebuild toward pre-flood conditions, as if suddenly
orous bird) in the San Diego (USA) metro area may floods were expected to stop.
survive at least temporarily alongside an urban river Generally, flood risk can be measured as peak flow,
(Beatley, 1994). that is, the maximum water depth from a storm or flood

193
 Urban water bodies

event (Butler and Davies, 2011). In estimating risk, Land use (land cover) is a major determinant of how
some propose to link peak flow with its undesirable much water runs off the land. Natural vegetation
consequences. For instance, flood damage to a building greatly reduces and slows water runoff, even on rather
is usually minimal if peak flow remains below ground- steep slopes, thus minimizing flood risk. Converting
floor level, whereas considerable damage occurs if peak forest or woodland to pastureland greatly increases
flow reaches 0.5 m above floor level. downslope flood probability. Converting the surface
But such a measure of risk would need to incorpor- to cropland, especially with straight drainage or irriga-
ate damage to natural systems in urban areas. Floods tion channels, further increases downslope/downriver
may flatten park trees; pour salt into freshwater ponds flooding (and additionally accelerates soil erosion and
and lakes, killing the aquatic flora and fauna; clog up downriver sediment deposits).
wastewater sewage systems, causing serious pollu- Converting the woodland surface to built land often
tion; disrupt storm drainage; wash out small dams; results in the most severe flooding. Although it is pos-
spread toxic wastes from industrial treatment ponds; sible to design development to limit flooding, the typ-
and spread mosquito-borne diseases. Natural systems ical built area is full of structures that channel or funnel
underlie and permeate all cities and are at risk of sig- water downslope. Roads, ditches, and pipes accelerate
nificant alteration by floods. water runoff down gullies and streams. Periodically
Four major sources or causes of urban flooding are in the much-developed Maresma hills by Barcelona,
usefully recognized: (1) land upriver or upslope; (2) water and mud crash down gullies, rolling cars, wiping
floodplain conditions upstream and upriver; (3) con- out structures, and leaving mounds of debris at valley
ditions in the city, especially stormwater drainage; and bottoms.
(4) coastal storms (even tsunamis). Rainwater, some- Thus, development on hillsides leads to a signifi-
times combined with snowmelt, is central to the first cant flood risk due to rapid short-duration, high peak
three, while seawater mainly represents the fourth flows, often called flashy or flash floods. Such floods,
source. The last two, urban stormwater flooding and also characteristic of some desert areas, may be espe-
coastal flooding, are explored in a section below. Here cially damaging, both because of their quick and oft-
we introduce flooding from land and floodplain. unexpected appearance and the high water level briefly
Floods from the upriver or upslope land normally reached. In general, urban flash floods tend to be espe-
result from rain or storm events. In a light rain over a cially severe where impervious hard surface covers 30%
long period, water infiltrates into and saturates the soil or more of the land (Walsh et al., 2005). Typically, hous-
(fills the soil pores), which increases base-flow levels ing development on the slopes of hills and mountains
in streams. Slight prolonged flooding may follow. In a surrounding a city directly results in flooding parts of
heavy, short rainstorm, relatively little water infiltrates the urban area.
and most water quickly runs off the surface (see equa- Several human activities in the floodplain val-
tions, Appendix B). This commonly produces a large ley itself cause or accentuate flooding. Removal of
powerful short-duration flood that may cause damage. upstream/upriver woody vegetation in the flood-
The problem is accentuated if the ground is frozen, or if plain reduces the significant floodplain friction bene-
it is a “rain-on-snow event” when a significant amount fit, by which riparian vegetation slows water flow.
of snowmelt water is combined with rainwater runoff. Eliminating most floodplain friction leads to higher
A long-duration heavy rain saturates the soil, and run- peak flow in the downriver urban area. Agriculture,
off produces prolonged severe flooding. The last case including cropland and pastures, benefits from the
is illustrated by a 1995 mega-flood along most of the high water-table and nutrient-rich soils of a floodplain.
Mississippi River (Marsh, 2005). Cities and towns on Indeed, wet rice production essentially depends on the
riversides or bisected by flood-prone rivers and major frequent floods. Irrigation channels in floodplains are
tributaries are frequently flooded, as illustrated by New a special challenge because during dry periods they
Martinsville (West Virginia, USA) on the Ohio River must carry sufficient water to all fields, and in wet peri-
(Baker, 2009). ods drainage channels must prevent too much water
The downtown area flooded so regularly that there was in any field. This combined irrigation-and-drainage
a local law requiring that motorboats cruising on Main system is more-or-less adapted to annual high flows,
Street not exceed 15 miles per hour – a law intended to whereas big floods require considerable subsequent
minimize breakage of shop windows! repair.

194
 Flooding by river and stream

Figure 7.8. Narrowed channelized

portion of a river through a city center
where history has recorded huge
floods. Continuous tree lines along
both sides of the River Seine and on the
island. Floodwaters draining a huge
agricultural land, formerly forested, have
inundated urban roads alongside the
river. Low-rise buildings with large central
courtyard (lower right) and a series of tiny
courtyards (lower left); recreational fields
and courts adjoining. Paris. R. Forman
photo.

Traditionally, industrial development close to a floodplain. Development then sometimes creeps onto
river used the water for power, cooling, and waste dis- the floodplain. Levees work, until they are occasionally
posal, functions that now can usually be provided away overtopped or otherwise rupture, causing major flood
from a river or stream. Commercial and residential damage to the unfortunate floodplain development.
development in the floodplain is basically misplaced, Many of the preceding human structures and devel-
and regulations often prohibit it. Narrowing of the opments tend to be just upriver of or in the urban area,
river channel or floodplain by rock and concrete barri- and consequently tend to increase flooding in the area
ers raises and accelerates water flows, too often leading downriver of city center. However, a narrows or dam or
to more and worse flooding. Narrowing is especially other blockage of water flow also raises the water level
characteristic of the city-center stretch (Figure 7.8). for a short distance upriver, which may send floodwa-
The Cheonggyecheon Stream/River in city-center ter into adjoining urban areas. Of course the infrequent
Seoul had severe flooding due in part to urbaniza- rupture of a dam instantaneously fills the downriver
tion of the surrounding land plus floodplain narrow- valley with floodwater and mud that may spread over
ing (Rowe, 2010). An urban restoration project in the both land and built area.
2000s ripped out a congested elevated highway over Stream/river channelization straightens the stream
the river, added recreational parkland and walkways (reducing its natural curviness) and reduces heterogen-
on both sides, and created buried compartments and eity in the channel (removing large rocks and logs that
tunnels under and alongside the river to handle heavy produce turbulence and decrease the downstream flow
water flows (Figure 7.7b). Although an input of pumped rate) (Figure 7.8). Europe’s big Rhine River was straight-
water is required, the objective of reducing or eliminat- ened and shortened in the early 1800s (McNeill, 2000).
ing city-center floods there seems to have been met. In the late 1600s beaver managed the river floodplains
An even bigger picture is useful or essential in of Illinois (USA), but two centuries later a quarter of
water-flow issues. Thus, a flood solution may improve the total river length in the state was channelized.
conditions at one location but worsen them down- Numerous solutions worldwide for stream/river-
stream. Alternatively, it may improve conditions in related urban flooding have been implemented. In The
both places. Woodlands, an outer suburb of Houston (Texas, USA),
Sometimes levees (dikes built on the floodplain perceptive designers successfully used the air spaces
somewhat paralleling the river) are added to help within soil, especially sandy soil, as “temporary basins”
floodwater rush past a city without covering the to hold heavy rainwaters, and essentially prevent floods

195
 Urban water bodies

in a flood-prone area (Spirn, 1984; Galatas and Barlow,

2004). In Denver (Colorado, USA), several parks with
low, mostly grassy areas along the flood-prone Platte
River and tributaries serve as temporary holding basins
for floodwaters originating in the nearby mountains.
In the late 19th century, F. L. Olmsted designed a
large Fens-and-Riverway project on the edge of Boston
with one-third of the area for flood control and sanitary
improvement (Spirn, 1984). The design later became
a major recreation area. Large storms dumped water
on the created wetlands, which absorbed much of the
water, gradually over weeks releasing it downstream
and to the air. This water-focused solution contrasted
with the adjoining lower basin, where extensive hard Figure 7.9. Saltwater fish that live near freshwater of a river
surfaces and straightened waterways channeled flood- mouth. St.-Malo, Bretagne, France. R. Forman photo.
waters downstream within hours and days.
In the 1970s–90s, Curitiba (Brazil) created a
remarkable multi-dimensional solution for flooding empty or as warehouse storage space. A zonation of
that also addressed a range of key urban problems algae and other species thrives on diverse moist build-
(Schwartz, 2004; Irazabal, 2005; Moore, 2007). Five ing surfaces. A range of fish and other aquatic species
rivers essentially converge in the city and produce (Figure 7.9) that ordinarily could not survive in urban-
damaging floods. Headwater areas far upriver were polluted waters thrive in the cleaner floodwaters and
protected against development. Informal squatter set- diverse aquatic habitats available in and around build-
tlements and other development were removed from ings, bridges, and other structures.
the highest flood-risk areas in the river valleys. Major Streets where sidewalks and ground-level shops are
riverside parks with green elongated depressions to frequently flooded are good candidates for establishing
temporarily hold floodwater were established. Habitat a second level of sidewalks and shops, elevated over the
diversity in parks greatly increased, both from the existing ground-level ones. A third upper-level side-
varied surface topography created, and from diverse walk/balcony could serve businesses and residences
plantings including fruit trees, ornamentals, and above.
native species. Several flood-control reservoirs were Low-flow conditions in urban streams and riv-
constructed with protected land around them, and ers are essentially the opposite of flooding. Low flows
were used for recreational fishing. Channelization was may occur during drought or low-rainfall times, but
minimized so that the natural curves of streams and urbanization causes or exacerbates low flows. In urban
rivers would slow water flows and reduce downriver streams, low flow is mostly a result of humans remov-
flooding. Throughout the process, the major goals ing groundwater rather than meteorological drought.
were flood mitigation and recreation for all segments Groundwater wells are pumped for industry and other
of society. Yet by-product benefits were considerable, uses, including clean-water supply, thus lowering the
including valuable wildlife habitat, improved air qual- water-table and drying out wetlands and streams.
ity, decreased illegal waste dumping, and informal Lowering the water-table often leaves an urban stream
squatter settlement on less-threatened sites. or river with a thin saturated soil beneath it, but these
Finally, extreme cases of flood-prone cities such as are “disconnected” from the lower groundwater by a
Bangkok and Venice offer insights into human adap- zone of non-saturated soil. Being disconnected from
tation to existing conditions and sea-level rise. A ris- the groundwater means that the riparian zone with its
ing water-table tends to disrupt underground drainage stream/river is “perched.” The perched riparian zone
systems and transportation, cause surface ponding, continually loses water to the drier layer beneath and the
and flood buildings built in earlier lower-water-table stream typically has long-term low-flow conditions.
times (Shanahan, 2009; Thaitakoo et al., 2013. In Low flows have wide ecological ramifications (Lake,
severe-flood areas residents mainly live on the second 2011). Scattered deep spots along the stream or river
and higher levels of buildings, leaving the ground floor are pools serving as confined refuges for some fish.

196
 Urban coastal zones

Water temperatures tend to be extreme, e.g., from all channel. Shoreline residential area. Beach resort/
ice in shallow portions in winter to high temperature recreation area. Shore greenspace. Wetland
in summer. High water temperature means low oxy- greenspace. Dead (hypoxic/anoxic) zone. (Wrenn
gen content in the water, which eliminates most fish et al.,1983; Benton-Short and Short, 2008; Brown,
species and many other aquatic organisms. Reservoir, 2009).
lake, and pond levels drop in droughts, often with simi- 3. Natural flows and movements. Onshore wind,
lar ecological effects for their aquatic species. Wetlands breeze. Offshore breeze. Alongshore current. Sand
and small channels dry out, i.e., no longer have a visible and rock erosion. Sand transport and deposition.
aboveground water surface. Unlike sand, clay notice- River/stream sediment flows and deposition.
ably shrinks when dried out, so cities built on abundant Nitrogen and phosphorus flow. Organic matter and
clay may have continual problems with cracked build- animals moving from wetland to lagoon/estuary,
ing foundations. During drought many animals move and to sea. Tidal and storm-driven saltwater
further in search of water. Thus, throughout the urban up streams and river. Wind-blown salt inland.
area, rats, mice, cockroaches, ants and much more Waterbirds moving among diverse habitats. Birds
appear in unexpected places. As in the desert, spots stopping in migration. Terrestrial animals moving.
with water in the metro area are hot spots for urban Aquatic invertebrates moving. Fish foraging
animals. (Figure 7.9). Fish migrating between sea and river.
Marine mammal and turtle migration.
Urban coastal zones 4. Human-related flows and movements. Beach
City facing sea … urban advances, ocean in charge. recreation. Recreational boat cruising, fishing,
The ecology of the interaction of these two giant forces sailing. Commercial fishing. Passenger ferry
is enormously complex, important, and intriguing, a transport. Cargo shipping. Park recreation. Train
subject for whole books. So, following a glimpse of the with freight. Truck with cargo. Vehicle traffic.
big picture, we will highlight a few threads of particular Walker, local commuter. Industrial air and water
urban-ecology importance and provide references for pollutant dispersing. Stormwater pipe-system
further exploration. flow. Stormwater sediment, pollutant dispersing.
To sense the place where city encounters sea, the Sewage wastewater-system flow. Elevated nitrogen
richness of structures, flows, and changes are listed in flow from sewage system, residential development,
staccato fashion. recreational boating. Ship ballast pumping of water
and non-native species. Solid waste dumping.
1. Natural structures. Sea. Estuary. Lagoon. Bay.
Barrier island. Beach. Rocky shore. Coral reef. Mud 5. Natural changes. Storm, cyclone/hurricane
flat. Salt marsh. Mangrove swamp. Lagoon island. effects. Tsunami effects. River/stream flooding.
River mouth. Tidal river. Tidal stream/creek. Sea-level and land-level rise or drop. Species
Upper water layer. Lower water layer. Bottom colonization and extinction. Species population
habitat. Sea-grass bed. (Keddy, 2000; Boada and increase, decrease. Seasonal ice, monsoon. Species
Capdevila, 2000; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007; migration.
Marsh, 2010). 6. Human-related changes. Seasonal recreation, blue-
2. Human structures. Harbor. Port. Dock (pier/wharf/ green algae blooms. Oil spills. Invasive species
quay). Pole (pile/piling). Filled land. Seawall (and spread. Pathogenic bacteria levels. Wetland
jetty, groin, bulkhead). “Armored” shoreline. Dam. degradation, elimination. Beach replenishment.
Building. Road. Impervious surface. Stormwater Seawall construction. Shoreline armoring.
pipe system. Sewage system and treatment facility. Beginning/ending of industry or shipping.
Combined sewer overflow (CSO). Industry. Offshore dead zone expanding. Bridge, dam,
Recreation/tourist area. Marina. Recreational little-lagoon construction. Dune destruction,
boat. Commercial area. Highway. Fishing dock restoration. Coastal development. Anthropogenic
area. Fishing boat. Passenger/ferry terminal area. climate change effects.
Passenger boat. Cargo-ship dock area. Cargo Although incomplete and containing overlapping con-
ship. Warehouse. Railway along harbor. Urban cepts, the lists highlight the striking natural and human
park. Promenade/walkway along harbor. Dredged differences in the urban coastal zone. Natural and

197
 Urban water bodies

Figure 7.10. Dock and warehouse area

of a coastal city port. The city expanded
outward from the skyscraper area by
covering extensive salt marshes and
sea-bottom habitat with added fill and
created the port. Boston. R. Forman
photo.

human structures are intimately tied together. Indeed, and shopping, all for people’s use on land (Figure 7.10)
natural flows, movements and changes strongly affect (Wrenn et al., 1983; Clark, 2000; Brown, 2009). In con-
human structures, while human flows and changes trast, four urban land uses along the harbor explicitly
affect natural structures. Envisioning the interactions draw people into the water area (Wheater, 1999). A rec-
among these patterns emphasizes the complexity of the reation and tourist area usually has a marina with rec-
system. It also suggests the enormous biodiversity and reational boats (Eriksson et al., 2004; Thai et al., 2007).
ecosystem flows present. A ferry or passenger-ship terminal and dock area sup-
The urban coastal zone topic is introduced in three ports a regular movement of people to locations across
sections: (1) city, waterfront, harbor; (2) estuary lagoon the water. A fish (fishing, fisherman) dock area with
area; and (3) outer coastal area. Lakes are briefly men- fishing/shellfishing boats normally has a strong aroma,
tioned near the end. lots of waterbirds, and perhaps many terrestrial animals
(Wrenn et al., 1983; Brown, 2009). A cargo shipping
City, waterfront, harbor area typically has large piers, warehouses for goods, a
railway and highway often along the harbor, and large
Coastal cities normally develop at uncommon sites,
seagoing cargo ships. In addition, some urban harbors
such as a river mouth, delta, or estuary. Cardiff (Wales,
contain active and former industries, which may use
UK), Miami, and Sydney, as examples, inherently
the water for waste disposal and may have docks and
have an abundance of uncommon species and high
ships. Boat docks/piers in urban harbors are mostly on
biodiversity (Wheater, 1999). The familiar impervi-
filled land (Figure 7.10) (Sien, 1992).
ous surfaces and stormwater pipe systems predomin-
Most harbors and ports are periodically dredged
ate in the city, yet the systems near coasts frequently
to keep ship channels open. The dredged and chem-
become overloaded or plugged, especially in flood
ically contaminated sediments may be deposited in a
times. Stormwater carries pollutants to the harbor
“confined disposal facility” in the urban region. Soil
but also provides a bit of turbulence, locally raising
berms, a clay liner beneath, and sometimes an added
the dissolved-oxygen level. Furthermore, just as add-
soil layer on top are designed to minimize the spread
ing a tiny pond or bird feeder to increase house-plot
of contaminants.
wildlife, human structures in the water are numerous
and diverse, potentially supporting a considerable bio-
diversity (Kowarik, 1990). Estuary lagoon area
A harbor, with the waterfront by city center, usually Saltwater lagoons (or open-water estuaries) are relatively
contains small parks, multi-unit residential buildings, protected from the ocean waves, typically by a sandy or
and a commercial area including hotels, restaurants stony barrier of islands, and usually only reach a depth

198
 Urban coastal zones

Figure 7.11. Edges and habitats of the

open-water urban estuary. Each edge
type supports a rather different set of
aquatic species (including algae, fish,
shellfish, and other invertebrates) and
terrestrial species (including flowering
plants, birds, and mammals). Salt marsh is
in the temperate zone, mangrove swamp
in the tropics.

of a few meters (several feet) (Figure 7.11) (Kjerfve, intensively used over time for military activities, pris-
1994; Lasserre and Marzolo, 2000; Valiela, 2006; ons (Howell and Pollak, 1991), waste disposal/dump-
Chapman et al., 2009). Lagoons are common locations ing, excavation fill, parkland recreation, and nature
for seaport cities, including Tokyo-Yokohama, New conservation. On some 30 islands in the Boston Harbor,
York, Karachi, Kolkata, Dhaka, Shanghai, Cairo, and hundreds of species are present (Elliman, 2005; Paton
Lagos. Wetlands originally ringed an open estuary, salt et al., 2005): 521 plants (54% native); 10 mammals; 3
marshes in temperate climates and mangrove swamp reptiles; 1 amphibian; and 136 birds (50% probably
in the tropics (Keddy, 2000; Mitsch and Gosselink, breeding). Species richness seems to reflect the dur-
2007). Tidal streams near wetlands bring in freshwater ation and intensity of land use and the island size, more
and associated species from the land. The wetlands are than distance from the mainland. Harbor islands trad-
enormously productive and support high wetland spe- itionally were valuable sites for breeding and roosting
cies numbers and diversity. Equally important, organic herons/egrets, because their terrestrial predators were
matter and invertebrates from the wetlands are carried largely absent (Parsons, 1995; Parsons et al., 2001).
or move into the lagoon, contributing mightily to the Although the habitat quality of a lagoon tends to
high density of fish, shellfish, phytoplankton, and other reflect conditions of the broad urban area (Van Dolah
aquatic organisms in the lagoon. et al., 2008), several features of the open-water estuary
A few usually low islands are often present near are also important (Figure 7.11). The relative amount
the edge of a lagoon. Such harbor islands have been of bordering wetland, eroded-soil edge, or hard edge

199
 Urban water bodies

armored with rocks, concrete, and the like may be in surrounding areas (Glasby, 1999; Duffy-Anderson
especially important for lagoon conditions. Without and Able, 1999). Fish, often feeding on the pole organ-
the wetland vegetation, wildlife habitat is sharply isms and on bottom species, are also fairly distinct.
reduced. A hard edge in Seattle (USA) was “softened” Shading by docks lowers water temperature, algae
by constructing a gradual underwater slope with dif- photosynthesis, and growth of fish (Able et al., 1998,
ferent-sized rocks that was colonized by a sequence of 1999). In a marina with pontoon docks, small fish tend
aquatic plant and animal communities (Hill, 2009). to remain close to the dock poles, whereas larger fish
Low islands can be constructed to absorb some energy feed in the dock area but readily move between mari-
of large storms and protect harbors (Aldhous, 2012). nas (Clynick, 2008). Many harbors contain an array of
The bottoms of lagoons are normally covered with standing poles, like an area of dead trees, where former
silt and sand from river and stream flows. In relatively docks existed. If poles are close together sediment usu-
clear water, sea-grass beds rich in aquatic animals may ally accumulates. Pole arrays (pile fields) are much
cover a sandy bottom. A deep channel for shipping used by coastal birds, support numerous aquatic algae
usually cuts through the lagoon and is periodically and animals along the roughened surface, and gener-
dredged. Equipment of certain fishing boats scrapes ate some turbulence and dissolved-oxygen in the tidal
or sucks up sediment from the bottom, increasing the water. Poles and other structures in dock areas are often
water turbidity. Recreational boat traffic may degrade much-covered by filter-feeding invertebrates. If low
the surrounding aquatic vegetation, create turbidity, pollution permits near-optimal growth, these animals
and pollute the estuary with wastewater, nitrogen, and filter and clean water between periodic disturbances.
hydrocarbons (Murphy and Eaton, 1983; Eriksson Fish tend to be abundant in pole arrays.
et al., 2004; Thai et al., 2007). Cargo ships often pump The sediment-covered bottom of an open-water
out ballast containing species from afar, which may estuary is rich in worms and other aquatic animals that
spread in the enclosed lagoon. Hundreds of non-native are important food for many fish species. But much
species are established in this way in US ports, of which affects the bottom conditions: “upwelling,” including
some 85 species are considered to significantly affect submarine groundwater entering from the land; sedi-
ecological conditions (Wasson et al., 2002). mentation from rivers and tidal streams; stormwater
Coastal wetland vegetation filters and cleans water, stirring up bottom sediment; dead algae and bacteria
dissipates wave energy (e.g., outside New Orleans), filtering to the bottom; numerous pollutants reaching
reduces shoreline erosion, and is a major wildlife habi- the bottom; and currents and boat traffic stirring up
tat, especially for waterbirds (Callaway and Zedler, sediments. Estuarine sandy-bottom areas of relatively
2004; Adams et al., 2006; Parsons, 2002). The coastal clear water may have sea-grass beds (e.g., Zostera), rich
marshes and open estuaries are among the most pro- in fish and other species (Figure 7.11) (Bowen and
ductive ecosystems worldwide, and the edge portions Valiela, 2001; Bradley and Stolt, 2006). However, sea-
of coastal wetlands may be especially productive (Lee grass beds are usually scarce in urban areas, in part
et al., 2006; Bernhardt and Palmer, 2007). Convoluted because peak flows of stormwater runoff carry sedi-
wetland edges accentuate these ecological benefits. A ment and also scour the bottom. These processes raise
single greenspace wetland in a harbor, such as the 62-ha the turbidity or murkiness of the water (Gilbert, 1991;
(152-acre) Belle Isle Marsh in Boston’s Inner Harbor, Lee et al., 2006).
attracts a large number of species, including a diverse A river and streams carrying sediment to the estu-
resident fauna, many foraging species from the lagoon ary may create a delta or mud flats that are much used
area, and migratory birds (Kelly, 1997). Mangrove by diverse waterbirds. Depending on water pollutant
swamps play an equally important role in tropical har- levels, migratory fish may move up the river past the
bors, and also provide cool shade in the tropical mid- city. The seaward portion of the river for some distance
day sun (Murthy et al, 2001; Vannucci, 2004). through the urban area is tidal freshwater, which inher-
Boat landing areas along the harbor feature docks ently supports unusual plant and animal communities.
(piers, wharves, quays) supported by poles (piles, pil- Various small dams, artificial waterways, lakes, and
ings) projecting down through the water into the small lagoons are often constructed around an open-
sediment (Figure 7.11). Beneath docks, the algae, water estuary. Together these support an impressive
crustacea, various filter-feeders, and other organisms array of fish species, which are especially distributed
attached to the poles are relatively different from those according to salinity levels and distance from open-

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 Urban coastal zones

estuary water (Figure 7.9) (Waltham and Connolly, water seem to correlate with the percent of impervi-
2007). ous cover in the urban area (Mallin et al., 2000). Even
Chemical pollutants from numerous dispersed low levels of estuarine nitrogen from wastewater near
sources (non-point pollution) flow through and accu- Boston apparently increased eutrophication, altered
mulate in the water and sediments of estuaries (Breen the phytoplankton species composition, increased
and Rigby, 1996; Valiela, 2006; US Environmental macro-algae abundance, and decreased or eliminated
Protection Agency, 2000a). Indeed, heavy metal con- seagrass beds (Bowen and Valiela, 2001). But estuarine
tamination levels (especially lead and copper) in estu- nitrogen can originate from tens of kilometers (miles)
arine sediments are apparently correlated with the inland. Groundwater from sugarcane and other agri-
amount of nearby land development (Hollister et al., cultural areas carried nitrogen to the Miami (Florida)
2008). Stormwater runoff systems seem to be the major coast in sufficient concentration to degrade coral reefs
pollutant contributor in urban estuaries of the USA, (Finkl and Charlier, 2003). Finally, the wide assortment
while wastewater is probably the prime source for cities of environmental impacts on urban estuaries markedly
with limited sewage treatment. Boats of various sorts alters the fish populations present (Valiela, 2006).
contribute oil spills, chemical discharges, wastewater
discharges, and ballast-pumped water. The types of
pollutants and some treatment or breakdown mecha- Outer coastal areas
nisms are familiar (see Chapters 4 and 6, and section So-called dead zones (anoxic or hypoxic or oxygen-
above): starved areas), kilometers to tens of kilometers wide
1. Particulate matter from industries, power facilities, and kilometers to tens of kilometers offshore of many
river/stream sediment, stormwater runoff coastal cities, such as New Orleans and New York, seem
to be mainly caused by excess nitrogen. In essence, as
2. Heavy metals from industries and stormwater
described in sections above, excess nitrogen stimulates
runoff; nitrogen and phosphorus from stormwater
algae blooms (eutrophication), algae rapidly grow and
runoff, river/streams, wastewater;
die, dead cells filter downward, aerobic bacteria decom-
3. Hydrocarbons from stormwater runoff, boats
posing the dead cells explode in numbers, the bacteria
4. Toxic chemicals from essentially all sources use up the dissolved oxygen, fish swim away from the
Estuarine pollution not only degrades the natural dead zone, and organisms of most other species in
communities and kills organisms but may cause gen- the hypoxic zone die. In Narragansett Bay offshore of
etic differentiation in populations. Polychlorinated Providence (Rhode Island, USA), one anoxic area is
biphenols (PCBs) in urban Southern New England apparently mainly due to the major sewage-treatment
(USA) apparently created genetically different popula- facility. A second smaller dead zone is largely due to
tions of an estuarine fish (Fundulus heteroclitus) at dis- nitrogen from coastal residential septic systems, per-
tances of 2 km (1.2 mi) or less (McMillan et al., 2006). haps supplemented by nitrogen from small sewage
Some harbors apparently have been polluted so long treatment systems and numerous recreational boats
that with water-quality improvement, marine borers (Andrew Altieri, personal communication, 2011).
(e.g., shipworms) begin to destroy the wooden poles The population densities and mortality of several mol-
and structures (Levinton and Drew, 2006). lusks (bivalves), shellfish, and fish species seem to be
A horizontal line of stormwater pipe openings correlated with nitrogen concentrations and the dead
pours the surface accumulations of a city into an estu- zones.
ary. This stormwater and pollution has major effects Narrow barrier islands or strips, usually at least par-
on estuarine water salinity, turbidity, temperature, and tially covered with sand and containing one or more
dissolved-oxygen, as well as the distribution and abun- gaps (inlets), typically separate the estuary from the sea
dance of aquatic native and non-native species. Human (Figures 7.1 and 7.11). Walking across a natural bar-
wastewater from boats, septic systems of low-density rier island from sea to estuary traverses beach, primary
coastal residential development, combined sewer over- dune, inter-dune trough (sometimes with small narrow
flows (CSOs), and incomplete sewage treatment fills freshwater wetland or pond), larger secondary dune,
estuaries with bacteria, including pathogenic coliforms back-dune area, and bayshore saltmarsh or mangrove
(e.g., E. coli) (McKinney, 2004). Bacteria, water turbid- swamp (a small freshwater wetland may precede the
ity (or clarity), and nitrogen-nitrate levels in the estuary saltmarsh/mangrove zone) (McHarg, 1969; Platt et al.,

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 Urban water bodies

1994; Beatley et al., 1994; Pilkey and Dixon, 1996). intertidal fauna, plus sea species temporarily trapped
Wind and salt spray from the sea, plus saltwater on the by a receding tide. Rock cliffs are pounded by ocean
edges and freshwater in the center, are primary factors waves and thus full of cracks and crevices and ledges,
structuring the barrier island vegetation. Periodically many supporting various algae, invertebrates, and
major storms cut through a barrier strip. sea birds (Nybakken, 1997; Larson et al., 2000). For
Urban beaches are sandy shoreline magnets for example, crevice-favoring mussels, chitons and lim-
crowds of recreationists and tourists (Benton-Short pets are especially sensitive to roughness of the rock
and Short, 2008). Dunes quickly become flattened face, whereas barnacles and oysters are more sensitive
and the vegetation degraded. As a powerful natural to the slope of a rock surface. Natural stone and brick
process, major storms often shrink or widen, or wash seem to be better habitats than concrete.
away, beaches (Pilkey and Dixon, 1996; Marsh, 2010). Typically tropical coral reefs are slightly submerged
In urban areas these are sometimes “replenished” by limestone-like rock ridges covered by an enormous
pumping in sand from an offshore location, and later, richness of algae, coral animals, filter-feeders, small
sand is again eroded away. tropical fish, large fish, and more. Such reefs are off-
Beaches extending beyond the estuary area are shore from the beach, and optimally require clear
strongly affected by residential coastal development. water. Even a relatively low level of nitrogen can cause
Built areas may worsen near-shore water quality, beach algae to overgrow and degrade a coral reef (Ward-Page,
width, dune height, beach bird populations, bird and 2005). Not surprisingly, live coral reefs are scarce near
sea-turtle nesting habitat, and habitat fragmentation. cities and the mouths of rivers, due to water turbidity
A model evaluating options for how to best combine and pollutants.
beach recreation and coastal natural-habitat protec- In a coastal region, the terrestrial flows and move-
tion evaluated three variables (Forman, 2010b). Most ments of air, water, wildlife, and people are over-
important was the number of human-access points to whelmingly parallel or perpendicular to the coastline
the beach; second the recreational quality (including (Figure 7.12) (Forman, 2010b). The same pattern
facilities) of an access point; and third the number of appears on the seaward side of a coastal region.
recreationists. Although important exceptions exist, most flows go
Seawalls (and jetties, groins, bulkheads, and other both ways, most are narrow bands, and most extend a
armoring structures) are mainly constructed of large long distance. Flows originating in the coastline mainly
rocks, sometimes with concrete or brick, to protect a extend only a short distance. Flows and movements
beach or other coastal area from waves of major storms around a coastal city port are dense, often curved, and
(Figure 7.11) (Pilkey and Dixon, 1996; Bulleri et al., extend in many directions.
2004; Martin et al., 2005; Bertasi, 2007). The rocks pro- Flooding of urban areas by rivers and streams was
vide new habitat colonized by algae and diverse inver- discussed above, but floodwater from the sea is also eco-
tebrates, and surrounded by fish and birds. However, logically important. Most dramatic of course is a “tsu-
the structures disrupt the normal movement of sand nami,” though its impact on the human-built structures
along the coast, as well as the habitats of many coastal is usually worse than on natural systems, especially in
animals. In The Netherlands, huge seawalls have been zones where tsunami frequency is sufficient for species
built to produce lagoons, and then water pumped out adaptation. For example, many palm trees, large multi-
to create farmland in below-sea-level “polders” cover- stemmed pandanus trees, and mangrove trees/shrubs
ing a third of the nation (McNeill, 2000; Steenbergen survive tsunamis.
and Aten, 2007; Deinet et al., 2010). “Cyclones/hurricanes,” particularly if large or mov-
Rocky coasts, ranging from cliffs to gradual slopes, ing slowly, may dump lots of rain over the land, which
support quite different arrays of species. The intertidal then pours into estuaries, just as monsoons and other
zone, containing horizontal sub-zones related to low, heavy rains do (without the heavy winds). Yet cyclones
medium, high, and extra-high tides, is especially rich, and other major storms approaching a coast also push
because quite different species adapt to being repeat- a lot of seawater toward the urban estuary. Flooding is
edly inundated and exposed to the air for different severe when this added water coincides with high tide
lengths of time. Gradual-slope rocky coastlines may or extra-high tide. Southern Bangkok, for example, is
cover a considerable area and be pockmarked with periodically inundated by floodwater from the sea, and
small intertidal pools. The pools contain their normal then northern Bangkok by floodwater from the land.

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 Urban coastal zones

Figure 7.12. Characteristic flows and

movements in a coastal region. From
Forman (2010b).

Major floods such as these commonly inundate sig- 4. Increased salinity of surface waters (particularly
nificant portions of a metro area (UN-Habitat, 2006). up rivers and streams) and groundwater (saltwater
Much of Mumbai is on filled former mangrove swamp, intrusion)
especially the city’s extensive informal settlements, so 5. Altered water-tables
repeated extensive flooding in the city itself produces With the hard surfaces and armored shorelines of
numerous tiny spots of sediment, plants, and animals coastal development, the salt marshes and mangrove
(Murthy et al., 2001). swamps may be narrowed or eliminated (Hartig et al.,
Flooding also reconfigures the estuary 2002; Anthony et al., 2009). Naturally these sea-level-
(Figure 7.11) – destroying docks, buildings and storm- rise-related patterns are likely to produce major changes
water systems; cutting through the barrier strip; wash- in urban plant and animal communities (Wilby and
ing away beach; rearranging or reshaping low islands; Perry, 2006; IPCC, 2007; Aldhous, 2012).
destroying some wetlands; creating new habitat for Lakes and reservoirs (see Chapter 6) (Gilbert, 1991)
wetlands; filling the estuary with turbidity; killing have no saltwater, salt marsh, or mangrove swamp,
countless organisms; and much more. Yet lots of new though most of the preceding ecological patterns apply
habitats appear; recolonization and rebirth follow. The to any coastal or shoreline zone. Lakes within a city
urban estuary is dynamic indeed. are usually highly polluted by stormwater runoff. In
Sea-level rise associated with anthropogenic cli- Seattle (USA), the large Lake Washington was heavily
mate change seems to promise more of the above, polluted by stormwater, wastewater and other sources,
severe storms and flooding. Flood frequencies and but then largely cleaned up over a three-decade period
risks are expected to rise (“10–30 times”) in the upcom- (Edmonson, 1991; McNeill, 2000; Moore et al., 2003).
ing future around UK cities and Sydney (Ashley et al., Today, based on phosphorus concentration, eutrophi-
2005). Clogging stormwater drainage pipe systems and cation, and chlorophyll-a levels, Seattle’s central lakes
inundating infrastructure are familiar in large floods with sewage-treatment-facility protection are less pol-
(McGranahan et al., 2007). Additional ecologically luted than the urban-fringe lakes polluted by residen-
important patterns are expected from sea-level rise tial septic systems (Moore et al., 2003). Mexico City’s
(Douglas et al., 2001; Valiela, 2006; Nicholls et al., 2007; lakes had and have a hydrologic problem of rapidly
IPCC, 2007): dropping groundwater levels, plus land subsidence,
1. Converting low urban land to wetland or so five lakes have disappeared in five centuries (John
water body Beardsley, personal communication, 2010). Canberra’s
2. Erosion of coastal beaches Lake Burley Griffin suffers from stormwater pollution,
3. Increased severity of flooding, and storm alteration and Brasilia’s Lake Brasilia is heavily polluted by sew-
of human and natural structures age wastewater and other sources (Forman, 2008).

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 Urban water bodies

Toronto, Cleveland, and Chicago have waterfronts Finally, the ecology of urban water reminds us
and constructed harbors on the shorelines of major that life is >98% composed of water. Living organ-
lakes. In an 11-km linear stretch of Central Toronto’s isms intimately depend on water around them, and are
lake waterfront, 10 stormwater pipes and 13 combined highly sensitive to what’s in the water. In urban areas,
sewer overflow pipes pour pollutants into the harbor H2O runs over surfaces or is piped in through buildings,
water (Royal Commission, 1991). However, the city- and picks up particles, chemicals, and human wastes.
center Don River also carries in sediment and pollu- These in turn are carried through pipes and channels
tion to the harbor. Moreover, along 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and mainly deposited in local water bodies, our nearby
of urban-land riverside, 26 stormwater pipes and 20 streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and estuaries.
CSOs pour water into the mix. Further along the lake, Look carefully, and an amazing array of microhabi-
shorelines with residential development support lower tats covers the city and surrounding urban area. We are
fish densities and diversity, largely due to less shore- familiar with the treasure chest of species in natural
line habitat heterogeneity, loss of “fish refuges,” bank land. Yet it is hard not to be surprised, and impressed,
erosion, and increased phosphorus concentration with the rich bounty of biodiversity in the urban-hab-
(Scheuerell and Schindler, 2004; Hickley et al., 2004; itat array. Even urban water harbors a cornucopia of
Hough, 2004; Elliott et al., 2007). species.

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 Part II Ecological features

Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

Chapter

8
There’s a tree that grows in Brooklyn. Some people call
it the Tree of Heaven. No matter where its seed falls, it
Types of habitat or vegetation
makes a tree that struggles to reach the sky. … the only Simple classifications
tree that grows out of cement. It grows lushly … there An afternoon drive around a city reveals scores of
are too many of it. vegetation or habitat types. The plant species are not
Betty Smith, A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, 1943 randomly distributed among habitats, nor are they in
The requirement to maintain species richness sets the non-overlapping groupings. Although the species mix-
most stringent limits on many forms of land use. tures or assemblages overlap from site to site, it is easy
Gordon H. Orians, Environment, November 1990 to see the relative distinctness, e.g., of pond margin,
cemetery, and street-tree vegetation.
Suppose a chemical was accidentally released into the To enhance easy recognition and communication
air and killed all the plants in a city. Would it matter? (and avoid a morass of vegetation-type terminology),
Would the city look slightly different, or fundamentally we refer to generally familiar urban sites such as lawn,
different? Would almost everyone leave? marsh, railway, and flower garden. These are habi-
Or perhaps only certain types of plants died – trees, tat types that differ in vegetation, especially species
flowers, or native species. Or, in only certain habitats – composition.
lawns, street trees, or woodlands. Or, it prevented How can they be grouped into nice simple inform-
flower formation, seed germination, or shrub growth. ative categories? Groupings or classification of urban
Or it cut biodiversity by 90%, or tripled the number of vegetation types range from complex to simple.
species. Or vegetation change slowed, or accelerated, “Phytosociology” (or Zurich-Montpellier) classifica-
tenfold. Or areas were hit at different intensity, recon- tion, using Latin names to suggest hierarchical rela-
figuring the vegetation patterns of the urban land- tionships among groups of coexisting species, has a
scape. While these are extreme examples, they point to long history in parts of Europe (Braun-Blanquet, 1964;
many of the key patterns, processes, and changes to be Mueller-Domboisand Ellenberg, 1974). “Biotope map-
explored in this chapter. ping,” sometimes using phytosociology as a conceptual
We begin with (1) urban vegetation and habitat, basis, remains active in Northern Europe (Sukopp,
followed by the (2) types of plants present. Next we 1990; Murcina, 1990; Pysek, 1995a) and scattered other
introduce (3) urban plant biology. Then (4) trees and cities, e.g., Durban (South Africa) (Roberts, 1993),
shrubs, (5) plant community structure and dynam- Antalya City (Turkey) (Mansuroglu et al., 2006), and
ics are explored. Finally, we broaden to (6) plants and Chonju (South Korea) (Zerbe et al., 2004).
urban habitat fragments. Seventy-five habitat types are recognized in the
small city of Dusseldorf (Germany) (Godde et al.,
Urban vegetation and habitat 1995). Thirty-eight of them are considered primary
After briefly examining the different types of habitat or widespread: sealed (paved) parking place; mixed
and vegetation in urban areas, we focus in on habitat forest; intensive grassland (small lawn); native wood-
diversity or heterogeneity in this section. land; deciduous forest; inner city (city center); field

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

(for crops); high-density block (buildings) site; ancient from rocky habitats, secondarily from grassland-
city; nursery garden; market garden; parking place; floodplain habitats, and thirdly from other continents
farm; scrub (shrub area); residential area; avenue; (Lundholm and Martin, 2006). Sydney’s current vege-
farmland verge (edge); wood-edge (edge portion of tation mainly results from two centuries of progressive
woods); allotment (community) garden; river bank; removal of vegetation on economically valuable sites,
sports ground; shore of pond; harbor; moist meadow; which has left vegetation characteristic of low-value
hedge; dry meadow; extensive grassland; roadside sites embellished with non-native species (Benson and
verge; low-density block site; trade (business/com- Howell, 1990). Habitats can also be grouped by the per-
mercial) site; waterworks (water supply facility); rail- cent of native species (Zerbe et al., 2004).
way site; industrial site; gravel pit; cemetery; parkland;
swamp woodland; wasteland (unmaintained early-to- Mechanism grouping of vegetation
mid succession site). The bulk of these habitats are con- A somewhat different vegetation grouping-by-mecha-
spicuous in most metro areas. nism approach portrays or classifies urban vegetation
A more general grouping of habitats in the UK or habitat types as a product of three hierarchical fac-
recognizes 11 characteristic land uses (Gilbert,1991): tors in a time sequence. (1) First, drawing from ecol-
urban common; industrial area; railway; road; city cen- ogy in natural areas, vegetation is distributed along a
ter; city park; allotment and leisure garden; cemetery; gradient of site moisture conditions, i.e., from dry to
garden; river-canal-pond-lake-reservoir and water- wet (Figure 8.1). (2) Second, for each moisture level,
main (pipeline); and woodland. Conditions in these vegetation is either largely planted by people or largely
land uses have been related to disturbance, stress and spontaneous, that is, from natural plant colonization.
competition characteristics (Gilbert, 1991; Grime, (3) Third, for each plant origin, the vegetation reflects
2001).Similar categories have been recognized and degree of human maintenance or natural disturbance,
mapped in Chicago, Akron (Ohio, USA), and Tianjin i.e., intensive, medium, or scarce/none.
(China) (Schmid, 1975; Whitney, 1985; Hu et al., Thus, a city’s vegetation or habitat type at the dry
1995). High-definition remote sensing has been used and wet ends of the framework would likely be most
with some success for urban vegetation mapping in different (Figure 8.1). Overall, within a moisture cat-
Dunedin City (New Zealand) (Mathieu et al., 2007a, egory, planted intensively and maintained/disturbed
2007b). vegetation would differ most from spontaneous little-
Six other vegetation classifications of urban vege- disturbed vegetation, and so forth. The most similar
tation have used still broader groupings: (1) cultivated vegetation would likely be within one of the bottom
sites with introduced plants; versus uncultivated sites categories of Figure 8.1. In this way sites requiring con-
(Spirn, 1984); (2) cultivated plant group; native plant siderable human maintenance are grouped together,
community; and naturalized urban plant community and contrast with sites with the most natural ecological
(Hough, 2004; Forman, 2008); (3) native (remnant); succession grouped together. This grouping-by-mech-
managed (constructed); and ruderal (adaptive) (Del anism system for classifying habitats provides ample
Tredici, 2010); (4) trampled; along roads, walls and flexibility, for instance, to add an intermediate level
fences; industrial; nutrient-poor; and nutrient-rich of planting/spontaneous vegetation, separate human
(Pysek and Pysek, 1990); (5) natural/semi-natural; maintenance from natural disturbance, and add vege-
managed; abandoned; and bare ground (Rieley and tation from cities in different regions.
Page, 1995); and (6) natural vegetation remnants; Nonetheless, two central messages emerge from the
agricultural-land vegetation; ornamental, horticul- mechanism-grouping diagram (Figure 8.1). Three key
tural and designed urban vegetation; and spontaneous mechanisms produce an urban vegetation or habitat
urban vegetation (Pauleit and Breuste, 2011). type. Second, vegetation types from different sites are
Other conceptual approaches to classifying or com- readily compared and potentially most similar within
paring urban vegetation exist. For instance, vegetation a group.
has been grouped according to degree of human modi- Terminology quickly becomes inhibitory in many
fication (hemeroby) of natural conditions (Ziarnek, classifications, so the approach here only uses terms
2007). Viewing the origins and subsequent changes familiar to the public. General terms for urban vege-
of urban vegetation provides insight. For instance, the tation or habitat used throughout the book, such as
vegetation of Halifax (Canada) is dominated by plants natural, semi-natural, planted, spontaneous, early

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 Urban vegetation and habitat

Figure 8.1. Urban habitat-vegetation types based on site condition, vegetation origin, and predominant process. Site conditions along a
gradient from dry to wet are determined primarily by water in substrate, secondarily by microclimate. Vegetation origin refers to a gradient
ranging from all human planting (trees/shrubs/flowers/grasses) to all natural spontaneous. Predominant process ranges from intensive
human maintenance/disturbance (e.g., mowing, cutting, herbiciding, traffic) to all natural processes. Illustrative worldwide vegetation-
habitats mainly based on Spirn (1984), Gilbert (1991), Sukopp et al. (1995), Wheater (1999), Zerbe et al. (2004), Pauleit and Breuste (2011).

succession, meadow, shrub, woody, plantation, wood- gridded into tiny squares or rectangles and each per-
land, marsh, and swamp, are familiar or defined in son or family grows a different set of plants, e.g., from
Chapter 2. The term, “ruderal,” sometimes applied all beans to diverse vegetables to luxuriant weeds. The
to vegetation, usually refers to disturbed wasteland. community garden resembles a checkerboard with
However, so-called wasteland (a subjective term of 100+ intermixed colors instead of two colors. The size
society) includes many site types, often with interesting of the plots, number of types, and contrast of types pre-
and important ecological characteristics. “Disturbed” sent, all squeezed together, creates a habitat diversity
also seems awkward since basically all urban sites have perhaps exceeding any in nature.
been disturbed, often many times. Yet this community garden pattern is still richer,
essentially an “enriched100+-color checkerboard.”
Habitat diversity Paths between plots, mainly covered by perennial
plants, are trampled at different intensities by people.
Fine-scale habitat diversity within land uses Plot borders are weeded with different diligence.
Habitat diversity or heterogeneity is a key to under- Humus and mulch are patchily added and spilled.
standing urban vegetation. One approach is to compare Fertilizers and pesticides are spread around in very
differences among habitats of a certain type dispersed different amounts. Water is added at greatly different
across the city. For example, in Taipei (Taiwan), 164 tree times and amounts. Fences, poles, and other creative
species are found in 30 tree communities, represent- structures are dispersed about. Often immediately sur-
ing 10 vegetation types times 3 landscape types (urban rounding the plots are humus and mulch and waste
park, riverside park, and street verges) (Jim and Chen, piles, plus trampled and untrampled areas. Animal
2008). Few tree species are in all three landscape types, populations and burrows abound around this fertilized
and none in all ten vegetation types. In this case habi- watered food-source. Adding all these dimensions to
tat diversity, as indicated by tree species, appears to be the checkerboard produces a remarkable pattern of
high for these widely separated habitats. This pattern urban habitat diversity.
may also characterize non-urban natural land, though Other urban sites at different scales also have high
perhaps less so, agricultural land. habitat diversity. Urban parks designed for differ-
More interesting and informative is the fine-scale ent user groups commonly squeeze together many
habitat diversity in urban areas. Consider perhaps habitats, such as lawn, diverse flower beds, woodland,
the extreme case, a community garden (allotment), shrub area, meadow, fountain, pond, marsh, and ball-
where small plots are dug each year and annual plants, field (Gilbert, 1991; Wheater, 1999). An industrial site
including vegetables, thrive (Gilbert, 1991). The area is may have many types of industrial waste piles (Gilbert,

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

1991). Seven habitat types are recorded in proximity “beta diversity.” The product of alpha and beta levels
around a canal (Gilbert, 1991). Similarly, seven habi- is “gamma diversity,” the total block (or neighborhood
tat types may be important by a railway: gravel or or residential area) habitat diversity. Since each habitat
cinders (cess) along tracks; cut banks alongside; flat type tends to have its own somewhat characteristic set
areas alongside; rail bed embankments facing oppos- of species, or species pool, habitat diversity is a surro-
ite directions; drainage ditches; sidings (or yard); and gate or general indicator of species richness (number
masonry structures (see Chapter 10) (Muhlenbach, or diversity). Many small habitats within a house plot
1979; Gilbert, 1991; Wheater, 1999). Little overlap in contain many species. Many different or contrasting
characteristic plant species is present among the habi- house plot designs produce a species-diverse neighbor-
tats. Analogous habitat diversity is present along roads hood, as a study in Sheffield (UK) found (Thompson
(Forman et al., 2003). Plant species even differ mark- et al., 2003). Multiplying the within-site and site-to-site
edly from the top to the base of a wall (Wheater, 1999; levels produces habitat diversity and species diversity
Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004). Finally, a botanical gar- higher than that found in most natural land.
den or zoo may display the greatest habitat diversity Finally, urban species diversity seems to be a prod-
and biodiversity. uct of the fine-scale (small size) spaces or habitats, plus
the contrast among them. This diversity is enriched by
House-plot urban diversity at two scales the enormous species pool available for planting (e.g.,
Perhaps the most striking examples of high habitat tens of thousands of plant species in UK nurseries),
diversity in urban areas are the widespread house plots plus the influx of species from nearby areas outside the
(lots, gardens) of residential areas (see Chapter 10). city as well as from far-off regions. Most of the planted
A house plot typically includes many microhabitats, species are in low abundance and often present as “sin-
such as building, foundation planting, lawn, different gletons” in house plots, but they noticeably add to spe-
flower gardens, vegetable garden, different tree spe- cies totals (Smith et al., 2006).
cies, wall, street trees, side shrub-or-fence lines, veg-
etated backline, driveway, and walkways. Many other Urban plants
objects including pond, brush pile, shed, and so forth
This near-infinite topic is simplified into three dimen-
may be present. Each habitat tends to have a somewhat
sions: (1) types of plants; (2) taxonomic groups of
different set of species, or “species pool” (Owen, 1991;
plants; and (3) native, non-native, invasive, and natu-
Gilbert, 1991; Zobel et al., 1998; Smith et al., 2005,
ralized species.
2006). Adding them together creates quite a diversity
of species (see equations, Appendix B).
But equally prominent is the diversity of house Types of plants
plots in a block or neighborhood or residential area. Many familiar ways can effectively divide up the mil-
Adjacent or nearby plots may be contrasts, by being lions of plants, and the hundreds or thousands of plant
predominantly lawn, or woodland, or flower garden, species, in a metropolitan area. Stand at the edge of a
or early-succession meadow, or stone xeroscaping. Or park, and doubtless trees, shrubs, grasses, and other
each house plot may be a different combination of hab- herbaceous plants are in visible abundance. Looking
itats, with an occasional house plot seemingly maxi- more closely within woods often highlights canopy
mizing habitat diversity. Some front spaces (yards, trees, subcanopy trees, understory trees, a shrub layer,
gardens) appear to be mimics of each other on one side and a herbaceous layer. Also street trees, park trees,
of a block, but whole house plots normally are quite dif- and yard trees are differentiated by location.
ferent from one another. Adding the diversity of house Larger cities have a higher percent of woodland
plots together produces very high species diversity for (including taller closed-canopy forest, if present) than
the neighborhood or residential area. do small cities, at least in Europe (Figure 8.2a) (Pauleit
The concept of alpha, beta, and gamma diversity is et al., 2005). Zurich and Stuttgart are about one-quar-
conceptually useful (Whittaker, 1975; La Sorte et al., ter woodland, whereas four of the 18 cities compared
2007; Hope et al., 2008). In this case, the microhabitat (Milan, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, and Bremmen)
diversity (from high to low) within a house plot rep- have barely any woodland at all. On the other hand,
resents (within site) “alpha diversity.” The degree of the total percent of greenspace is somewhat lower in
difference among house plots represents (site to site) large cities. On average, about half the area of these

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 Urban plants

(a)

(b)

Figure 8.2. Greenspace, woodland, and street trees relative to city population size. A = Austria; B = Belgium; D = Denmark; F = France; G =
Greece; Ge = Germany; H = Hungary; I = Italy; N = Netherlands; S = Spain; Sw = Switzerland. Adapted from Pauleit et al. (2005); population data
from Turner (2010).

cities is greenspace. Brussels is less than a third, and spontaneous vegetation that colonized long ago or
Frankfort and Hannover (Germany) more than 60%, recently. The planted urban cover includes lawn (from
greenspace. golf course and institution to mini-park), flower gar-
Street trees are proportionately more abundant in dens, vegetable gardens, street trees, shrub hedges, tree
small cities than in large cities (ca. 8 versus 6.5 trees per plantations, and more. An array of ornamental, grass,
100 persons) (Figure 8.2b). However, street tree abun- woody, and vegetable species is present in recognized
dance in cities varies widely, from about 2 to 12 trees greenspace areas. Yet even more planted species may
per 100 persons. Athens has the most street trees per live in countless tiny sites across the urban area, includ-
capita, and Nice and Marseille in France the fewest. ing backyards, patios, planter tubs, balconies, window
One estimate suggests that about 60–70% of urban boxes, and so forth.
greenspace is planted vegetation (Gilbert, 1991). That Nevertheless, unplanted species representing a still
also means that 30–40% of the area is covered with more extensive palette colonize on their own. These

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

spontaneous (unplanted adventive, volunteer, self-

sown) species are not directly planted by people, but
rather colonize a site on their own (Thellung, 1905).
Plants come from nearby “mother” plants, or from
other sites in the city, or from agricultural or natural
habitats surrounding the metro area, or from distant
cities or habitats. Typically seeds or spores are dis-
persed, land on a suitable urban substrate, germinate,
and produce new plants. Such spontaneous species
perhaps normally dominate the species diversity of an
urban area.
Not surprisingly our urban species may be use-
fully grouped in diverse ways. Annuals completing Figure 8.3. Garden of horticultural and ornamental plants
their life cycle within a year, versus perennials regrow- including cypress (Cupressus) topiaries. Walkways of soil to limit
ing year after year. Weeds, the unwanted plants that heat buildup and facilitate water infiltration; low flower beds before
planting of annuals. Retiro Park, Madrid. R. Forman photo.
plague gardeners, versus non-weeds. Native versus
non-native, invasive, or naturalized species (see sec-
tion below). Vegetables and fruits versus non-edible
The former means few herbivores, and thus few preda-
species. Ornamental woody and herbaceous species
tors and a simple food web. The latter means conserva-
versus the rest.
tion of a valuable water supply.
Almost all plants planted in public spaces, and most
Window boxes, flower pots and other containers
planted in other urban spaces, were grown in nurser-
support ornamental flowers, as well as cooking and
ies. Nursery plants in turn are mainly species, varieties
medicinal herbs (Rapoport, 1993). Submerged plants,
and forms that have been horticulturally selected
floating plants and emergent plants line most aquatic
because they are effective in accomplishing certain
ecosystems. Vines wrap around or climb over plants.
goals (Brickell, 2003; Cullina, 2009). Genetic varieties
Epiphytes grow on the bark or branches of trees, and
are often selected for rapid growth, for an abundance of
in moist tropical areas also on roofs, posts, wires, and
flowers or fruits, for cold hardiness, for minimal toxic
even the leaves of shrubs. Genetically bred horticultural
chemicals, for pest resistance, for pollution resistance,
varieties thrive in gardens. Other plants live on grave-
or for low water use.
stones, around lights in underground infrastructure,
A second selection is made by the planter in choos-
on ocean seawalls, or the backs of turtles. In effect, the
ing species from the array available. The prime goal may
number of plant species in cities is huge, and numerous
be an “ornamental” to embellish, decorate, or beautify
ways are used to usefully subdivide them into groups.
(Nassauer, 1988, 1997; Reed and Hilderbrand, 2012).
Or plants to provide privacy, produce food, cut wind,
add shade, enhance a structure, facilitate access, evoke Taxonomic groups of plants
a mood, thrive in a container or flower bed, or create Normally in this book “plants” simply refers to “vascu-
surprise (Figure 8.3). Lots of plant features are avail- lar plants,” those with internal tubes that conduct water
able for these – diverse foliage, flowers/flower masses, and carbohydrates. Flowering plants predominate, but
fruits/berries/nuts/pods, structure/shape/form, color/ ferns and cone-producing woody plants are included.
texture, and fluttering leaves/waving fronds. Plant Ferns are usually uncommon, except in the wet trop-
chemicals may deter insects and mammals, or produce ics or where some limestone-growing species thrive in
an attractive aroma. high-pH urban habitats. Cone-bearing trees including
Every option in the process has ecological implica- pine, fir, spruce, hemlock, and larch are widely present
tions. Some are direct, such as providing habitat and in cities, though many of the species are damaged by
attracting wildlife, while others indirectly but notice- air pollution.
ably affect soil/air/water. The variety of plants and Among the flowering plants, the most abun-
features chosen mean that planted greenspaces differ dant plant families, e.g., in the industrialized city of
markedly. Pest resistance and low water use may be Sheffield (UK), are composites (Compositae), grasses
ecologically the two most important features selected. (Graminae), and mints (Labiatae) (Hodgson, 1986;

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 Urban plants

Gilbert, 1991). Many of the urban species in these sites (“disturbed wasteland”) (67); construction and
families have intermediate-weight seeds, rapid ger- gravel pits (63); ponds (43); backyards (32); lawns and
mination, rapid seedling growth, and extensive lateral meadows (29); arable land (22); and dry grassland (11).
spread. Together these attributes provide flexibility for Most of these bryophyte species are generalists, grow-
the stresses and disturbances of urban life. Species of ing in a number of urban habitats.
three other families – pinks (Caryophyllaceae), mus- Lichens, a symbiosis of fungus and alga together, are
tards (Cruciferae), and scrophs (Scrophulariaceae) – noted for being assays for air pollution level. A com-
are intermediate in abundance. Normally few species of bination of desiccation, SO2, and perhaps particulate
legumes (Leguminosae), buttercups (Ranunculaceae), matter may be the prime reason that lichen abundance
roses (Rosaceae) and parsleys (Umbelliferae) are and species diversity drop sharply from rural area to
present. city center. Hundreds of such rural-to-urban lichen
A detailed 15-year study of a single 0.1-ha (1/4-acre) studies have been done since the early 1800s (Le Blanc
house plot in Leicester (UK) documented 384 native and Rao, 1973; Schmid, 1975). Metro areas in the
flowering-plant species (Owen, 1991). The leading UK, for example, exhibit four concentric zones based
plant families by number of species are: Compositae on (epiphytic) lichens growing on tree bark (cited by
(56 species); Labiatae (24); Rosaceae (21); Cruciferae Wheater, 1999): (1) central “desert,” with zero species;
(20); Liliaceae (16); Leguminosae (15); Solanaceae (2) inner transition zone, with two crustose-lichen
(14); Caryophyllaceae (11); Ranunculaceae (11); and species present, Lecanora conizaeoides (a non-native
Scrophulariaceae (11). In both UK studies (Sheffield, species) and Lepraria incana; (3) outer transition zone,
Leicester) only native species are included. Planted cul- with some crustose lichen species and several foliose
tivated species and non-native spontaneous plants are species, especially Parmelia, present and higher up
predominantly in different sets of plant families. The on tree bark; and (4) “clean” zone, with a wide range
Leicester study also reported 38 non-vascular plant of foliose- and crustose-lichen species growing from
species [25 macro-fungi or mushrooms; 11 bryophytes base to canopy of trees. A highly pollution-tolerant
(9 mosses and 2 hepatics or liverworts), 1 lichen, and crustose lichen, Lecanora muralis, is reported to have
1 alga]. spread progressively, and increased its growth rate,
Bryophytes are low green plants reproducing by from asbestos roofs to cement-tile roofs to sandstone
spores. Two species, Ceratodon purpureus and Bryum to tarmac to wood substrate (cited by Gilbert, 1991).
argenteum, sometimes called sidewalk mosses because Apparently this pattern was related to decreasing SO2
of their tolerance to drought, pollution and tramp- levels in the air.
ling, often predominate in cities worldwide (Gilbert, The 476 macro-fungi (mushrooms, etc.) species
1970, 1991; Le Blanc and Rao, 1973). The silvery recorded in a 10-year study in Lodz (Poland) exceeds
Bryum thrives in more nutrient-rich sites compared the number of native vascular-plant species in the sur-
with Ceratodon on more nutrient-poor sites. These rounding city (cited by Gilbert, 1991). A central zone
and other widespread moss species, Funaria hygromet- of the city has few “mycorrhizal” symbiotic species, and
rica, Bryum spp., Pohlia annotina, and Tortula muralis, no fungus species with perennial woody reproductive
reproduce abundantly, grow rapidly, and are relatively structures (hard “shelf ” species). A middle zone con-
pollution resistant. These species characterize some- tains many more mycorrhizal species and some species
what dry and polluted sites. But some urban green- with woody fruiting bodies. Outward, the suburban
spaces in wet climates, such as in Portland (Oregon, zone has a fungal flora slightly more diverse, perhaps
USA) and Seattle (Washington, USA) and tropical due to habitat heterogeneity, than in a more-natural
rainforest are draped with a variety of moss species nearby forested landscape.
(Houck and Cody, 2000). In Warsaw, macro-fungi (mushrooms, etc.) seem
In West Berlin, 265 bryophyte species are reported, to grow best in urban woods, though the fungi are also
including 219 mosses and 46 hepatics (Schaepe, 1990). present in partially open grassy habitats with humus or
The predominant urban habitats (biotopes) and num- around temporary bare soil (Skirgiello, 1990). Some
ber of bryophyte species are: forests (115); cemeteries common macro-fungus species seem to have disap-
(110); mesotrophic-oligotrophic moors (shrublands) peared from the city, perhaps due in part to road salt.
(102); walls (92); parks (87); flowing waters (73); low- The fungus flora includes non-native species that may
land moors (wetter shrublands) (70); trees (68); ruderal have arrived in the root-ball soil of horticultural plants.

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

Finally, green algae, and blue-green algae associ- urban site to conditions close to long-ago nature seems
ated with certain types of water pollution, are abun- impossible.
dant in almost all urban water bodies. Green algae also The origins of the cornucopia of urban plants are
grow on moist urban surfaces of many types, including exceedingly diverse. In Canberra, seeds filtered from a
walls, sidewalks, and tree trunks. Marine brown, red, car-wash facility for 26 months, planted, and grown for
green, and other algae may survive or thrive in the sea- 9 months (Wace, 1977; Forman et al., 2003) produced
coast and estuarine environments of cities. 18 500 seedlings, representing 259 plant species. Seven
percent of the species apparently came from outside
Native, non-native, invasive, and the region, mostly more than 170 km (105 mi) distant.
Thirty-one percent came from native vegetation sur-
naturalized species rounding the city, and 40% came from the city and sur-
rounding agricultural land. In Rome, nine native plant
Origins of urban plants
species widespread on walls, wasteland, fields, trampled
After land appeared from the sea, plants arrived, sites, and gardens are very rare in natural habitats (lime-
adapted and spread over the surface. Long-distance, in stone and other rocks, tuff, shady mud, gravels, and snow
addition to nearby, dispersal of seeds and spores has beds) outside the city (Pignatti and Federici, 1989). In
been the rule ever since (Elton, 1958; Davis, 2009). short, introduced plants are from both near and far.
Ocean currents, cyclones/hurricanes, migrating birds, Purposeful human planting covers urban gardens,
and river flows continually carry propagules hundreds plantations, window boxes, and so forth, whereas
or thousands of kilometers. Species ranges expand and spontaneous plants colonize and grow on their own.
shrink with climate changes. People also purposely and Various planted cultivars, cultigens, varieties, and
inadvertently carry plants long distances. Two thou- forms of plants are horticulturally developed by gen-
sand years ago Cleopatra in Egypt received silk from etic breeding, grafting, and other methods. Even some
China, and doubtless plenty of valuable seeds. The Inca of these human-modified plants turn feral and grow
and Maya peoples transported valuable gems, gold, spontaneously (Sukopp and Sukopp, 1993; Thompson
dyes, and most probably valuable seeds to and from et al., 2003).
far-off locations. In short, floras are constantly being Weeds are unwanted plants, and, like art, deter-
intermixed and enriched. mined by human preference (Baker, 1974; Stein, 1988).
When covered with massive ice thousands of For a farmer, a species that competes with the crop
years ago, the future sites of Boston, Toronto, Denver, plants is a weed. For one gardener, plants that compete
Vancouver, Sapporo, Moscow, Warsaw, and Edinburgh with the planted roses or lettuce are weeds, yet the same
were plantless. Afterward tundra plants colonized and plant species may be treasured by the gardener grow-
spread. Soon many more species from warmer climes ing a richness of flowers. Over 15 years, a 0.6 ha English
took over. Then somewhere a farmer settled on well- house plot had 80+ weed species, and over 25 years, a
drained land by a river or coast, or by intersecting 0.5 ha plot in the same city had 95 weeds (Owen, 1991;
transportation routes, and quickly replaced the natural Gilbert, 1991). Even though golfing began on highly
vegetation and wetlands with farmland. Other settlers diverse grassland/shrubland, a golfer trying for a low
arrived and did the same. A village formed, followed by score may not want dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
a town ringed with extensive farmland. Town became on the green to create heterogeneity. In contrast, dan-
small city, which densified and expanded to be a large delion is welcome in lawns where homeowners appre-
city. Most cities are still mainly ringed by cropland ciate the bright flowers on monotonous grass, and may
(Forman, 2008), though low-density residential sprawl even eat the young leaves in salad.
sometimes spreads beyond it into natural land. In Some species transported from a far-off site are
essence, agriculture wiped out the natural vegetation simply described as non-native. Non-native species
and species, whereas city basically eliminated agricul- are widespread, even predominant, where human
ture and its species. activities have been extensive, as in many agricul-
Attempting to restore an urban site to pre-city tural landscapes and tropical islands. For a city, the
conditions or to conditions outside the city normally major sources or origins of non-native species seem
means to farmland and its species. But today’s urban to be other metropolitan areas, plus nearby or distant
environment renders success unlikely. Restoring an dry or rocky areas (Sachse et al., 1990; Lundholm and

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 Urban plants

Martin, 2006). Within a metro area, major sources of in urban areas most native species cannot keep up with
non-natives are probably shipping and railroad sites, the rate of environmental changes, so a continual “rain”
commercial and industrial warehouses, and plantings of new non-native species helps keep the place green.
in suburban/exurban residential areas. An extensive non-native-species literature focuses
on the characteristics of the plant (including where it
Distribution within urban areas came from), and of sites susceptible to colonization
Military terminology – invade, attack, wipe out, aggres- or invasion (Sukopp and Trepl, 1987; Godefroid and
sive, and even racial purification, alien and exotic – has Koedam, 2003 Alston and Richardson, 2006). Cities
permeated the non-native-species literature. Urban have more non-native species, typically some 70% of
ecology studies are helping to get past that phase (Davis the flora in a European city, than do natural areas. The
et al., 2011). Few native species colonize and thrive on proportion of non-native plant species apparently does
recent novel human-created surfaces, such as walk- not differ significantly between European and US cit-
ways, walls, road shoulders, industrial waste piles, ies, though the latter have more dominance by a few of
vacant lots, and the base of buildings. In such locations the species (Muller et al., 2010).
where few natives survive, vegetation dominated by Cities also have more disturbed, bare, nutrient-rich,
non-natives seems much better ecologically than bare and invadable sites (and perhaps empty niches). Non-
urban surfaces. natives seem to be mainly generalists with broad toler-
However, in addition to native and non-native, two ance, and more resistant to urban conditions than are
terms seem useful, invasive and naturalized. Invasive native species. Occasional local extinctions of native
species (non-native or native) successfully colonize, species in urban areas due in part to non-natives seem
compete, reproduce and spread in an area. Some are likely (Sukopp and Trepl, 1987).
invasive in human-dominated sites, such as a construc- The packing together or density of plant species
tion sites (reducing soil erosion), cracks in old pave- along a city-center to outer-suburb gradient of Berlin
ment (providing early-succession vegetation), along is lowest in the city center (inner city), and highest in
a mowed roadside (normally adding to species diver- the intermediate zones (immediate ring around city
sity), or in farmland. Others are invasive in natural or center and the inner suburb) (Figure 8.4). Non-native
semi-natural land (sometimes significantly altering species slightly decrease in the innermost three zones
vegetation structure or species composition). (from 50% to 43% of the flora), and then drop sharply
After some short or long period of spread the spe- to the outer zone. Native species richness in the outer
cies is no longer invasive, but rather is naturalized, a suburb is only a bit higher than in the surrounding
successful reproducing component fitting into ecosys- urban-region ring (29% versus 22%).
tem processes (Sukopp and Trepl, 1987; Sukopp and Dissecting those non-natives into two groups is
Sukopp, 1993; Peterken, 2001).Mainly species become useful in Europe. “Archaeophytes” arrived before 1500
naturalized in sites of frequent human disturbance (when ships began bringing numerous seeds from
(Muhlenbach, 1979; Dunn and Heneghan, 2011). But distant lands), and “neophytes” colonized since 1500
some species become naturalized in natural or semi- (Figure 8.4). Archaeophytes gradually decrease out-
natural areas. ward along the gradient. Neophytes are considerably
In the two centuries of humans introducing species more frequent in center city and outward decrease
to Australia, big economic disruptions have resulted sharply, so the two groups are in similar abundance
from the non-natives. Nevertheless the naturalization outside the suburbs.
process, involving adjusting or genetically adapting to Few rare native plants (17) live in city-center Berlin,
new conditions, is illustrated as follows (Fox, 1990): (1) gradually increasing to 58 in the outer suburb (Kowarik,
some non-native herbivores feed on native plants, while 1990). Although no information is given, rare non-
native herbivores feed on non-native plants; (2) some native species are probably most abundant in the city
non-native predators feed on native herbivores, while center. Some 75% of the urban flora in European cit-
native predators feed on non-native herbivores; and (3) ies has been introduced in the past 200 years (Sukopp,
non-natives and natives of each feeding level coexist 2008). Per unit area, probably most new non-natives
in habitats. Also in Australia and New Zealand, some- first colonize in the city center.
times species “native” to a nation have been differenti- In residential areas, institutional areas, and vacant
ated from species “indigenous” to a smaller region. Still, lots representing 95% of the tree locations in Chicago,

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

Figure 8.4. Plant species types and

vegetation along city-to-rural gradient.
Berlin (West); surrounding districts
= average of five rural Brandenburg
districts. Archaeophytes colonized
before, and neophytes after, the year
1500, when ship explorers began
bringing numerous plants from far-off
lands to Europe. 1 km2 = 0.39 mi2. Based
on Sukopp and Werner (1983) and
Kowarik (1990).

the most abundant tree is buckthorn (Rhamnus), a non- the origin of cities, some 6000 years ago in the Middle
native species (Whitney and Adams, 1980). Still, 70% East. Hurricanes, ocean currents, migrating birds,
of the Chicago trees are ash (Fraxinus), box elder (Acer river flows, and humans carrying seeds long precede
negundo), willow (Salix), and cottonwood (Populus), the first city, and continue today. Human transport has
four resilient native species that have a short life span accelerated the mixing process. Over ecology’s 140-
and readily colonize open sites. year history, ecologists have focused on forest, desert,
At a finer scale, the proportion of non-native species grassland, farmland, aquatic and marine systems, but
varies by habitat, as in Chonju (South Korea) (Zerbe until recently few have focused on the equally, or more
et al., 2004): city center, 29% of the flora; urban resi- interesting, urban ecosystems. Terms such as new vege-
dential areas, 31%; rural residential areas, 34%; indus- tation types, new habitats, novel ecosystems, and syn-
trial areas, 32%; commercial areas, 28%; railway and thetic ecosystems have increased with the new interest
roadway sites, 27%; institutional sites, 24%; pre-1990 (Whitney and Adams, 1980; Bridgewater, 1990; Fox,
greenspaces, 14%; post-1990 greenspaces, 28%; rice 1990; Rapoport, 1993; Peterken, 2001; Davis et al.,
paddy fields, 17%; dry fields and orchards, 28%; rivers, 2011).
lakes and ponds, 23%; fallow land, 23%; and forests, The diverse-origin plant communities or vegetation
3–13%. The highest proportion of non-native species or ecosystems or habitats of urban areas add meaning to
(37%) is for rural residential areas on a plain, and the the idea of species diversity. What species? How many
lowest (3%) for coniferous tree plantations. Except for species? How much dominance and rarity? What types
forests, old greenspaces, and rice paddies, the percent of origin are present? What rates of change?
of non-native species is relatively similar (23% to 34%) The urban species mixtures are inherently intri-
in vastly different types of areas across the metro area. guing, little studied, and frequently changing. A subur-
Three familiar processes or filters tend to elimin- ban New Jersey (USA) woods has non-native Norway
ate native species from agricultural and natural sites maple (Acer platanoides) dominating canopy, sub-
in cities (Forman, 2006; Williams et al., 2009). Habitat canopy, understory, shrub, and herbaceous layers. This
loss, as the land is transformed, has the greatest effect. pattern reminded me of the same situation for a native
Habitat degradation from environmental and human southern beech (Nothofagus sp.) stand well west of
effects is a close second, and habitat fragmentation is Christchurch (New Zealand), that had almost no other
important for some species with limited seed produc- plant species present. A non-native Phragmites reed
tion and dispersal. Two other processes are especially area in northern New Jersey seemed to be an exten-
important in urban areas. Planting and maintaining a sive plant monoculture, though all ecosystems contain
site such as garden or lawn eliminates native species. some habitat heterogeneity suitable for other species.
Secondly, the concentration of successfully colonized Local native species generally do not keep up with
non-native species seems to provide a formidable set of the rate of urban change. The sorting of continuously
competitors that inhibit native species. arriving non-native species from diverse environmen-
tal conditions and evolutionary histories probably can
Urban species mixtures ahead keep our cities green and diverse. But the area of green
Where does all this lead? Mixtures of native and non- and the richness of species is probably greatest with
native species have characterized urban habitats since mixed-origin communities (Figure 8.5). Cities have

214
 Urban plant biology

a flyswatter among billions of mosquitoes. Or tilting

with windmills á la Don Quijote.
Perhaps the 11-hectare Sudgelande Railway Park in
southern Berlin best portrays urban vegetation of the
future. For decades seeds from distant parts of the Soviet
Union leaked from railway cars/wagons in this former
rail yard (Kowarik and Langer, 2005). Many seeds ger-
minated, adding an exceptionally wide assortment of
non-native species to the flora of rail-yard-resistant
native plants. Then the area was fenced for a decade
to keep people out. Doubtless more natives and non-
natives colonized and ecological succession continued.
After that, landscape architects made modest modifi-
cations, and a limited-access park has been open to the
Figure 8.5. Tiny urban spot with intermixed planted, crop, and public for more than a decade. During the post-rail-
spontaneous plant species. Maize plant in center; two white dots
to its right are butterflies pollinating flowers, an uncommon sight yard 20 years, the vegetation grew into a woodland. But
in such a small relatively isolated urban spot. Zacatecas, Mexico. R. this “mixed-origin” woodland is altogether distinctive,
Forman photo. displaying an extremely high plant diversity composed
of a rich and unique mixture of native urban species
“tough” plants that colonize, survive, spread, and may and non-native species mainly from many regions of
adapt to granite-faced skyscrapers, salty roadsides, and Asia and Europe.
belching smokestacks. How many ecosystem services
do these non-native plants provide? How many people
relish the benefits? As yet we have few answers.
Urban plant biology
Some non-native species are so disliked for their Several important disparate subjects are briefly intro-
invasiveness that they are banned. One cannot sell duced here in three groups: (1) physiological plant
Japanese knotweed and giant hogweed in the UK ecology; (2) herbivory and dispersal; and (3) plant gen-
(Wheater, 1999), or Norway maple, Japanese bar- etics and adaptation. All are extensively analyzed in
berry (Berberis thunbergii), and European honeysuckle other books on horticulture, gardening, and botanical
(Lonicera spp.) in Massachusetts (USA). Yet other non- gardens, as well as texts on physiology, plant genetics,
natives seem to have little or no effect on native species and ecology. However, urban plant-biology patterns, as
or vegetation. distinct from those for natural and agricultural land,
The mixed-origin communities, constant new spe- have yet to be highlighted. Thus, rather than summar-
cies input, and habitat heterogeneity (fine-scale and izing general patterns, diverse studies and concepts are
broad-scale) of urban areas suggest that there is little introduced to stimulate thought and research.
threat of biotic homogenization within a city, or among
cities (McKinney, 2006; La Sorte et al., 2007). House Physiological plant ecology
sparrows, rock doves/pigeons, and European starlings
are common in perhaps most cities, yet each city has Environmental conditions and plant responses
many more bird species. In dispersed regions, cit- Good health is the norm, or is it a temporary phase
ies boast an abundance of crows, parakeets, magpies, between illnesses? For the urban plant, “illness” typic-
Indian mynahs, collared doves, swifts, nighthawks, ally results from not enough or too much of something.
storks, gulls, and the list goes on. Big population A gradient from insufficient to excess amount pro-
changes can be expected, such as the dramatic drop in duces a sequence of plant responses: death; survival;
house sparrows when motor-power replaced horse- poor growth, good growth; good growth with success-
power in Paris, or indeed in today’s English cities. ful reproduction; good growth; poor growth; survival;
Pulling out non-native plants near a massive and death. Effectively this describes a bell-shaped or
“mother” source of dispersing seeds (Davis et al., normal response curve.
2011), such as a botanical garden or residential area The city is much richer than natural or agricultural
covered with non-natives, seems analogous to using land in things that will cause such a pattern. A plant

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

must deal with competitors, herbivores, and parasites • Wind turbulence: more (10–50%)
that limit growth, resources and environmental stresses • Wind direction: altered (1–10°)
that also limit growth, and disturbances that damage or
kill (Grime, 2001). In urban areas, consider the concen- Within urban areas, plant growth is affected by dif-
trated arrays of heavy metals, toxic organic substances, ferences in each soil and microclimate factor. Varied
micro-nutrients, microclimatic conditions, types of combinations of factors may be more severe, but are
waste, building types and forms, road types, micro- certainly less predictable, for plant growth.
habitat heterogeneity, and human activities. With so So to thrive, urban plants must be generalists. These
many resources varying from insufficient to excess, species have considerable genetic variation, providing
relatively few plants exhibit good growth. Fewer still a wide range of tolerance to stresses and disturbances.
have good growth and successful reproduction. In a cool winter or spring the plants may benefit from
Substrate and microclimate are illustrative. Soils urban heat. But in summer they are stressed by heat,
in urban areas vary drastically, from none to ample, lack of water, and in some cases, by heavy metals in the
compacted to porous, dry to waterlogged, heavily pol- substrate and hydrocarbons in the air. Note also that
luted to less so, soil animals abundant to scarce, and some older long-lived plants, especially trees, may
so on (see Chapter 4). Industrial wastes themselves have grown well under former, different environmen-
are extremely different. Thus, for different wastes, the tal conditions, but now simply survive in the present
following characteristics severely inhibit plant growth altered conditions.
(Wheater, 1999): In the face of disturbance, urban plants typically have
either high resistance or high resilience. Resistant plants
1. Colliery (coalmine) waste-material: compaction;
are tolerant and survive disturbances, whereas resilient
temperature; nutrients; acidity
species recover rapidly after a disturbance. Many large
2. Pulverized fuel ash: nutrients; alkalinity slowly reproducing trees (“K-selected” species) have an
3. Calcareous rock-quarry waste-material: nutrients extensive root system, thick bark, relatively few large
4. Metal mining waste: nutrients; acidity; toxicity; fruits, and so forth, and can withstand or survive in the
salinity face of many, diverse, and/or severe disturbances. On
For microclimatic conditions, comparing urban the other hand, many grasses and annuals (“r-selected”)
versus non-urban areas highlights the following gen- with rapid growth, rapid flowering and fruiting, and
eral patterns in a temperate climate (Gilbert, 1991; numerous tiny wind-dispersed seeds are killed by most
Sieghardt et al., 2005)(Note that such summary infor- disturbances, but readily bounce back by rapidly recol-
mation should be interpreted with caution, since dif- onizing sites. Urban floras are presumably a combin-
ferences within non-urban areas may be greater than ation of both resistant and resilient species, though the
those between urban and non-urban): relative proportions, e.g., for trees, grasses, non-natives,
or planted perennials, is apparently unknown.
• UV radiation: much less (25–90%) in urban than
Summer temperature is highly dependent on
in non-urban
shade, and trees are usually the prime shade-makers.
• Solar radiation: less (1–25%)
Typically residential areas have more tree cover than
• Duration of bright sunshine: less (5–15%) non-residential areas (Gartland, 2008), and high-
• Infrared radiation input: more (5–40%) income neighborhoods more than low-income ones
• Gaseous air pollution: more (500–2500%) (Jenerette et al., 2007). Shade mainly falls on three sur-
• Visibility: less faces, grass, pavement, and roof. In residential areas
• Heat flux: more (50%) of four US cities, a third of the grass present is shaded
• Air temperature: higher (1–3°C annual average; on average, 16% of the pavement, and 6% of the roof
up to 12°C on occasion) area (Figure 8.6a) (Gartland, 2008). But variation is
• Evapo-transpiration: less (50%) striking. Salt Lake City (Utah) has a noticeably higher,
• Summer relative humidity: less (8–10%) and Chicago a noticeably lower, portion of the grass
• Rainfall: more (5–10%) and roofs shaded. For shaded pavement, Sacramento
• Snow: less (California) is highest, though percentages differ lit-
• Streamline windspeed (at 10 m above ground): tle from city to city. Non-residential areas have lower
lower (5–30%) percentages of all three surfaces shaded (Figure 8.6b).

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 Urban plant biology

(a) (b) Figure 8.6. Tree-shaded surfaces in

residential and non-residential areas.
Horizontal dashed lines are averages.
Numbers at bottom are total percent
cover (shaded plus unshaded) for each
surface type. Cities in USA; C = City. Based
on Gartland (2008).

Differences among cities are less in non-residential accumulated in the plant, but may benefit or stimulate
areas, though Chicago has hardly any shaded grass and plant growth. Fertilizing the garden increases produc-
shaded roofs. The low shaded values in cities suggest tion but also adds nitrogen to plant leaves. In the UK,
opportunities for increasing tree cover and shade, thus at the base of certain urban trees regularly used by dogs
decreasing summer temperatures. as signal posts or markers, a green alga, Prasiola crispa,
Trees of course produce different intensities of thrives apparently with the added nitrogen in urine
shade depending on their foliage. “Leaf area index,” (Gilbert, 1991).
the total amount of leaf surface per unit of land area, The patterns of response to urban stresses may be
is a widely used measure. For instance, in Toronto the examined in more detail and suggest causative mecha-
leaf area index (m2/m2) varies from about 2.0 in open nisms. Consider an urban site dominated by horse
areas to 0.1 in industrial areas and 0.0 in commercial chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum) but degraded
areas (Kenney, 2008). Institutional areas have a leaf by road salt (Oleksyn et al., 2007). The elevated salt
area index of about 1.2 and residential areas about 1.0, level is a key factor in low nitrogen concentration in
the latter differing little according to housing density. foliage, low photosynthetic rate, and greater leaf sen-
The study suggests that average leaf area index could be escence. Three years of adding mulch and fertilizer
most increased in industrial areas, but also increased in reversed all three of these responses. In addition it low-
institutional and open areas. ered the soil pH. Heavy metal concentrations in leaves
increased, thus providing some uptake or assimila-
Species functions tion effect. Also phenolic compounds in the leaves
Some tolerant plant species with high resistance also decreased, which makes foliage potentially more pal-
have the characteristic of assimilation or uptake of atable to insect herbivory. Increased herbivory could
material. For these species, absorption of chemicals result in tree defoliation, even death. Or it could mean
does not kill the plant. If the plants die, the species does higher insect abundance and diversity, more food for
not have high resistance to those chemicals. Plants birds, and higher avian populations and diversity.
with the characteristic of high uptake/assimilation Not surprisingly, the tolerance or sensitivity of
thus effectively contribute to cleaning the air or soil some urban plants, especially trees, to various import-
(phytoremediation). ant urban stresses has been summarized for practition-
Carrying this characteristic one step further, the ers and the public. For example, urban trees are listed
added chemicals may not only be assimilated and according to their sensitivity to soil compaction (Craul,

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

1992), road salt, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and security In Los Angeles, isoprene VOC emissions are high
lighting at night (Grey and Deneke, 1992). Successful for all 13 oak species studied (Quercus garryana high-
tree planting chooses species resistant to these stresses. est), but are zero for 10 pine species and 4 citrus types
The difference between species resistance and (Gartland, 2008). Contrastingly, monoterpene emis-
assimilation is illustrated by an experimental study sions are low or zero for the oaks, medium for the cit-
of 70 woody plant species (taxa) along urban road- ruses (Citrus limon highest), and high to low for the
sides in Japan (Takahashi et al. 2005). Species varied pines (Pinus clausa highest). Overall, nine oak species
widely in both their resistance to aerial nitrogen diox- are considered to have the highest potential for produ-
ide (NO2) and the uptake of (reduced) nitrogen from it. cing ozone pollution in the city. Seven pine and citrus
For instance, a cherry (Prunus yedoensis) assimilated species are least apt to increase ozone smog.
122 times the amount of nitrogen as that of an ever- In effect, our cities have a diversity of generalist spe-
green (Cryptomeria japonica). The 70 species fell into cies that survive or thrive with a huge array of stresses,
four recognizable groups: (1) high NO2 resistance and chemicals, and disturbances. Specialist native spe-
high NO2 assimilation (13 species); (2) high resistance cies from natural areas may survive for a period, but
and low assimilation (11 species); (3) low resistance normally have little opportunity for good growth and
and high assimilation (11 species); and (4) low resist- successful reproduction. Non-native generalists com-
ance and low assimilation (35 species). Broadleaf trees monly colonize and some thrive. Many urban species
in the first category that also have fast growth and high are resistant to disturbance; others are resilient, rapidly
biomass (Robinia pseudo-acacia, Sophora japonica, rebounding from disturbance. Some species assimilate
Populus nigra, Prunus lannesiana) are thus considered and “passively” store certain urban chemicals, while
to be most promising species for limiting or reducing others benefit from and grow better with added chemi-
nitrogen oxide in the urban air. cals. Finally, some species produce and emit chemicals
Many tree leaves also assimilate polycyclic aromatic into the urban environment.
hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are organic compounds
mainly emitted by motorized traffic (Kuhn et al., 1998).
Eleven PAHs were measured in the air and in leaves Herbivory, pollination, dispersal
of poplars (Populus nigra) along a busy main road in
Frankfurt/Main (Germany). In the air, one (phenan- Herbivory
threne) was in much higher concentration than the Although herbivores consume some plant tissue in
others. However, in the leaves, four (phenanthrene, urban areas, overwhelmingly leaf cells simply die in
pyrene, fluoranthene, chrysene) were in relatively high place. Out in natural and agricultural areas herbivory is
concentration, indicating uptake by the trees (uptake normally much higher, as suggested by simply observ-
varies with water vapor pressure). Overall, tree vegeta- ing the frequency and size of insect-chewed holes in
tion is considered to be an important sink or absorber leaves. Several hypotheses for the usual relatively low
of aerial PAHs. urban herbivory seem logical. Severe environmental
In addition to resistance/tolerance, resilience, and conditions limit leaf insect diversity and abundance.
uptake/assimilation, one more attribute bears mention Non-native species typically arrive without their her-
for urban plants. Plants are emitters or sources of chem- bivores, and local herbivores acclimate or adapt slowly
icals. Biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to the new plants. Insecticide use is widespread in some
are emitted by many plants into the air. In cities these urban areas. And of course much of the area is covered
hydrocarbons can combine with nitrogen oxide in the by hard surface.
presence of sunlight to form ozone smog. Two types Other hypotheses, such as predation limiting her-
of VOC are important here, isoprenes and monoter- bivores, seem to play a limited role. In some locations
penes (Li et al., 2008a; Noe et al., 2008). VOC emission mammal herbivores such as deer, kangaroos, or rab-
is reported from urban trees in Shenyang, China. In bits have dense populations, but the urban structure
Barcelona, 11 ornamental trees all emit monoterpenes, and scarcity of a shrub layer limit the suitable area for
with more from broadleaf species than from conifers). these species. Some plant leaves contain high levels of
In an arid city, Phoenix (USA), the emission levels of organic chemicals that limit herbivory, e.g., by being
the two VOC chemical types vary markedly from habi- unpalatable or toxic. But such plant species do not seem
tat to habitat (Godefroid et al., 2007). to dominate most urban areas.

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 Urban plant biology

The heterogeneous distribution of herbivory in bumblebees. Finally, (5) giant hogweed introduced in
greenspaces is illustrated in a study of the extent of her- the late 1800s from the Caucasus Mountains in Asia now
bivory, that is, leaf chewing and surface “damage,” in has slugs, snails, and 30 herbivorous insects, including
three urban locations: tree canopy of small woods; edge true bugs, two-winged flies, moths, and beetles.
of large woods; and interior of large woods (Christie These few urban examples for non-native plants
and Hochuli, 2005). No difference was found in the do not show a clear increase in insect diversity over
frequency of leaves with herbivory evidence among time. Nevertheless, considerable non-urban evidence
the three sites. However, the amount of herbivory was indicates that insect diversity correlates with the time
higher in the small woods than in the interior of large since a tree species arrived in the UK (Kennedy and
woods (forest edge herbivory was intermediate). Southwood, 1984).
Herbivores of course have feeding preferences, so Plant pathologists have extensive data on the effects
the combination and distribution of plant species has of pest and disease species on urban trees (Benedikz
a strong effect on herbivory. In the 1940s and 1950s et al., 2005). For example, the following urban trees are
in London, a huge increase in a flowering herbaceous most damaged by a type of insect or other organism
plant, rosebay willowherb, occurred taking advan- [listed by number (high to low) of European nations
tage of recently bombed sites (Gilbert, 1991). This was reporting damage] (Tello et al., 2005).
accompanied by a sharp increase in conspicuous ele- • Insect leaf feeders: Quercus, Pinus, Aesculus,
phant hawk-moths (Deilephila elpenor), which in the Robinia
caterpillar stage feeds on the plant. Later the popula- • Insect wood borers: Populus, Acer, Salix
tion of these large moths decreased, presumably in part • Insect bark borers: Pinus, Ulmus, Picea, Fraxinus
because of fewer “wasteland” sites (especially suitable • Insect sapsuckers: Tilia, Picea, Acer, Platanus
for the plant) remaining in the city. But also predatory
• Mites: Tilia, Fraxinus, Picea
flies and wasps, perhaps from surrounding rural areas,
• Fungi and bacteria (leaf and shoot diseases):
became more abundant in the city.
Platanus, Pinus, Populus, Aesculus
Plants in the city are not like those in a florist shop,
• Fungi (stem and branch diseases): broadleaf
where evidence of herbivory is hard to detect because
trees, Ulmus
of horticultural breeding, insecticide use, and removal
of holey leaves. Even the non-native species both inside • Fungi (root and collar diseases): broadleaf trees,
and outside the city have herbivores, holes in leaves, conifers
and other evidence of herbivory (Tello et al., 2005; • Fungi (wood decay): broadleaf trees, conifers
Benedikz et al., 2005). Thus, different types of herbivores and diseases tend to
Five prominent non-native species introduced over target different trees. The explosion in abundance of a
time into the UK are instructive (Wheater, 1999). (1) particular herbivore may defoliate a tree species over
“Sycamore” (Acer pseudo-platanus) arrived in 1578 or a wide region. A diversity of plant species reduces the
earlier from Central/Southern Europe, and today has chance of severe insect defoliation in a greenspace or
43 insects associated with the tree, including nectar- a city.
feeding bees. That is about 10% of the insect diversity In addition, herbivore populations may rise and fall
on native willows (Salix), which have 450 insect spe- rapidly, and seem to track the phenology or seasonal
cies, oaks (Quercus) with 423, and birches (Betula) with time sequence of changes in plants. An urban study of
334 insect species, but similar to the diversity on native 34 common woody ornamental plant species and 33
hornbeams (Carpinus) and field maples (Acer), each insect pests found that the abundance of insects closely
with 51 insect species. (2) Rhododendron punticum was followed the sequence of flowering by the plant spe-
introduced in the late 1700s from Turkey, and today has cies (Mussey and Potter, 1997). Over three years, the
few associated insects; its nectar is toxic. (3) Japanese timing for herbivores tracked plant phenology better
knotweed (Polyganum sp.) introduced in 1825 from than calendar date, and the sequence of herbivores was
Japan and East Asia now harbors several bugs, beetles consistent from year to year.
(weevils and leaf beetles), and caterpillars of moths and
butterflies. (4) Indian balsam arrived in 1839 from the Pollination and seed dispersal
Himalayas and today supports two aphids, elephant Pollen and seeds are both transported by wind and
hawk-moth caterpillars, and five nectar/pollen-feeding animals (Murray, 1986; Wilson, 1992), though their

219
 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

dispersal in urban areas remains an important research horticultural plants with soil carries numerous seeds
frontier. Wind-dispersed pollen is typically produced throughout an urban area. Indeed, people in huge num-
in massive amounts, and must arrive at certain flowers bers walking “everywhere” transport seeds. In effect,
at certain times for pollination to be effective. In ani- the distinctive characteristics of the built environment
mal pollination, bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, and and its human activities greatly facilitate the movement
certain bats fly preferentially to specific flowers where of some pollen and most seeds.
pollination occurs (Figure 8.5). Animal pollinators A large urban woodland is likely to be particularly
tend to be scarce in most urban areas, though common important for seed dispersal by animals. Fruit-eating
in some (Matteson, 2008) (see Chapter 9). bird populations may be relatively high, with the birds
English cities are known for their abundance of gar- feeding in woodland and moving outward across the
dens and flowers, especially ornamentals. Flower pol- built areas dispersing seeds. Also migratory birds fly-
lination activity by bees continues for 8–9 months of ing over an urban region may feed and rest in large
the year, in part due to the urban heat island. Beehives greenspaces. Upon resuming flight, birds characteris-
are moved among various parks, thus enhancing fruit tically lighten their load, often defecating viable seeds.
and seed production with the floral luxuriance. Also, The heterogeneous suburban landscape is also
London makes 10% of the honey sold in its shops (see probably a key source of seeds, including of non-native
Figure 12.2). species, spreading outward into surrounding agricul-
On the other hand, to be effective, seeds dispersed tural and natural lands. For example, suburban gar-
must reach a suitable substrate for germination and dens of Cape Town (South Africa) are a major source of
plant growth. Such substrates are scarce in some urban non-native plant seeds (Alston and Richardson, 2006).
areas but often are in moderate abundance. The disper- Large numbers of people move back and forth between
sal of seeds is important for most spontaneously col- suburbia and the surrounding natural and semi-nat-
onizing species, though relatively unimportant where ural areas. The richness of non-native species in these
almost all plants are human planted. Seed dispersal by surrounding areas correlates with the distance from the
animals may be facilitated by vegetation connectivity suburban gardens (the assumed seed source), as well as
(Sarlov Herlin and Fry, 2000), and thus is commonly with habitat disturbance by people. Fewer non-natives
limited in the fragmented urban areas. Compared with are present under the cover of a tree canopy.
the persistent fruits on many horticultural plants visu-
ally favored by the public, seed-enclosed fruits favored
and rapidly consumed by bird and mammal dispersers Plant genetics and adaptation
tend to be uncommon. Indeed, the dispersers them- If genetic change and adaptation are fast enough, they
selves are usually in limited abundance. Widespread provide a good way to survive and thrive in the face
buildings and roads and a low density of most plants of climate change, urbanization, and other urban-
further dictate against seed dispersal by animals. related effects. Genetic change refers to the change in
Nevertheless, urban seed-dispersal mechanisms frequencies of genes in a population over generations.
are considerably more diverse than in natural and agri- Adaptations (resulting from the process of adaptation)
cultural land. Wind dispersal is especially important in then are genetically determined attributes than pro-
urban areas. Turbulent and especially vortex airflows vide an advantage or increased fitness to an individual
in urban areas readily lift seeds and pollen off surfaces. or population. Adaptation contrasts with acclimation
The seeds spin upward and encounter more horizon- (acclimatization), the adjustment of an individual (one
tal streamline airflows, which often accelerate down generation) in response to changing conditions. Large
roads and street canyons (Chapter 5). Moving vehicles populations with ample reproduction tend to have lit-
and trains also generate airflows that transport seeds tle genetic change and few associated adaptations.
(Kowarik and von der Lippe, 2011). Although little is known directly relating plant gen-
Vehicles carry seeds stuck in tires, enmeshed in mud, etics to urban attributes, several characteristics of the
and on inside floors and motors (Gilbert, 1991; Forman urban area suggest that many species may have adapted
et al., 2003). The spread of non-native plants within a and continue to adapt to urban conditions (Muller
city may be greater than from city to suburb (Botham et al., 2010). Most habitats are small and isolated. Most
et al., 2009). Railway freight cars transport and distrib- species are small or very small in population size.
ute seeds along railways and in rail yards. Transporting Demographic variability over time in the size of small

220
 Urban plant biology

populations means a greater chance of disappearing. Numbers of inflorescences, visits by pollinators, and
Inbreeding tends to be high in small populations. That fruits per plant were similar in all three habitat loca-
produces inbreeding depression, the loss of genetic vari- tions. Urban plants had higher genetic variation that
ation. Inbreeding depression means a greater chance of those in the urban-fringe bushland. All three locations
weak or sterile offspring. Fewer seeds produced and had moderate genetic variation (differentiation), and
lower seed germination rates, plus less competitive abil- the remnant and fringe populations were most similar.
ity, may be expected (Kery et al., 2000). Demographic Thus, the authors note that cultivated native plants may
variability plus inbreeding greatly increases the prob- exchange genes with plants in nearby more-natural loca-
ability of local population extinction. In addition, pol- tions and help to sustain the species there. However, the
linators of pollen and animal dispersers of seeds tend potential exists for outward gene flow altering the gen-
to be limited in cities. The intervening spaces between etics of surrounding native populations (Whelan et al.,
plant populations are often covered with hard surfaces 2006). In the Grevillea shrub study, 19 non-native plant
unsuitable for vegetation. Overall these characteristics species in urban gardens were also genetically analyzed,
favor genetic change and adaptation. along with seeds from the same species in remnant and
Conversely, other urban area attributes tend to limit bushland fringe sites. No evidence was found for gene
genetic change and adaptation. The abundance of lin- flow outward to bushland plants.
ear features including greenways, railways, street-tree A broader approach focuses on adaptations or
rows, and hedgerows favor the movement of animals traits. Human-dominated cultural areas (“habitats”)
dispersing seeds. Large parks in the urban area, and in Central Europe are broadly separated into cropland
especially the surrounding urban-region ring, provide with weedy vegetation and built areas with ruderal (“dis-
a continual “rain” of pollinators and dispersers over the turbed wasteland”) vegetation (Lososova et al., 2006).
area. For instance, pollen from populations surround- Croplands tend to have predictable, frequent, regular,
ing a city increased seed production and germination and broad-scale disturbances. Meanwhile built areas
of an urban scarlet-gilia population (Ipomopsis aggre- have unpredictable irregular disturbances creating
gata) (Heschel and Paige, 1995). While the regular- varied-scale mosaics with successional vegetation. The
ity of the urban grid fragments the area, it also tends authors hypothesize that these drastically different dis-
to provide widespread similar habitat and hence the turbance regimes should lead to different “plant traits or
same species widely distributed. Many urban plants adaptations.” Using two large data sets, they found that:
are wind-dispersed and thus enhanced by widespread (1) cropland plants are more often annuals, insect- or
streamline and turbulent airflows. self-pollinated, seed-reproducing, and archaeophytes
A study of violets (Viola pubescens) in the Cincinnati (see section above), and have overwintering green leaves
(Ohio, USA) Region provides interesting insight and a persistent seed bank; whereas (2) built-area plants
(Culley et al., 2007). Genetic variation (and genetic dis- are more often biennials or perennials, wind-pollinated,
tance) was measured (3 markers and 51 loci) for violet flowering in mid-summer, reproducing both by seeds
populations across the region, plus four populations in and vegetatively, dispersed by wind or humans, and neo-
surrounding agricultural land and one distant popu- phytes. The contrast in plant adaptations between the
lation in Michigan. Urban populations had high and old cropland area and newer built area is striking.
similar levels of genetic variation (plus similar genetic Preadaptation, the development of genetically
distances and no unique alleles), which differed mark- based beneficial traits in one environment that are
edly from populations in agricultural and distant areas. advantageous in a different location provides further
The results suggest that spatial fragmentation does not insight into urban plants. Most non-native species
impede gene flow in the urban region for the violet spe- arriving in a city presumably die quickly. However,
cies. It is hypothesized that insect pollinators for the some from similar natural or urban environments have
plant are abundant enough to overcome fragmentation preadaptations that permit survival, even good growth
and isolation effects. and successful reproduction. Urban environmental
In southeastern Australia, a rare native shrub conditions are not severe for such preadapted species.
(Grevillea macleayana) is cultivated in residential house Some of these species spread into or invade disturbed
plots (gardens). The shrub grows nearby in remnant sites in the city, while a few invade semi-natural areas
vegetation patches within the urban area, as well as in in urban greenspaces and outside the metro area.
the surrounding urban fringe (Roberts et al., 2007). Preadaptations enhance the chance of a recent invader

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

(e) Figure 8.7. Characteristics of plants

(a)
with high plasticity. (a) Number of soil
moisture conditions for acceptable
growth; (b) number of soil types; (c)
number of light conditions; (d) number
(b) of overwintering hardiness zones; (e)
number of seasons plant provides
(f) food or habitat; (f) number of months
plant provides food or habitat; (g)
number of major wildlife types using
(c) (g) plant for food or habitat; (h) number of
months in flower. Threadleaf coreopsis
= moonbeam form; red juniper = grey
owl form; switchgrass = Shenandoah
(d) form; fragrant sumac = gro low form;
blackeyed susan = Indian summer form;
(h) pink muhly grass = Sporobolus capillaris/
Muhlenbergia capillaris. Based on Hunter
(2011).

becoming reclassified as a naturalized species, which native and hybrid cordgrass (Spartina) species com-
“fits into” a new ecosystem. pete in saltmarshes around San Francisco Bay (Ayres
A review of literature on climate-related genetic et al., 2004). Apparently native and non-native dande-
diversity within populations and the potential evolu- lion (Taraxacum) species have successfully hybridized.
tionary responses of plant populations to future cli- Horticulture and crop science routinely select or gen-
mate change points to sobering patterns (Jump and etically modify varieties and forms of plants planted in
Penuelas, 2005). The authors suggest that in fragmented urban areas (Saebo et al., 2005). Many of these species
landscapes rapid climate change could overwhelm the are somewhat specialized, with little ability to adapt
ability of plant species to adapt. Genetic composition naturally. Nevertheless, it should be clear that plant
could be drastically altered and species extinction risk genetics and adaptation of urban plants, currently
high. These patterns may apply to urban areas. represented by scattered studies, remains a frontier to
A useful way to develop vegetation resistant or explore and understand.
resilient to disturbances and stresses, including climate
change, is to plant generalist species. Such a plant has Trees and shrubs
high plasticity (phenotypic), i.e., a genetically deter-
Trees are ecological players on the stage of virtually
mined wide amplitude of tolerance to environmental
every chapter. So here we focus on trees themselves,
conditions (Saebo et al., 2005).
and to a lesser extent, shrubs in the urban environ-
For example, ten species, including tree, shrubs,
ment. First the ecological or functional roles of trees
herbaceous perennials and grasses, with high plasticity
are highlighted. Next we encapsulate the distribution
are compared in Figure 8.7 (Hunter, 2011). Many of the
patterns of urban trees, and finally consider the special
species also provide ecological values. The tree, white
importance of shrubs.
oak (Quercus alba), has high plasticity levels for five of
the eight variables. The two shrubs, juniper and sumac,
each have high levels for four variables. Urban vegeta- Ecological roles of trees
tion planting could emphasize highly plastic generalist Individual trees dispersed over an urban area are the
species in the face of disturbances, urbanization, and focus, rather than trees in the continuous cover of woods,
climate change. forests, or plantations. This tree pattern is somewhat
Other clues to plant genetics and adaptation in analogous to that in a grass-dominated savanna or an
urban areas exist. In wetland ecology, native, non- area of small farms. For convenience, the ecological or

222
 Trees and shrubs

(a) (b) Figure 8.8. Projected annual benefits

of a tree in different urban locations.
Benefits are 30 years after planting green
ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) saplings in
typical locations in Chicago. Tree heights
and diameters (dbh) are: street, 9.8 m and
31 cm; highway, 10.4 m and 33 cm; yard,
11.0 m and 36 cm; housing, 11.3 m and
37 cm; park, 11.9 m and 41 cm. Numbers
in parentheses are additional benefits
from “avoided emissions” (Chen and Jim,
Sulfur dioxide 2008).1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 cm = 0.4 inch; 1 kg
= 2.2 pounds; 1 liter = 0.26 gallons. Based
on McPherson (1994b).

(c) (d)

functional roles of trees are roughly grouped into three well as the input from and outputs to those surround-
categories of overall relative importance: (1) major, (2) ings. Moreover, ecological roles change over time.
minor, and (3) minimal. Most of the ecological roles
could be considered important out in natural land, Major ecological roles of an urban tree
but urban areas have quite different patterns. Readers For soil and water
may puzzle over or disagree with the classification of 1. Shade and cool the soil surface and herbaceous
some functions. That’s fine. Each reader has different plant cover
experience in different cities, and to reach a conclusion 2. Produce leaf litter that accumulates on the soil
requires serious thought about urban patterns. surface
Clearly the ecological roles of a tree vary from city to
3. Reduce and aerate compacted soil by spreading
city and location to location within a city (Figure 8.8).
roots (see Chapter 4)
Thus, planting a tree in a park provides on average
4. Reduce stormwater runoff
much more uptake of air pollutants (particulate mat-
ter, ozone, NO2, SO2, and CO) than planting the tree by For air
a road. The same is true for absorption of carbon diox- 1. Cool the air by shading (see Chapter 5)
ide. However, a street tree reduces stormwater runoff 2. Cool the air by evapo-transpiration (see Chapter 5)
more than does a park tree. Overall, trees planted by 3. Clean the air, as foliage filters out particulate
highways and in yards and multi-unit housing sites matter (DeSanto et al., 1976; Grey and Deneke,
provide intermediate benefits. 1992; Tyrvainen et al., 2005)
The ecological importance of an individual tree 4. Emit biogenic VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
varies according to surrounding urban conditions, as (see section above)

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

For animals and plants 3. Support vascular epiphytes (e.g., ferns, orchids,
1. Make carbohydrates and other organic compounds bromeliads) on branches
consumed by herbivores and decomposers
2. Produce pollen that disperses Minimal ecological roles of an urban tree
3. Produce seeds that disperse For soil and water
4. Provide cover used by birds and other wildlife 1. Reduce soil erosion by wind
5. Provide nest/den sites used by wildlife 2. Reduce soil erosion by water
6. Provide food (leaves, nectar, fruits, seeds, etc.) 3. Decrease soil nutrients (macro- and micro-) by
used by wildlife root uptake
7. Produce layers of foliage and microhabitats 4. Reduce (phytoremediate) organic substances
8. Support the biodiversity and abundance of insects in soil
9. Enhance avian biodiversity 5. Intercept rain and snow, preventing them from
10. Provide stepping stones or corridors used in reaching the ground
wildlife movement 6. Lower the water table by pumping water upward in
11. Inhibit competing plants by shading and root evapo-transpiration
absorption 7. Reduce levels of floodwater
12. Survive and grow on contaminated soil
For air
13. Support some epiphytes (lichens, bryophytes,
algae) on trunks 1. Cool the air by reflecting incoming solar and sky
radiation
Minor ecological roles of an urban tree 2. Add oxygen to the air in photosynthesis
For soil and water 3. Cool the area just downwind
4. Increase relative humidity in the area just
1. Transport carbohydrates to roots in the soil downwind
2. Add deep soil organic matter, as roots die 5. Reduce noise levels (Bradshaw et al., 1995; Chen
3. Harbor mycorrhizae associated with fine roots and Jim, 2008)
4. Harbor nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules 6. Produce sounds
5. Change the soil pH 7. Produce odors/aromas
6. Enrich the soil fertility with mineral nutrients
7. Lower soil moisture by pumping water upward in For animals and plants
evapo-transpiration 1. Attract pollinators
For air 2. Attract fruit-eating birds that disperse seeds
3. Provide visual cues with waving branches/fronds
1. Protect against strong, cold, or hot winds or shimmering leaves
2. Cool the air by squeezing and accelerating 4. Drop branches and logs that provide wildlife
airflows habitat
3. Clean the air, as leaves absorb SO2 and NO2 5. Drop branches and logs in water bodies, providing
(DeSanto et al., 1976; McPherson, 1994b; fish habitat
Tyrvainen et al., 2005; Chen and Jim, 2008) 6. Support vines
4. Clean the air, as leaves absorb other gases, e.g., 7. Support epiphytes (lichens, bryophytes, algae) on
CO, O3, fluoride (DeSanto et al., 1976; McPherson, leaves
1994b; Chen and Jim, 2008)
8. Produce organic chemicals (allelochemicals) that
5. Sequester CO2 by uptake/absorption and storage inhibit other organisms
(McPherson, 1994a; Bradshaw et al., 1995; Nowak
and Crane, 2002) More ecological roles of individual trees, mostly min-
imal or minor, can surely be added to the list. Note that
For animals and plants the list does not consider the possible indirect value
1. Provide fruits, nuts and seeds as food for wildlife of avoidance or mitigation (Nowak and Crane, 2002;
2. Colonize bare ground with seedlings Chen and Jim, 2008). Perhaps surprisingly, the bulk of

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 Trees and shrubs

et al., 1999, Tyrvainen and Miettenen, 2000; Chen and

Jim, 2008). As expected, estimates vary depending on
assumptions and variables included. These analyses
emphases market values, though some attempt to also
estimate the non-market values of urban trees.
Most of the ecological roles listed above could be
called nature’s services or ecosystem services, that is, the
natural patterns and processes that benefit society. The
above list of ecological functions for trees seems exten-
sive. Yet it is but a portion of the total range of natural
patterns and processes, generated by soil, water, air,
animals, plants and microbes, that provide benefits to
people.

Figure 8.9. Use of economically important trees in peri-urban Tree distribution and arrangement
area of Kano, Nigeria. “Close settled zone” within about 80 km of The first question is to see where trees are in urban
Kano. Common names of trees (left to right): darbejiya; tsamiya;
dabino; goriba; mangwaro; kuka; rimi; dinya; dorawa; kandanya; areas. Hence we briefly examine different habitat types
kanya; dushe; gawo; marke; kawuri; gangi; kurna; danya; aduwa; in a series of cities to grasp patterns of distribution for
yandi; shirinya; cadiya; durumi (differs from yandi); baure. Notes: (1) numbers of trees and types of species. The second ques-
Leaves are the income generation. (2) Var. tomentosa. Adapted from
Maconachie (2007). tion is how the trees are arranged or aggregated within
a land use. For this we highlight six basic types of tree
the major ecological roles of trees in urban areas are arrangement.
also of major importance in non-urban areas. A few,
such as cooling the air, cleaning the air, emitting VOCs, Where are the trees?
and aerating compacted soil, may be primarily import- In Guangzhou (South China), most vegetation occurs
ant in urban areas. in patches of 100 to 10 000 m2, that is, up to 1 hectare
Of course urban trees also provide a wide range of (2.5 acres) or about the size of a football field (Guan
benefits to people (Grey and Deneke, 1992; Bolund and et al., 1999). A study of 6527 trees in different land uses
Hunhammar, 1999; Tyrvainen et al., 2005; Jones, 2008; across Nanjing (China) found the greatest number of
Chen and Jim, 2008; Del Tredici, 2010). For example, trees in roadsides, and the fewest in parks (roadsides
individually distributed trees may: reduce energy costs; 32% of the total, neighborhoods 21%, factories 20%,
enhance property values; provide privacy; enhance institutions 17%, and garden parks 10%) (Chen and
health; relieve stress; produce fruits; produce wood; Jim, 2008).The leading dominant species in the differ-
create hazards; and enhance aesthetics. ent land uses differed considerably. A tree health index
Benefits provided strongly depend on the species of indicated good health for institution, garden park, and
tree planted. In the peri-urban area of Kano (Nigeria), factory trees, and poor for roadside and neighborhood
at least 24 types of tree provide significant value to resi- trees.
dents (Figure 8.9) (Maconachie, 2007). Six tree species For Hefei (Anhui Province, China) on the other
provide (high and medium use) timber products, while hand, 62% of the trees were in residential areas and only
a largely different seven species provide browse for 6% in roadsides (16% on institutional land, 9% parks,
livestock. Ten species provide fruits and other income, 8% in a ring park along the former city wall immedi-
while a mainly different 11 species provide fuelwood. ately surrounding the city center) (Wu et al., 2008). In
Several other values (shade, medicinal, rope, and soil this case, tree density was high in the ring park (651
fertility) are also provided to residents by the peri- trees/ha) and the parks (459 trees/ha), and much lower
urban trees. Elsewhere, in Curritiba (Brazil) urban in the other three land uses (139–169 trees/ha). Tree
trees have been widely planted to provide a richness of species richness showed yet another pattern, with 63
values for residents. species in institutional land, 52 in parks, 34 in ring
Various economic analyses estimating the values of park, 28 in residential areas, and 16 species in road-
trees have been done (McPherson, 1994b; McPherson sides. Thus, Hefei roadsides are low in all three tree

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

categories (tree number, density, species richness). ages and have different heights, tree-crown diameters,
However, the highest numbers differ by category (total and root development. A Chicago study found that
number of trees in residential areas; tree density in ring trees of streets, highways, housing areas, and parks
park; and species richness in institutional areas). Also had similar and high mortality rates (McPherson et al.,
in Guangzhou, tree species richness is lower in road- 1994b). However, trees in house yards lasted twice as
sides than in other land uses (Jim and Liu, 2001). The long as those in the other land uses.
Hefei results emphasize that observing one tree pattern Less common urban land uses may also have char-
would be misleading; the three patterns (tree number, acteristic species. Cemeteries often have pendulous
density, and species richness) paint the picture of trees (weeping) varieties, columnar cypress trees (Cupressus)
in the city pointing to the sky, and other symbolic ornamental
A study of 441 front yards (gardens, spaces) in trees (Gilbert, 1991). Dumps/rubbish sites, railways,
Auckland (New Zealand) recorded 4700 trees (includ- vacant lots, industrial waste piles/heaps, and inactive
ing tall shrubs and “tussocks”), 71% of which are non- quarries are normally dominated by spontaneous trees,
native species (Meurk et al., 2009). Overall front-yard which are usually quite different from the planted spe-
tree density is 464 trees/hectare, overwhelmingly cies (Kunick, 1990).
planted trees. The most abundant three native species Urban-to-rural gradient studies indicate that urban
grow spontaneously at a density of only 1–2 trees/ha. woods may have lower stem densities, fewer under-
In Auckland, 5 native and 7 non-native species pre- story species, more non-native species, and higher tree
dominate, each being present in more than a fifth of the species richness (McDonnell et al., 1997; Muller et al.,
front yards. 2000; Porter et al., 2001; McDonnell and Hahs, 2008;
Woody plants cover 42% of a suburban residential Berland, 2012). Based on an Ohio (USA) city study,
area of Milwaukee (USA) (Dorney et al., 1984; Dunn woods intensively used for recreation may have espe-
and Heneghan, 2011). Backyards, which include both cially high tree diversity (Porter et al., 2001).
planted and spontaneous trees, had 36% of the trees. Urban tree species also change in ecological succes-
Front yards (28%) and street trees (25%) had lower but sion. Over a few decades in a New York City woods,
similar numbers. Tree species richness of front yards oaks (Quercus) and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) sig-
(30 taxa) was nearly triple that for street trees (11). nificantly decreased, while birch (Betula), cherry
A closer look at street trees highlights change over (Prunus), and other species increased (Rudnicky
time. Based on sampling 6496 trees in a small city and McDonnell, 1989. In 32 woods of a small city
(Manhattan, Kansas, USA), distinctive age cohorts (Worchester, Massachusetts, USA), ash (Fraxinus) and
were present: 55–60-year-old trees; 40-year trees; and oak (Quercus rubra) are apparently sharply decreasing,
10–20-year trees (Grey and Deneke, 1992). The old- while a naturalized maple (Acer platanoides) is increas-
est street trees were elm (Ulmus americana), hack- ing (Bertin et al., 2005).
berry (Celtis occidentalis), and black walnut (Juglans Major environmental disturbances also cause
nigra). The medium cohort was mainly Siberian elm change in urban tree density and diversity. Over many
(Ulmus parvifolia) and pin oak (Quercus palustris). The decades Kyoto has experienced typhoons (hurricanes),
youngest cohort was composed of eight tree species. floods, and fires (Sakamoto, 1988). Also humans have
Changing street trees may reflect changing fashions, removed trees for new developments and have planted
sapling availability/cost, disease/pest effects (Zipperer, trees in different areas. Despite these major alterations,
2002), and other factors. Street tree cohorts today in the total number of elm-related Ulmaceae trees (the
Rome in major part reflect changing political times predominant tree group composed of three species)
over many decades (Bruno et al., 2006). has fluctuated around a rather constant level over the
Observers often note the high mortality rate of time period. All three species are planted, while two of
street trees, commonly due to inadequate soil for roots, the species grow spontaneously. The author concludes
soil compaction, too little or too much water, road salt, that the city residents’ appreciation for trees and their
high temperature, disease, and damage by vehicles and functions helps stabilize the urban tree cover.
people (Bradshaw et al., 1995; Konijnendijk et al., 2005).
For example, planted trees often last on average only How are urban trees arranged?
about 7–15 years. This means that trees along a street, In natural land, the dispersion or spatial arrangement
unless all recently planted, are likely to be of different of individuals of a plant species is generally aggregated

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into clumps. Much less common is a somewhat regular defecate the seeds upon flight, so tree seedlings and
distribution of individuals, and in rare cases individ- saplings are clustered around the mother plant.
uals seem randomly distributed. Also patterns may be 2. Tree rows. In urban areas these are often single
polycentric, monocentric, or dispersed (see equations, rows, such as on one side of a street or along a
Appendix B). boundary. But double rows are also common, as
Rather than learning from diverse examples, here on both sides of an avenue or an allee in a park.
we highlight six basic tree arrangements found in Except for some boundaries with spontaneous
almost all cities, and briefly explore the characteristics trees, tree rows are overwhelmingly planted. Shrub
of each. The basic arrangements are: (1) single trees; and tree understory layers are normally absent.
(2) tree rows; (3) narrow wooded corridors; (4) wide Walkways may have tree rows on one or both sides.
wooded corridors; (5) small wooded patches; and (6) Rows of trees are familiar in some commercial and
large wooded patches. institutional areas. Tree rows tend to be of a single
1. Single trees. These are especially common in species, though multi-species tree rows provide
yards, parks, cemeteries, industrial areas, vacant somewhat different functions. Species selection
lots, brownfields, and so forth. Single trees often focuses on the form of trees.
are open grown, usually with relatively low Trees on one side of a street are often planted
branches present on all sides. Typically no shrub to reduce summer afternoon heat, and perhaps
or tree understory is present. Both planted and secondarily to facilitate snow and ice melt in winter
spontaneous (adventive) trees are common. (Bell et al., 2005). Some wildlife readily moves
Although the tree’s canopy is separate from along tree rows, but the usual single tree species
neighboring trees, the root systems may extend and the absence of a shrub layer greatly limits the
more widely and be in competition, especially in effectiveness for wildlife movement. Windbreaks
dry areas. The form of the planted tree, and hence normally are of a single species, whereas visual-
the species may be particularly important, as for screen tree rows often have at least a shrub layer
street trees, a Japanese garden, or a cemetery. Lists also. If canopies of two tree rows form an arch over
of species and the availability of trees and their a street, the road is all shaded, so, for instance,
varieties are commonly used in selecting plantings lizards may readily cross the road on hot days.
(Benedikz et al., 2005; Saebo et al., 2005). The double row of plane trees in European cities,
Planting urban trees includes selecting location, and of palms in tropical cities, is iconic. In London
species, and variety, as well as the processes more than half the street trees are a single highly
of planting and maintenance (Millard, 2000). resistant hybrid species, the London plane tree
Overall, the success rate for plantings is considered (Platanus) (Wheater, 1999).As noted in the
to be moderate to low. In contrast, the natural preceding section, newly planted street trees are
colonization process itself selects the species that subject to many stresses and disturbances, and thus
are often (pre-)adapted to survive in the urban usually have high mortality rates.
environment. Spontaneous trees may have a higher 3. Narrow wooded corridors. These strips of tree-
success rate, and are established at a lower cost. dominated vegetation are mostly of spontaneous
Arranging separate single trees provides plants, though each corridor may have originated
opportunity for creativity (Bell et al., 2005; Gary as a planted tree row. Boundaries between fields,
Hilderbrand, personal communication, 2010). and along the back property line of medium-size
For example, a regular grid of trees, as in a large house plots, often have vegetation strips. Such
parking lot or a fruit orchard, is often present in narrow strips are common along railways, on steep
urban areas. The parking lot may have several banks, and by a stream, canal or ditch. In contrast to
species, whereas a fruit orchard typically has but tree rows, most of these wooded corridors receive
one species. In the absence of maintenance, the little maintenance. Many wildlife species move
regular tree pattern can change quickly into an along, either inside or alongside, narrow wooded
irregular pattern or into regularly distributed corridors in urban areas (Forman, 1995). Narrow
clumps. In the latter case, trees may produce spots and breaks in the corridor are common, and
root sprouts around the “mother.” Or for trees may reduce effective wildlife movement. Such
producing fruits, birds often feed on fruits and narrow corridors are highly subject to conditions

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

on both adjacent sides, so the trees present are density or packing of both tree and bird species
mostly generalists. People tend to dump many types than did patches >2 ha (Forman et al., 1976;
of materials in the corridors, thus also affecting Forman, 1995). Such small patches bulging with
their use for wildlife and human movement. species thus are of particular interest in parks,
4. Wide wooded corridors. Normally rather few of these where people wish to see wildlife. Most of the
major corridors are present in an urban region. They tree species are relatively tolerant generalists, and
are basically strips of spontaneous semi-natural fast-growing successional species are common
vegetation or woodland, typically remaining along (Kowarik and Korner, 2005).
a river, stream, or pipeline. If used in a major way These small patches often have trails, are used for
for recreation, the corridor is sometimes called a dog walking, and hence contain dog scents and
“greenway.” A narrow greenbelt, such as proposed waste that inhibit terrestrial wildlife. Dumping
for Toronto, could be a (semi-)circular wide wooded of varied materials is common in small wooded
corridor. Also, many of these wide corridors tend to patches. In urban areas the woods are often
be major infrastructure routes for pipelines, electric disturbed and seem open, with the shrub layer
powerlines, railways, and roads into and out of a city. suppressed to enhance human visibility and
This means the presence of unending maintenance security. Tokyo and Berlin seem exceptional in
and disturbance. Wildlife movement and human maintaining abundant shrubs in wooded parks.
trails are prominent functions (Forman, 1995). A series of small or tiny patches serving as
Species also move and disperse between these wide stepping stones is considered to be the primary
wooded strips and the surrounding residential and route for most wildlife movement across urban
commercial lands. areas, though this is little studied. Such a pattern
5. Small wooded patches. Such woods or woodlands of course means that each wooded patch in the
of varied size and shape tend to be common, sequence, as well as each intervening space, is very
and of major ecological importance, throughout important for effective movement. A continuous
the urban area. Some are planted; most are of wooded corridor is far better, and an elongated
spontaneous vegetation. House plots, city parks, cluster of small patches is better, for wildlife
town parks, institutional areas, industrial areas, movement (Forman, 1995, 2008). However, both
dumps, infrastructure areas, farm areas (Grey patterns are in limited supply in an urban area.
and Deneke, 1992; Attorre et al., 1997), steep 6. Large wooded patches. These woodlands (or
hillsides, and somewhat-high water-table areas forests) are the least common of the six forms
are typical locations containing small wooded and, when present, are of exceptional ecological
patches. Some small patches are surrounded by a importance in urban areas. Table Mountain
particular land use such as residential land, while Park in Cape Town and Tiergarten in Berlin are
others are between two types, or even where three examples. Seoul has a ring of large wooded parks
land uses converge (analogous to a convergency on its edge, representing the remnants of a former
point) (Forman, 1995; Kowarik and Korner, 2005). greenbelt (Forman, 2008). Semi-natural vegetation
Maintenance levels in such woods vary widely with mainly native species dominates, and is
from intense, as in some Kyoto gardens, to none, enriched by lots of non-native species present.
where ecological succession is the predominant Large woodland or forest patches, as around
process. The shape of small wooded patches is some German cities, provide many ecological
especially important (see equations, Appendix B). functions and services to society, including
Tiny patches of two or three trees together often wildlife protection, clean-water protection, climate
have a noticeably different microclimate than modification, recreation, wood products, and
their surroundings, and may contain semi- mining (Forman, 2008). Large forested areas with
natural understory, shrub, and herbaceous- similar functions also protrude as green wedges
layer vegetation. Larger aggregations of trees into some cities, including Portland (Oregon,
progressively modify the interior environmental USA) and Stockholm.
conditions and hence the species present. In Commonly, even in these large patches, the shrub
a New Jersey (USA) study, woody vegetation layer is suppressed in many areas for visibility and
patches up to about 1.5 to 2 ha had a much higher security. An ample shrub layer of Lonicera and

228
 Trees and shrubs

other species in Berlin’s Tiergarten is exceptional.

Large wooded patches also have considerable
horizontal heterogeneity, including scattered
openings or glades. Such openings in a woodland
are rare in an urban area and thus of considerable
ecological interest. Ponds and streams may be
present (see Figure 1.4). Dumping primarily occurs
along the edge of the wooded patch or along wide
trails accessible by vehicles (Matlack, 1993). A
considerable trail network criss-crossing the urban
woodland is characteristic of large wooded spaces.
The trees and other plants are overwhelmingly
spontaneous in origin. The species are mainly
generalists, though some rare specialist species
are often present in low numbers. A large forested Figure 8.10. Small tree, shrub-height plants, and pond in urban
traffic circle. Showy grass clumps; bottlebrush (Callistemon) tree on
patch in relatively new cities may be mainly a left. Few animals thrive in such a stressful hazardous site. Barcelona.
remnant of previous widespread forest habitat. R. Forman photo.
However, the changed environment due to
surrounding urbanization typically means that the patches. In contrast, planted shrubs predominate in
remnant species reproduce less successfully, and hedges, foundation plantings, flower gardens, side
are being replaced by generalists and non-natives boundaries of house plots, cemeteries, entranceways,
(Rudnicky and McDonnell, 1989; Zipperer, 2002). and narrow highway-median strips. The highest diver-
Only large wooded patches contain many interior sity of shrubs may be in certain cemeteries (Gilbert,
species (see equations, Appendix B). 1991). Here a diversity of planted shrubs around many
Plantations, usually of a single tree species, are markers is supplemented by spontaneous shrubs in less
occasionally found in urban areas. Thousands of manicured areas.
birch (Betula pendula) planted by the Amsterdam However, shrubs tend to be scarce under single
airport to reduce bird–airplane collisions is an trees and planted tree rows. Many paths and walkways
example. Such monocultures are generally of low are devoid of adjacent shrubs. Small wooded patches
ecological value and low recreational interest. A heavily used by people generally contain spontaneous
large mangrove swamp by a tropical coastal city shrubs, but in very low density.
may also be dominated by a single tree such as red A study of spontaneous vegetation in ten German
mangrove (Rhizophora). However, in this case, cities found four shrub species to be predominant
the tree and ecosystem are natural and of major (Kunick, 1990): black elder (Sambucus nigra), goat
ecological value. willow (Salix caprea), bramble or blackberry (Rubus
fruticosus), and butterfly bush (Buddleja davidii). The
first two often grow together, but all four produce
Shrubs in urban areas dense thickets, which provide good habitat and cover
Shrubs and shrubby areas appear to play exceptionally for urban wildlife. Butterfly bush is mainly in city cent-
important roles in urban areas because of their dense ers, apparently favored by urban heat. Sandy/gravelly
foliage relatively close to the ground (Figure 8.10). The railways favor bramble, often along with shrubby birch
foliage commonly provides dark shade and cool moist (Betula pendula) or black locust (Robinia pseudo-aca-
conditions at soil level, cover for both wildlife habi- cia). Butterfly bush, birch, and black locust thrive on
tat and movement, and visual screening for people. building rubble. Black elder and goat willow seem to
Despite these roles, urban shrub ecology remains a favor partially shaded soil with ample organic matter.
research frontier. Bramble grows on abandoned gardens, and black locust
Spontaneous shrub growth is common along thickets on quarry piles. Spontaneous vegetation in
boundaries, hedgerows and railways, at the edge of cemeteries, including yew (Taxus), lilac (Syringa), and
woods and quarries, on rubble and abandoned sites, ivy (Hedera), are the most distinctive areas of spontan-
along riverbanks, and in swamps and large wooded eous urban shrubland in the cities.

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

As just illustrated, tree seedlings and saplings may (presumably carrying seeds of human-disturbance-
be a significant component of shrubby areas, and dependent species) and disturb woods from an urban
help determine the future succession of vegetation. border, than from a cropland border.
Disturbance in woods may favor more generalist spe- Finally, vines are also present and play ecological
cies (Guntenspergen and Levenson, 1997). Most spon- roles in urban areas, though the ecological literature on
taneous shrubs readily spread vegetatively and thus urban vines is scarce. Ivy (Hedera helix) and Boston ivy
may cover a considerable space, unless cut back. Some (Parthenocissus) readily colonize and grow on walls.
shrubs are thorny or spiny, such as bramble, cactus, and Boston ivy and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quin-
Yucca. The spines deter people, but normally have little quefolia) grow on tree trunks. Clematis (Clematis spp.)
effect on urban wildlife movement. Maintenance per- vines planted in gardens may grow into large masses
sonal tend to avoid areas covered with spiny shrubs, so that attract an abundance of pollinators. A naturalized
such sites usually accumulate trash and debris. non-native vine, Asian bittersweet (Celastrus orbicu-
Shrubs produce fruits in greater proportion than do laris), is bird-dispersed and abundant in northeastern
urban trees, which more likely produce wind-dispersed USA suburban areas. In tropical cities, thick woody
seeds. Thus, fruit-eating birds and mammals (frugi- vines or lianas are usually present at low frequency.
vores) are often attracted to shrubby areas. People also Some birds nest in these urban vines, though overall
pick fruits from these convenient-sized plants such as low insect abundance limits breeding bird numbers.
blackberry and blueberry (Houck and Cody, 2000).
For almost all urban wildlife, a shrub can provide
cover. A line of shrubs creates a promising wildlife Plant community structure
movement route. An adequate-sized patch of shrubs and dynamics
provides habitat for nesting or denning. Of course low
Even a glimpse of vegetation highlights the two key
shrubs, effectively ground cover, may provide none of
aspects of plant communities, spatial structure and
these ecological benefits.
species pattern. Spatial structure includes vertical
Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), a non-native
layers and horizontal patchiness. In contrast, species
from Europe, was found to be the most common tree
pattern emphasizes the diversity and composition of
(essentially a small tree or tall shrub) in Chicago, 13%
species making up the spatial structure.
of the total trees present (Whitney and Adams, 1980).
Yet a glimpse misses the all-important change and
Thus, the leading woody plant is not planted, but colo-
dynamics over time, our second topic here. For this, we
nizes, sprouts, and spreads spontaneously. One study
explore vegetation-related patterns over different time
suggests that the survival rate for birds nesting in
scales from hours to millennia, and then focus in on
non-native shrubs is lower than that in native shrubs,
ecological succession.
because the plant structure is more easily penetrated by
predators (Moorman and DePerno, 2006).
An interesting study of understory plants in the Spatial structure
urban woods of Barcelona provides insight into the We first examine the vertical layers in vegetation and
distribution of shrubs (many Mediterranean under- then the plant species present in the vegetation.
story species are shrubs) (Guirado et al., 2006). The
richness of human-disturbance-dependent (synan- Vertical stratification
thropic) species is higher in small than large woods, if Ecologists commonly recognize up to five layers or
the small woods are adjacent to crop fields. Also, within strata in a forest: canopy, subcanopy, understory, shrub
larger woods these plants are most frequent near the layer, and herb (or herbaceous) layer. The canopy is the
edge. However, rare forest species are less frequent in more or less continuous uppermost layer of tree foliage,
small woods if the woods are adjacent to an urban area although some tropical forests have scattered emer-
rather than to cropland. Furthermore, common forest gent trees above the canopy. Just beneath the canopy
species, total plant species richness, and the presence may be a subcanopy, mostly of trees that grow upward
of people are more frequent close to a forest edge if when canopy trees die. An understory layer beneath is
the edge adjoins an urban area rather than cropland. often dominated by smaller trees that only reach that
Ecologically this emphasizes the importance of adja- height, though species that grow into upper layers are
cent land use on species patterns. More people enter commonly present. A shrub layer of about 1–3 m height

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 Plant community structure and dynamics

may be dominated by shrub species, but often contains et al., 2005). These stratification patterns occur in both
many young trees that grow taller. The herbaceous or remnant woodland (a site where woods were never
herb layer below about 1 m height is mainly of herb- cleared) and in regenerated woods, i.e., regrown from
aceous plants, though usually many tree seedlings and/ a cleared site (Hamabata, 1980; Zipperer, 2002; Bell
or low shrubs are present. et al., 2005). Remnant woods persist, for example, in
Urban woods or forests typically have two, three, or Amsterdam, St. Petersburg, Syracuse (New York, USA),
four layers of foliage, largely determined by the history and Portland (Oregon, USA). Regenerated woods
of human activities on a site (Nowak, 1994). Normally dominated by spontaneous species commonly appear
a four-layer woods has little subcanopy, and three lay- along rivers and on railway land (Gilbert, 1991), and
ers indicates the scarcity of either an understory or are usually younger with fewer layers.
shrub layer. Usually two strata are only the canopy The horizontal pattern of urban plant communi-
and herb layers. While recognizing that the presence ties is equally important though less studied directly.
of stratification and layers is convenient, some ecolo- Parks are multifunctional and hence normally quite
gists emphasize that these are but a model, and that heterogeneous (Gilbert, 1991). Indeed, horizontal
really there are no layers. Instead foliage is distributed microhabitat heterogeneity characterizes urban areas,
in gradually but unevenly changing amounts from as emphasized in a section above. Even within a rec-
ground to canopy top. ognizable plant community or habitat, the density of
Consider the important Mongolian oak (Quercus vegetation varies from high to low. Openings in the
mongolica) woods in Seoul (Lee et al., 2008). One wood canopy are normal and play important ecological roles.
(stand) in city center is compared with three in the sub- In addition to the presence of somewhat-distinct tiny
urbs (inner urban boundary), and three in the exurban patches, linear features such as trails are common in
area (outer urban boundary). All woods are dominated urban vegetation. Thus, the degree of horizontal het-
by the oak, though small mountain ash (Sorbus alnifo- erogeneity or patchiness is an important characteristic
lia) trees are common in the city-center woods. Plant of urban plant communities, and mainly reflects the
species richness is highest in the city-center woods and history of human activities.
lowest in the exurban woods. The tree canopy in city As discussed below, plant community boundaries
center is thin and 15–18 m (49–59 ft) high, whereas or edges are overwhelmingly linear and abrupt. This
the suburban and exurban woods are similar with a pattern contrasts with edges out in natural land that
thick 8–18-m high canopy. In all three cases no distinct are mainly curvilinear or convoluted, and sometimes
subcanopy is present. The city-center wood has a thin in the form of a strip of tiny patches. Some urban vege-
dense understory at 6–8 m height, compared with a tation has slightly curvy boundaries created by design,
thick medium-dense understory at 3–8 m in the other or due to set-backs from buildings, signs, towers, and
woods. The shrub layer is thin at 1–2 m in the city cen- other human objects (Kenney, 2008).
ter and thick at 1–3 m in the suburban and exurban
woods. All three woods have a similar-thickness herb Species composition and biodiversity
layer at 0–1 m height. Thus, for these four-layer woods, A natural community (or species assemblage) is con-
the city-center wood differs markedly in vertical struc- sidered to be all the species present in an area, and is
ture from the suburban and exurban woods, which are normally restricted to a relatively homogeneous area.
similar. Thus, the species in a meadow and in an adjacent
Two-layer woods are common in urban areas woods would be measured separately as two commu-
where the shrub layer has disappeared due to heavy nities, not combined as one. The degree or “tightness”
human use or is removed for visibility and security. of interactions among the species is of considerable
Also, unlike woods in natural and agricultural land, the ecological interest (Austin, 1999). Thus, a high degree
edge portions of urban woods commonly have much of predation, parasitism, symbiosis, mutualism, and
less shrub and understory foliage than in the woods’ intra/interspecific competition indicates a group of
interior (Johnson and Klemens, 2005). However, where species that have coexisted for a considerable period,
people do not remove the shrubs, urban forest edges and may have evolved together. A high degree of inter-
have somewhat denser foliage than in the interior. action suggests a more stable community.
Many ecological functions and benefits are lost in Urban natural communities overall seem to have a
a two-layer rather than a multi-layer wood (Tyrvainen low degree of species interaction, with species arriving,

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 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

(a) (b) Figure 8.11. Species–area relationship

for city and for habitats within city. (a)
Cities in Germany and Eastern Europe;
two largest cities = Warsaw and Berlin
(West). (b) Sites in Berlin (West). 1 km2
= 0.39 mi2; 1 ha = 100 m × 100 m = 2.5
acres. (Ruderal is often described as
“disturbed wasteland”). From Sukopp
and Werner (1983).

spreading and disappearing at a relatively rapid rate. has high dominance if, for instance, one or two species
However, species in urban communities are not ran- compose more than half of the individuals present, and
dom mixtures. Many species combinations are read- low dominance if, for instance, the most abundant 5–6
ily recognizable as repeated plant communities across species compose half the community. The first case
urban areas. Planted areas such as flower and vegetable typically has low species richness and few rare species,
gardens may have the lowest degree of species interac- whereas the second case has more diversity with many
tions and stability. Plantings normally change drastic- species in low abundance.
ally when human maintenance stops. Plant species richness commonly correlates with
Biodiversity is sometimes described as the variety of the area or size of a habitat. One study of city size sug-
life, and composed of three levels, communities, spe- gests that species richness rises sharply in cities up to
cies, and genetic types. Since those are such different about 125 km2 (50 mi2), does not differ from 125 to
characteristics, ecologists usually simplify the concept 400 km2, and again increases sharply in cities above
of biodiversity to be species richness (number). Some 400 km2 (Figure 8.11a) (Klotz, 1990). An alternative,
ecological studies exclude non-native species. But, as more likely interpretation of the Figure 8.11a data is
noted above, this perspective seems to be of limited that species richness increases steeply in cities of up to
use in urban areas, where non-native and native spe- about 10 km2 (4 mi2), and then constantly but gradually
cies coexist in abundance and both play important increases in cities of 10 to 500+ km2.
ecological roles. Genetic types of almost all species are Considering this species–area relationship for dif-
unknown and difficult to determine, so operationally ferent habitats within a city is perhaps more ecologic-
these are normally excluded in ecological studies of ally informative. Plant species richness in general
biodiversity. increases with area in all four habitat types studied
Thus, while recognizing that biodiversity exists at (Figure 8.11b) (Sukopp and Werner, 1983). The rate
different levels, we consider the primary “measure of of species increase is lowest for park and ornamental
biodiversity” to be the richness (or number or diver- vegetation areas, and second lowest for railway sites.
sity) of species present, no matter how long they have The steepest increase may be for “green areas in block-
been in the area. A second informative ecological building districts” though variability here is high and
measure is sometimes added, i.e., habitat or vegetation no large areas were sampled.
or community diversity, the number of plant commu- Other urban studies also show plant species richness
nities present in an area. increasing with area within a city (Pysek, 1998; Dunn
Of course, species number masks the diverse types and Heneghan, 2011). These include urban woods in
and roles of the species, including dominant, rare, Minneapolis-St. Paul (USA) (Hobbs, 1988), vacant lots
keystone, native, etc. species (Whittaker, 1975; Smith, in Chicago (Crowe, 1979), and spontaneous vegetation
1996; Cain et al., 2011). The degree of dominance (or in Birmingham (UK) (Angold et al., 2006). Although
inversely, evenness) in a community is especially species richness typically correlates with habitat area,
informative (see equations, Appendix B). A community other variables such as site conditions and human

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 Plant community structure and dynamics

Figure 8.12. Species richness of plants

and grasshoppers in urban habitats
varying by human impact. Vascular
plants; grasshoppers = Orthoptera.
Five groupings of habitat types, plus
finer-scale ordering of habitats within a
group, are done by the author, and can
be expected to vary in different cities.
Habitat and plant data for Dusseldorf,
Germany (Godde et al., 1995).

activities normally are more important in determining Arnold Arboretum in Boston is one of the most plant-
biodiversity (see equations, Appendix B). diverse areas anywhere outside the tropics. Covering
Species richness of course varies by habitat type. 80 ha (200 acres), the collection of 15 467 planted
Thus, the average plant species richness for plots within plants represents 4030 species (taxa). If the spontan-
the 38 primary habitat types of a small city varies by a eous plants present were included, several hundred
factor of 10 times (Figure 8.12) (Godde et al., 1995). more species would be added to the total plant bio-
The same degree of variation exists for total species diversity (Peter Del Tredici, personal communication,
richness by habitat type. 2012). Indeed, spontaneous species in diverse habitats
Plant diversity seems to correlate inversely with of Rome constitute 41% of the flora in urban parks, in
degree of human design-and-maintenance effort contrast to 73% in suburban areas, 83% in peri-urban
(Figure 8.12). More intense levels, as for parking habitats, and 98% in a protected urban nature reserve
places, inner city, and high-density blocks, have fewer (Faggi et al., 2008).
species. Also low plant richness occurs in forest habi- Biodiversity also correlates with various human pat-
tats, perhaps because of dense shade. In contrast, many terns. In residential areas of an arid urban area (Phoenix,
neglected areas, including old gravel pits and “waste- USA), plant species richness correlates positively with
lands,” have high species richness. the family income of residents, negatively with the age
The same human-impact pattern was found for the of housing, and negatively with previous farming of
diversity of grasshoppers (Figure 8.12), land snails, a site (Hope et al., 2008). Older residential areas have
wood lice, and butterflies (Godde et al., 1995). These more irrigated low-diversity grass and trees, whereas
results suggest that people are designing and managing newer areas have more xeroscaping with diverse spe-
against biodiversity in urban areas. Yet this is also a ripe cies. Farming decades ago, which eliminated most
opportunity for improvement. native species, left a biodiversity legacy on today’s land.
Plant species richness or biodiversity is an import- Overall, within-site alpha diversity is high (equivalent
ant variable in many sections of this chapter. Diverse to that for nearby desert), site-to-site beta diversity is
insights are added for perspective. Harvard University’s low, and total regional gamma diversity is very high.

233
 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

Change and dynamics mapped (Gilbert, 1991). Disturbances such as

combined sewer overflows (CSOs) and woodland
Change here refers to differences in spatial pattern over
wildfire cause effects in hours to days.
time, and dynamics adds insight into the mechanism
Informal squatters commonly create settlements
or causes of change, typically with correlations. Rates
in weeks or months. Plant responses to land
of change vary widely so we start with time scales, and
abandonment are usually striking within weeks
then focus on ecological succession.
to months. Such responses may include species
Time scales from hours to millennia expansion, disappearance, and colonization.
Habitat loss is mainly a short-term event, though
For various ecological patterns and processes a rough
it may continue over years or more. Rapid
correlation exists between space and time (Delcourt
environmental effects can cause species extinctions
and Delcourt, 1988). That is, things that extend over a
(Williams et al., 2009).
long time typically cover or affect a large area (e.g., gla-
ciation), whereas quick changes occur on small spaces Various vegetation types such as lawns and
(e.g., tree-fall gap in a forest). meadows are designed and intensively maintained
Numerous natural processes affecting the land for stability, but change rapidly because of
seem to be almost instantaneous (earthquake, tornado, fluctuations in the intensity of management
tsunami), while others seem eternal (corrosion, fun- (Ahern and Boughton, 1994). In contrast, some
gus rot, evapo-transpiration). Few natural processes urban gardens and xeroscaping are designed for
mainly operate at the human lifetime scale of years to stability and low maintenance (Quigley, 2011).
decades (Forman, 2012). Thus, the natural world grad- 2. Years. A 14-year study in Argentina documented
ually changes, punctuated with powerful perturba- plant colonization of a residential area (Rapoport,
tions. Meanwhile, our powerful changes in the land are 1993). Seed banks perhaps typically change
mainly at the years-to-decades (sometimes centuries) significantly over years. Vegetation responses to
scale. Consequently we continually fight the inexorable large disturbances such as demolition, cyclone,
slow changes with maintenance budgets and energy, and tsunami typically extend over years. Species
while also having to respond to big disturbances (“sur- migration, range contraction, and range expansion
prises”) with big repairs. often occur over years for rapidly reproducing
To envision what changes, as well as the rate, it is species or those readily transported by people. A
useful to group changes into different time scales. For newly arrived non-native species may spread over
urban plants and vegetation, four scales are particu- years (Whitney and Adams, 1980, Sukopp 2008).
larly important: (1) short time scales including hours, Building and road construction mainly extends
days, weeks, months, and seasons; (2) years; (3) dec- over years. Habitat degradation and much
ades; (4) centuries and millennia. For each time scale vegetation change commonly occur over years
below, the processes or mechanisms operating are (Kunick, 1990).
often suggested. Some urban patterns change over two, Over three years a small nature reserve in a Prague
three, or four scales, though most are predominant at a suburb started with 99 plant species, lost 7, and
single time scale. gained 20 (Kubikova, 1990). Garden management
1. Hours, days, weeks, months, seasons. and maintenance, such as planting, trimming,
Photosynthesis, transpiration, and tidal changes pruning, mulching, watering and harvesting,
occur on a regular daily basis. Bombing, produce effects on plants over months and years
explosions, demolition, tsunamis, cyclones (Owen, 1991). Many such activities or disturbances
(hurricanes), and earthquakes typically alter sites have ripple effects on other species (a species
and vegetation within hours or days. Pollination cascade).
of species commonly occurs over days to weeks. 3. Decade changes. Increasing air temperature
Seed dispersal normally occurs in hours to weeks. associated with urbanization over decades is
Plant phenology follows a seasonal cycle. However, considered a prime reason for changed plant
differences in phenology, such as for Forsythia, a phenology. In the eastern USA from 1990 to
flowering shrub, from site to site within an urban 1999, the growing season increased an average of
area may extend over days and are easily seen or 7.6 days, mostly due to an earlier start in spring
(White et al., 2002). An earlier start rather than a
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 Plant community structure and dynamics

later finish was also reported for altered phenology urbanization surrounds and isolates a greenspace
in Beijing (Luo et al., 2007). (see Figure 9.2) (Soule, 1991).
For seven cities on four continents, urban versus Over about 8–10 decades, both native and non-
rural phenologies differed in all cases (Gazal native species spread and decline, and the relative
et al., 2008). In spring the flush of new leaves was abundances of species change noticeably (Kowarik,
1 to 23 days earlier in urban than in surrounding 1990). The spontaneous flora in parks changes
rural areas. Urban “bud burst” was earlier in three considerably (Gilbert, 1991). Tree plantations
of four temperate cities, but in only one of three change markedly. Over decades in Kyoto, the
tropical cities. vegetation cover of the predominant Ulmaceae
The invasion of non-native species is prominent trees fluctuated around a rather constant level,
over decades, though invasives causing extinctions despite major natural disturbances and human
of urban native plants may be rare. Species activities (Sakamoto, 1988).
extinction may be mostly a years-to-decades Over 12 decades in Pizen (Czech Republic), 805
phenomenon. Extinctions of urban non-native plant species remained present, 368 disappeared,
species apparently remain unstudied. The and 238 new species arrived (Pysek et al., 2004).
naturalization of a non-native species seems to be Species richness in the city increased, but
most prominent over decades (Sukopp and Trepl, decreased in the surroundings. The similarity of
1987; Peterken, 2001). the flora from beginning to end was greater in
Atmospheric warming related to global climate alters the surroundings than in the city. From the 1960s
phenology, decreases native species, and increases to 1990s in Pizen the richness and proportion of
non-natives over decades. Windstorms associated archaeophyte species dropped, while the neophyte
with climate change may be more frequent and proportion did not change.
severe, thus changing vegetation patterns. The effects of human activities such as
The elimination or severe degradation of shoreline management, maintenance, conservation,
vegetation is typically an over-decades period, reclamation, restoration, development, historic
involving different processes section by section preservation, and flower garden/vegetable garden
(Sukopp and Markstein, 1989). Invasion and planting are especially evident over decades. The
hybridization in Spartina salt marsh is evident over same is true for naturalistic plantations (as in The
decades (Ayres et al., 2004; Silliman et al., 2009). Netherlands and UK) characterized by clumps of
Change in urban land-use cover is often striking trees, diverse shrubs, intense management, and
over a few decades (Pauleit et al., 2005). The planting of the herbaceous layer after some 5 years
legacy of decades-ago farming is evident in today’s (Gilbert, 1991).
vegetation in residential areas (Hope et al., 2008). 4. Centuries and millennia. Plant adaptation through
Major changes in street trees seems to be a decades genetic change over generations is perhaps most
characteristic though it may extend over centuries frequent over centuries, though it occurs over
(Grey and Deneke, 1992; Bruno et al., 2006). decades as well as much longer time frames.
Four prominent outward urbanization patterns – Species migration, range contraction, and range
concentric rings, satellite cities, transportation expansion for species with low reproduction rates
corridors, and dispersed patches – seem to form occur over varied time frames, though perhaps
over decades from cities (Forman, 2008). A typically over centuries. This rate is probably too
“bulges model” whereby a city expands over time slow for many species to survive climate change in
by bulges in different directions may be most a city (Jump and Penuelas, 2005).
characteristic of decades change. Suburbanization Cultivated plants becoming feral (changing enough
and associated species loss commonly occurs at to thrive in the wild) seems to be mainly a decades-
this time scale (Moorman and DePerno, 2006). to-centuries phenomenon. Feralization may occur
The fragmentation of urban habitats is typically when a domesticated plant or cultigen hybridizes
an over-decades process (Luck and Wu, 2002). with a closely related wild plant, or when the
As a specialized case, greenspaces (canyons) in cultivated plant genetically reverts to the wild
San Diego seem to lose most of their native birds type (Sukopp and Sukopp, 1993). Plant families
and mammals in the 50- or 80-year period after with many natural hybrids include the sedges

235
 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

(Cyperaceae), composites (Asteraceae), grasses

(Poaceae), and willows (Salicaceae). Cultivated
plants becoming feral in rural areas seem to have
been frequent in Europe since the 1200s, though
apparently little is known specifically about plants
in urban areas.
Deforestation and the spread of livestock and
cropland occurred over centuries where many of
today’s European cities grow (Kowarik, 1990).Very
few cities have existed for more than a millennium,
and few over-millennia studies (e.g., pollen
analyses) are done in cities. Nevertheless, both
centuries-long (AD 750–1150) and millennia-long
(13 000 years) studies show significant changes
in vegetation, presumably largely due to climate Figure 8.13. Ecological succession on a vacant lot. Tall
herbaceous plants including grasses, sprouting catalpa trees
change supplemented by human activities (Brande (Catalpa), and tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) between them.
et al., 1990). Philadelphia. R. Forman photo.
Plant extinction rates over centuries have been
calculated for 22 cities on five continents (Hahs
et al., 2009). Cities >400 years old that spread is conspicuous (Muller et al., 2010). Small trees some-
over cropland long after deforestation lost an times directly colonize quarries and mine-spoil sites,
average of 22% of the flora per century. Young or shrub cover immediately follows the low colonizing
cities (<200 years old) that expanded over plants (Wheater, 1999). These five successional stages
native vegetation or a mixture of cropland and are usually easy to see, yet several interesting patterns
vegetation lost an average of 2% per century, and following provide some understanding of succession.
intermediate-age cities lost 12% of their plant First, a particular pattern of changing vegetation
species per century. Much of the difference in very much depends on initial site conditions (Pickett
extinction rate correlated with the age of a city, as et al., 1987). The type, size, isolation, soil depth/mois-
well as the current amount or proportion of native ture/fertility, and heterogeneity of a site especially
vegetation remaining. affect the early phases of succession. Second, species
Land use changes within a city, even within a availability strongly controls early phases, but also
park, are striking over a few centuries (Aey, affects later stages. Thus, the seed bank (seeds in the
1990; Gilbert, 1991). Over centuries, European soil), distance from plants producing seeds, wind pat-
urban woodland and urban parks added rides terns, abundance of animal seed-dispersers, and prox-
(open strips), coppicing, extensive gardens, and imity of various human seed-dispersal mechanisms
more (Forrest and Konijnendijk, 2005). Public play prominent roles. Third, the roles and responses of
greenspaces were designed for public health. Plazas species themselves strongly shape later phases, but also
(piazzas, squares, etc.), cemeteries, botanical affect earlier ones. Plant life-history characteristics,
gardens, and street trees were added. changing environmental stresses, eco-physiological
responses, competitors, allelochemicals (chemicals
Ecological succession produced that inhibit other species), and herbivory are
A sequence of plant communities or vegetation stages keys to succession.
is the simplest and most familiar concept of succession Other patterns help interpret vegetation dynamics.
or vegetation dynamics. Five stages are common: (1) In some cases, almost all the species appear essentially
low herbaceous vegetation is replaced by (2) grass- at the beginning of succession. Thus, the sequence of
dominated vegetation, which is replaced by (3) shrubby stages mainly represents the life span of different spe-
vegetation, which is replaced by (4) a small-tree cover, cies, from annuals in the first year to long-lived trees in
which is replaced by (5) taller-tree woodland or for- the last stage.
est (Figure 8.13). In urban areas one or more stages are Also, the species in succession may be usefully
often skipped and variability in colonization pattern grouped into three categories: tolerants, inhibitors,

236
 Plant community structure and dynamics

and facilitators. “Tolerants” grow in spite of difficult and ash (Fraxinus), indicating the future, were abun-
conditions. “Inhibitors” exert influences that reduce dant, and a number of woodland herbs were slowly col-
competitors and hence enhance the persistence of a onizing under the canopy.
species. “Facilitators” change the environment in ways Woodlands on industrial sites tend to be a patch-
that reduce persistence and enhance replacement by work or conspicuously mosaic-like (Weiss et al., 2005).
other species. A 40-year successional stage dominated by birch
Although little-studied, it is likely that all of these (Betula pendula) had a small seed bank, patches of
mechanisms operate in urban areas, though their early and mid-succession stages, and abundant seed-
relative importance probably differs from that out in lings of the sycamore tree. An 85-year stage originally
natural land. For example, seed banks, animal seed-dis- planted with black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia) had
persers, and herbivory seem low in many urban habi- tall locusts, dead locusts, canopy gaps favoring young
tats, whereas wind dispersal, seed dispersal by people, locust growth, and lower levels dominated by bram-
site disturbance, and microhabitat heterogeneity are ble/blackberry and ferns. A mature woods in New
often high. Also different urban habitats are colonized York City decreased markedly in oaks (Quercus) and
by quite different species (Wheater, 1999). hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), while increasing in cher-
Additional insights emerge from examples of urban ries (Prunus), birches (Betula), and other tree species
succession. For spontaneous species in a 0.6-ha gar- during a 30-year period (Rudnicky and McDonnell,
den site in Kyoto (Japan), species turnover (percent of 1989).
the species that disappeared) was 31% in the first year, These examples emphasize the different trajector-
and dropped to 19% by the ninth year (Imanishi et al., ies on different habitats, and indeed on a single habitat
2007). By the ninth year few new species appeared. type. The familiar 5-stage successional series mentioned
Succession on a former nutrient-rich community at the beginning is actually a “sequence of patchy mosa-
garden (allotment) had highly heterogeneous mosaics ics.” One stage typically contains small patches of the
in the early herbaceous stages (Gilbert, 1991). In years previous stages, as well as patches of plants represent-
4–6, tall herbs, especially garden weeds, and some ing the next stage. The patches in the mosaic change
bramble/blackberry (Rubus) dominated. At 10+ years, at different rates. Ecological succession is a changing
tall grasses, bramble, garden weeds, and more woody vegetation mosaic with dynamics within dynamics.
species formed a patchy mix. Of course, all the successional sequences are strongly
Successional vegetation in cemeteries appears affected by the concentration of human effects, from
highly variable and sometimes quite distinctive trampling and dumping to soil removal/addition and
(Gilbert, 1991). In London’s Highgate Cemetery, a clas- air pollution.
sic with overgrown spontaneous vegetation, the stage Some additional perspectives are useful in consid-
of dense small trees (pole stage) eliminated grassy ering some successions. Arrested succession refers to a
areas. Soon afterward the small-tree cover began to stage that persists for a long period, due to the preva-
“open up,” with more light penetration and more herb- lence of inhibitor species, or due to human mainten-
aceous and shrub-layer vegetation. ance or disturbance activities. For instance, semi-stable
On urban coal-mining waste spoils, plant species shrublands often grow under electric powerlines in
richness increased from the initial herbaceous stage to exurban Connecticut (USA) (Niering and Goodwin,
the following shrub stage 2 years later (Haeupler, 2008). 1974). Retrogressive succession (retrogression) refers to
On four mine sites the increase was: 50 to 70 species; 20 a simplification and loss of vertical structure of the plant
to 40; 10 to 15; and 10 to 15 species. Also, species disap- community over time, such as by a persistent stress or
peared each year. by repeated disturbance (Whittaker, 1975). Cyclic suc-
In a former railway yard, plant species richness con- cession describes the trajectory from herbaceous to
tinued to increase as woody vegetation doubled and woody vegetation and back to a herbaceous stage. This
herbaceous vegetation cover dropped (Kowarik and may occur with periodic repeated disturbances such
Langer, 2005). A railway site abandoned for 35 years as fire or brush clearing by people in exurban areas.
was easy to walk through with a 7-m-high closed can- At a finer scale, old trees in a woods die, thus permit-
opy of goat willow (Salix caprea) (Gilbert, 1991). Some ting tiny patches of herbaceous plants and subsequent
herbaceous plants and shrubs persisted from earlier shrubs and/or small trees to thrive alongside the sur-
phases. But saplings of sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) rounding large trees.

237
 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

Finally, it should be emphasized that vegetation species-rich areas (Kuhn et al. 2004, Hahs et al., 2009).
succession focuses on the changing plants, but really The species pool includes the species now existing in
ecosystem development is occurring. Soil, microcli- habitats of the urban area. Note that the species pool is
mate, microbes, vertebrates, and indeed all aspects of affected by the distance from species source to site, as
the ecosystem change. Succession is an especially rich well as dispersal ability or seed-dispersal mechanism.
subject in urban areas. Increasingly species from other continents are part
of the species pool (La Sorte et al., 2007). Thus, many
Plants and urban habitat fragments North American species grow in European cities, and
Although small dispersed habitats are perhaps the many European species in North American cities.
most conspicuous ecological pattern of urban areas, A study of 22 tree species in Birmingham (UK) sug-
surprisingly little research has explored the responses gests some ways that a city’s overall vegetation affects
and roles of plants in the pattern. To paint the picture individual habitat fragments (Bastian and Thomas,
we begin with some broad patterns of the city. Next, 1999). The proportion of habitat patches occupied by a
patches and edges are the focus, and then corridors and species correlated with the density of available suitable
species movement are briefly considered. patches. For many species, the occupancy of patches
The urban area of the contiguous USA doubled increases with three variables: age, area, and habitat
during 1969–94, and in 2001 covered 3.5% of the total diversity of a site. Occupancy by species decreases with
surface area and contained 3.8 billion trees (Nowak distance from a patch containing the species. These
et al., 2001). The average tree cover per city was 27%, results for urban habitat patches are consistent with the
higher in forest regions and lower in desert regions, role of colonization and extinction in “island biogeog-
but with considerable variation within a region. Tree raphy theory,” which related species richness on islands
cover also varies widely according to habitat type, e.g., in the sea to island size and distance from mainland.
in European cities from 95% in woodland (forest), 35% The patch–corridor–matrix model gradually
in cemeteries, and 27% in freshwater (swamp) to <5% replaced the earlier island concept, partly because a
on railway corridors, meadows and cropland (Pauleit patch is surrounded by a mosaic of diverse habitats.
et al., 2005). Each of these habitats: (1) may significantly affect the
The “floristic similarity” (similarity in plant spe- patch, (2) is a source of species from its own distinctive
cies present) differs markedly from city to city. For species pool, and (3) is differentially suitable for spe-
instance, ten large parks in or bordering major cit- cies movement between patches. In addition, the patch
ies from Boston to Washington, D.C. have a total of interior-to-edge ratio, and the prevalence of generalist
1391 plant species, of which 490 are non-native spe- species in an edge and specialist species in the inter-
cies (Loeb, 2006). Fewer than 1% of the species, both ior, are important determinants of species richness
for natives and non-natives, are in all 10 parks. Native on patches of different size. The interior-to-edge ratio
species decrease, while non-native species increase, and generalists/specialists distribution are particularly
in cities with larger human populations. Also for five important for the ecology of patch shape (see equa-
Italian cities from Palermo to Milan, floristic similarity tions, Appendix B).
was highest among wooded habitats within a city. The Perhaps the heterogeneous and highly impervious
similarity in plant species present was intermediate city center functions as an intermediate matrix condi-
when comparing urban versus surrounding semi-nat- tion between sea and land, and a modified island bio-
ural vegetation, and lowest when comparing wooded geography model would be useful. However, most of
habitats of different cities (Celesti-Grapow and Blasi, the urban area seems more analogous to natural and
1998). The similarity of floras in different types of habi- agricultural land, with patterns fitting a landscape
tat within a city would doubtless be even lower. ecology model.
Understanding the species pool, that is, the total set The adjacency effect (an adjoining area affects
of species that could reach a site, is useful (Zobel et al., conditions in a site) (Hersperger and Forman, 2003)
1998). The pool of species varies by regional vegeta- may be especially important in urban areas. Thus, in
tion type (or biome), and includes, for example, spe- Springfield woods (Massachusetts, USA), avian spe-
cies arriving from agricultural land surrounding a city cies richness decreased where adjacent building dens-
and natural land beyond it (Wace, 1977; Forman et al., ity increased (Tilghman, 1987). In the Birmingham
2003; Breuste, 2004). Cities often formed in especially study above, the presence of a tree species in a habitat

238
 Plants and urban habitat fragments

(a) (b)

Figure 8.14. Plant diversity relative to area of habitat type and length of boundary type. Based on sampling a 580 m × 580 m plot (0.37 km2)
in the peri-urban (exurban) area of Prague (Trneny Ujezd, “a mosaic of semicultural and still agriculturally used suburban landscape … in
the Prague external zone”). Boundary types named by the adjacent patches. No plant data for the following five boundary types (boundary
lengths in parentheses): (1) Stone-pit/Wood (100 m); (2) Manure deposit/Field (100 m); (3) Manure deposit/Meadow (100 m); Stone-pit/Field
(200 m); Stone-pit/Steppe (350 m). 1 ha = 100 m × 100 m = 2.5 acres; 1 m = 3.28 f. Based on Kovar (1995).

also correlated positively with the degree of similarity variations in population size are expected to be high
of adjacent habitats (Bastian and Thomas, 1999). The in small patches, and probably account for most disap-
abundance of shrubs in suburban Tokyo decreased pearances of species, especially specialists (Byers and
when surrounded by more urbanized area (Hamabata, Mitchell, 2005). Inbreeding in small populations of
1980). In the Barcelona Region, many patterns of plant small patches leads to weak or sterile offspring (Roberts
species beneath the canopy of urban woods depend et al., 2007), though this occurs over generations, and
on whether built area or cropland adjoins the woods may not be very important in urban habitat frag-
(Guirado et al., 2006). ments, particularly for plants. Small habitat patches
Plant species richness typically correlates with are reported to have higher levels of herbivory than in
urban area, as well as habitat size within an urban area the edge of a large habitat, and much higher than in its
(Figure 8.14a). This has been found for cities (Klotz, interior (Christie and Hochuli, 2005).
1990; Pysek, 1998; Dunn and Heneghan, 2011), parks, Habitat edges are relatively abundant in urban
railway sites, green areas in block-building districts, areas, and are often abrupt next to roads and buildings
urban woods, and vacant lots (Sukopp and Werner, (Cadenasso et al., 2003; Godefroid and Koedam, 2003;
1983; Hobbs, 1988; Crowe, 1979; Angold et al., 2006). Hamberg et al., 2008; Cilliers and Siebert, 2011). Dense
Even comparing different types of habitat suggests edge vegetation (mantel) protects habitat interior con-
an increase in plant diversity with increased area ditions, but urban edges tend to have little understory
(Figure 8.14a) (Kovar, 1995). In these species-area vegetation (Godefroid and Koedam, 2003; Hamberg
studies, variability in response is relatively high, indi- et al., 2008). Also, urban edges are mainly straight,
cating that other variables are important. although buffer or set-back spaces around objects cre-
Large woodland patches commonly contain ate some curviness in boundaries (Kenney, 2008). Set-
planted ornamental trees in parts, and not only contain backs of 12–23 m (40–75 ft) may be present for traffic
more species, but the interior tends to be criss-crossed lights, stop signs, and power transmission towers, while
by trails and people (Hamberg et al., 2008). Trampling 1.5–4.5 m (5–10 ft) buffers are typical for buildings,
eliminates some species while permitting others to col- sidewalks, railway beds, fire hydrants, and so forth.
onize in the forest interior. Edge environmental condi- Habitat edges themselves differ markedly and thus
tions sometimes extend 50 m or more into a woodland. contain different species. In the peri-urban (exurban)
Thus, patch size, shape, and degree of trampling affects area of Prague, nine edge types (named for the two
plant species within the woods. adjoining habitats) are present (Figure 8.14b) (Kovar,
Small patches are entirely composed of edge effect, 1995). Road margins and wood/field edges have the
i.e., the ecological conditions near the perimeter that greatest length, while the wood/meadow edge is short-
are significantly affected by the surroundings (and dif- est. The number of plant species seems to vary mainly
fer from interior conditions, if present). Demographic by edge type, rather than by length of edge.

239
 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants

Corridors and stepping stones are discussed in habitat patch to patch across the urban area. Remnant
Chapter 9 on urban wildlife. Yet seeds of some plant grassland corridors may connect urban and rural areas
species are dispersed by animals, so the spatial arrange- (Cilliers et al., 2008). Of course, significant breaks in
ment of urban habitats is especially important for such the network would disrupt or prevent species move-
plants. For instance in Seoul, the highest proportion of ment, just as they would for car or people movement.
non-native species (28–37%) is in industrial and com- Although most urban habitat patches are more
mercial areas, as well as in built-up areas with mixed or less rectangular, some are long and narrow, effect-
land use (Zerbe et al., 2004). The lowest proportion ively grading into corridors. The width of the edge
(7–18%) is in wooded sites and parks. It seems likely effect thus is important in determining the presence or
that the industrial-commercial-built-up areas act as amount for habitat interior for many specialist species
sources of non-native species for the wooded sites (Christie and Hochuli, 2005; Hamberg et al., 2008). Yet,
and parks. Thus, the arrangement of habitats between normally, interior habitat in an urban area is quite lim-
them is important for dispersal. Forest songbirds tend ited or absent.
to travel in or close to woody vegetation, so large gaps Extensive landscape ecology and conservation
between habitats may be rarely crossed (Belisle, 2002). biology research has clarified much about the eco-
One study hypothesizes that to sustain a bird spe- logical effects of habitat fragmentation (Forman, 1995;
cies, more than 20% of the landscape should be suitable Lindenmayer and Fischer, 2006; Collinge, 2009). It
breeding habitat, irrespective of the spatial arrange- is time to focus fragmentation study in urban areas,
ment of the habitat (Fahrig, 2002). This suggests that where species change is rapid, specialist species are dis-
few bird species would be sustained in urban areas. appearing, and species may readily move (Godefroid
However, with a lower proportion of suitable habitat, and Koedam, 2003; Grimm et al., 2008; Alberti, 2008;
certain spatial arrangements of patches, corridors, and Cilliers and Siebert, 2011). This may be combined with
stepping stones may sustain the species (Melles et al., other societal goals. For example, to cool an urban area,
2003). This suggests that a number of habitat charac- fragmented habitat in the form of a fine mesh of tiny
teristics balance or compensate for each other. Patch vegetation patches may be better than a single large
area may be balanced against total habitat cover, the greenspace or park (see Chapters 5 and 12) (Hough,
presence of corridors or stepping stones against patch 2004).
size, and habitat quality against patch size. Society could protect certain specialist species in
Many corridor types exist and interconnect in a the interior of one or a few large semi-natural patches
metropolitan area. For example in Shanghai, riparian, in the metropolitan area. More promising, however, is
coastal, roadside, railway, powerline, hedge, and green- to provide a network for effective species movement
belt corridors provide diverse benefits, from wind- across an urban area, coupled with large protected hab-
break to pollution mitigation and provision of nature itats at least closely surrounding a metropolitan area
(Li et al., 2008b). Such a network (if composed of high- (see Chapter 12). The large habitats remain sources of
quality green corridors), including different scales, species, especially natives, that readily move across the
should facilitate the movement of many species from area mainly using the vegetation network.

240
 Part II Ecological features

Urban wildlife
Chapter

9
Animals must move across land to survive – for water, are habituated (accustomed to or behaviorally adjusted
for food, for minerals. Existence depends upon some to humans); and (8) are generalists (Wheater, 1999;
kind of movement: you move, or the land kills you Adams et al., 2006).
where you stand. Urban birds are of particular interest both to sci-
Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson, Dune: The entists and to the public (Figure 9.1) (Emlen, 1974;
Butlerian Jihad, 2002 Marzluff et al., 2001; Lepczyk and Warren, 2012).
Based on East Asia and the USA, most urban birds have
And drink pure water from the pump, non-colonial nesting; occur in groups at least season-
I gulp down infusoria ally; feed on the ground or low vegetation; tend to be
And quarts of raw bacteria, active and conspicuous; and are non-migratory long-
And hideous rotatorae, term residents (cited by Wheater, 1999). Many urban
And wriggling polygastricae, invertebrates are small compared with their cousins
And slimy diatomacae, outside the metro area (Wahlbrink and Zucchi, 1994;
And various animalculae Wheater, 1999).
Of middle, high and low degree. Animals have three overriding “needs,” food, water,
William Juniper, The True Drunkard’s and cover (Laurie, 1979). Typically cover of three types
Delight, 1933 is important, namely, habitat cover for nesting/den-
Some years ago I tried to call the “National Center for ning and raising young (especially species with paren-
Urban Wildlife” in Washington, D.C. and after futile tal care), roosting cover to rest daily, and escape cover
attempts to find the number, the telephone operator to avoid predators, competitors, people and machines.
said politely, “Sir, are you really serious?” While cities Some wildlife biologists consider the ability of an ani-
may be hot spots of human wild life, I was thinking of mal to move from spot to spot to be a fourth basic need,
urban wildlife, the non-domesticated terrestrial ani-
mals in urban areas (Goode, 1986; Houck and Cody,
2000; USDA Forest Service, 2001; Adams et al., 2006).
Wildlife refers to all vertebrates (mammals, birds, rep-
tiles, amphibians) and invertebrates (insects and other
groups), except for pets, farm animals, fish, and diverse
aquatic animals.
The urban environment, characterized by a concen-
tration of buildings, roads, pollutants, noise, vehicles,
and people, differs markedly from natural and agricul-
tural lands. Not surprisingly, urban animals are equally
distinctive (Stearns, 1967; Robinson, 1996). In general,
urban vertebrates: (1) commonly use human-provided
food sources; (2) readily switch diets; (3) may den or
nest in artificial structures; (4) have relatively long
breeding periods; (5) may occur in rather high dens- Figure 9.1. Feeding and appreciating urban wildlife attracts
ity; (6) frequently move from location to location; (7) residents. Swans, geese, ducks, crows (corvids), and pigeons.
London. R. Forman photo.

241
 Urban wildlife

which is particularly important where habitat fragmen- important ecological roles and evolutionary differ-
tation and relatively inhospitable impervious surfaces ences: (1) mammal predators; (2) mammal herbivores;
predominate. Urban wildlife survive, or thrive, if they (3) bats; (4) birds; (5) reptiles and amphibians; and (6)
can fit their four basic needs to the spatial arrangement invertebrates.
of vegetation, hard surfaces, and diverse stresses.
Although often perceived as depauperate, urban
areas may be rich in species. Over 1782 animal spe- Mammal predators
cies were recorded in a 0.09-ha (0.23-acre) suburban Two types are usefully differentiated, top predators
England house plot over 15 years (Owen, 1991), and over and mid-size predators and omnivores. Worldwide
4000 species, mostly insects, were apparently reported examples of urban top predators (Adams et al., 2006;
from a house plot in Washington, D.C. Of course, some Adams and Lindsey, 2011) include coyote (Canis lat-
habitats within a city have very few species. rans) in cities of Canada, Eastern and Western USA;
Urban wildlife highlights a range of big questions lynx (Lynx) in Sweden; leopard, lion, and hyena in parts
and issues. Are pests everywhere? Should we enhance of Africa; mountain lion (Felis concolor) in Western
urban biodiversity, or protect rare species? Should USA; and jaguar until the 1980s in Rio de Janeiro. Mid-
top predators be eliminated, or encouraged, in urban size urban predators and omnivores include red fox
areas? How about flying mosquitoes, flies, and midges? (Vulpes vulpes) in Europe, Japan, Australia and North
Do pollinators matter? How about tall structures and America; monkey species in India and Ribeirao Preto
lighted glass windows during bird migration? Are (Sao Paulo, Brazil); wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Germany
street trees important to wildlife? How about habitat and Fort Worth (Texas); stone marten (Marten foina) in
fragmentation and park size? Should the widespread Europe; raccoon (Procyon lotor) in Russia, Japan, North
garbage-and-dump food sources be maintained to America and Europe; and striped skunk (Mephitis
support wildlife? How far do different animals move? mephitis), opossum (Didelphis virginiana) and bobcat
Do many species move between city and surround- (Lynx rufus) in North America.
ings? Are green corridors or stepping stones effect- The major mammal predators also live in non-urban
ive for urban wildlife movement? Are urban species areas where they may be more, equally, or less abun-
resistant or resilient in the face of rapid, climate, or dant. Many top predators, such as the tiger in India’s
urbanization changes? Are the animals genetically cities near tiger reserves and mountain lions in the
adapted to urban conditions, or simply behaviorally Western USA, primarily live outside urban areas and,
adjusted to them? Are nature’s services (ecosystem especially during food shortages, move into or through
services) provided by urban wildlife of major or minor suburbs. Similar movement patterns are seen for black
importance? bear (Ursus americanus) in some North American
Some of these questions are answered in the pages cities, grizzly (Ursus arctos) in Jackson (Wyoming,
ahead while others remain scientific challenges. USA),and wolf (Canis lupus) in cities of Russia and
Animal ecology is also introduced in other chapters, Turkey. Such incursions scare people but have little
e.g., focused on pests (see Chapter 1) (Robinson, 1996; ecological effect in the urban area. On the other hand,
Bolen 2000; Tello et al., 2005; Adams et al., 2006), mid-size urban predators normally live and reproduce
domestic animals (Chapter 1), soil animals (Chapter 4), in the urban area, where they are important compo-
fish and aquatic organisms (Chapter 7), plus animals of nents of the urban ecosystem.
roofs and walls (Chapter 10) and airports (Chapter 12). A study of wildlife in 37 greenspaces (canyons)
Here we explore urban wildlife in five topic areas: (1) in San Diego (California) is particularly informative
species types; (2) vertical structures, vegetation layers, (Soule, 1991). Most of the greenspaces contain man-
and animals; (3) spatial habitat patterns and animals; aged areas with planted grass and ornamentals, plus
(4) wildlife movement; and (5) changing urban wildlife semi-natural shrubland areas (chaparral), which sup-
and adaptation. port native shrubland mammals and birds. The spe-
cies diversity of these native animals best correlates
with the time since the patch was surrounded and
Species types isolated by development (i.e., patch age) (Figure 9.2b).
Of the multitude of urban animals, we have chosen Few native animals survive in greenspaces that were
to focus on six groups because of their contrasting isolated long ago and much disturbed since. On the

242
 Species types

(a) Figure 9.2. Wildlife types relative

to patch size, age, and presence of
top predator. San Diego (California)
greenspace canyons. (a) Species–area
curve; note logarithmic horizontal axis.
(b) Species richness relative to time since
greenspace was isolated. Solid line =
linear regression (r2 = 0.48); dashed line
suggests a non-linear relationship. (c)
Locally breeding species expected to
occur in two greenspace-patch types,
plus the roles of predators. Adapted from
Soule (1991).

(b) (c)

other hand many native species live in recently iso- c­ orrelation of native vertebrate species number with
lated and little-disturbed patches. While disturbance area of natural vegetation present is stronger.
level doubtless plays a role, the main effect is hypoth- Native species richness is also higher where the top
esized to be time since isolation. A straight-line (linear predator, coyote (Canis latrans) is present (Figure 9.2a).
regression with r2 = 0.48) drawn through the points Recently isolated and little-disturbed greenspaces con-
suggests that species loss continues until all native spe- tain many native mammals and birds, few non-native
cies have disappeared about 75 years after isolation. birds, and the coyote (Figure 9.2c). In contrast, the
However, a curvilinear response seems to fit the data long-isolated and disturbed patches contain few native
better, and suggests a steep loss of species in the first mammals and birds, many non-native birds, many
50 years, after which a very few native species persist. mid-size predators (gray fox, striped skunk, opos-
Nonetheless, although generally the native birds and sum, black rat, house cat), and no coyote. These mid-
mammals can move between greenspaces, it is postu- size predators feed extensively on the eggs, young and
lated that they are hesitant to leave the native vegeta- adults of the native mammals and birds. The coyote in
tion of a greenspace when it is completely surrounded turn feeds on, or chases away, the mid-sized predators.
by built area. This means that the native birds and mammals greatly
The species richness (diversity) of native mammals benefit from, and coexist with, the top predator. This
and birds also correlates with the area of a greenspace pattern illustrates the “meso-predator release hypoth-
(Figure 9.2a). However, when the lawn-and-orna- esis,” whereby without a top predator the mid-size
mental portions of a greenspace are excluded, the predators are “released” to increase in number (Rogers

243
 Urban wildlife

and Caro, 1998; Crooks and Soule, 1999; Gehrt and continues to rapidly grow and spread (Wandeler et al.,
Prange, 2007). Therefore, by reducing the mid-size 2003). Like coyotes, foxes are extreme generalists, using
predators that limit the native species, the top predator a wide range of suitable foods and habitats (Gilbert,
effectively increases native species richness. 1991).
Since the top predator can play such a key ecological The striped skunk is a primary carrier of rabies
role, understanding some of the coyote’s characteristics in Toronto and hence of considerable public health
is useful. The coyote is larger than a fox and smaller interest (Rosatte et al., 1987, 1991). The average home
than a wolf, which will effectively chase both away. range is 0.51 km2 (0.2 mi2). Skunks moved an average
Coyotes are extreme generalists, with a wide range of 0.91 km (0.57 mi) distance when released at a capture
both suitable foods and habitats in city as well as sub- site, and 98% of recaptured skunks were within 1 km
urb (Gompper, 2002; Wein, 2006). In Los Angeles, its of the former capture site. A few skunks moved 2–5
highest density averages 1.6 animals per km2 (4/mi2). km. Skunks use multiple dens for resting, an average
Coyote home ranges are smaller in residential areas of 14 in a year. In greenspaces, dens are mostly ground
than in undeveloped areas (average 13 versus 17.5 burrows and under refuse piles, whereas in residential
km2) (Sovada et al., 1995; Grinder and Krausman, areas most dens are in ground burrows under houses
2001). Territories in urban areas usually include a large and associated structures. Toronto skunk densities
greenspace, though a cluster of small ones is satisfac- are high, ranging from 2.5 to 5.7 animals per km2
tory, and coyote activity is centered around such green- (6.5–14.8/mi2).
spaces (Quinn, 1995). At this density coyotes typically Let us look a bit more closely at the still-more-abun-
severely limit fox populations (Figure 9.2a), but not dant raccoon, which also lives in cities in Asia, Europe,
domestic cats, dogs, and raccoons that have houses or the Caribbean, and across North America, and has
stormwater drains for escape (Sovada et al., 1995; Gehrt relatives in some tropical cities. Toronto has 80–110
and Prange, 2007). Coyotes mostly feed on herbivores, raccoons per km2(207–285/mi2) (Rosatte et al., 1987,
from mice and rats to rabbits, and coyote removal from 1991). The average home range is 0.42 km2 (0.16 mi2).
golf courses or elsewhere may lead to a large increase When released at point of capture, raccoons moved an
in the rodent population. These predators, when in average of 0.8 km (0.5 mi) in hours or days, and 97% of
or near their territory, may limit deer populations by recaptured raccoons were within 1 km of the former
feeding on juveniles (fawns) or by sharply altering deer capture site. Only two of 1723 raccoons studied (with
behavior. Coyotes also feed on fruits, and thus disperse radiotelemetry) moved 11–13 km. A raccoon uses an
seeds in the urban environment. Greenways, railways average of 19 dens through the year. Thus, the loss of a
and river corridors may be especially important for den is no problem for this species. In greenspaces, 89%
longer-distance coyote movements (Quinn, 1995; Way of the dens are in trees, whereas in residential areas
and Eatough, 2006; Gehrt et al., 2009). 70% are in houses (e.g., chimneys and attics) or trees
While large top predators play a key ecological role, (Hadidian et al., 1991).
most cities have none. Instead mid-size predators play Raccoons especially move in linear features near
a range of roles. Consider three species in Toronto, water, i.e., along stormwater drainage pipes, ditches,
red fox (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon (Procyon lotor), and and streams lined with (rip-rap) rocks (Rosatte et al.,
striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), all of which have 1991). The relative ubiquity of stormwater drains along
denser populations in the city than in surrounding roads and paved surfaces provides abundant conveni-
rural areas (Rosatte et al., 1991). All three species also ent escape cover and resting sites. With the urban con-
have high mortality, especially from vehicle roadkills, centration of people by day, urban raccoons, unlike
dogs, and diseases. most non-urban raccoons, are mainly active at night.
The red fox, found in cities worldwide, has a home Residential and commercial garbage, vegetable gar-
range of about 4.1 km2 (1.6 mi2) in Toronto (Rosatte dens, pet food dishes, dumpster containers, and dumps
et al., 1991). When trapped and released, foxes moved provide ample convenient food across the urban area.
an average straight-line distance of 2.2 km (1.4 mi) in Other urban mammal predators include wild pigs
hours or days. However, foxes may also travel tens of or hogs (Sus scrofa) in Berlin and some built areas in
kilometers, probably using long green corridors such Florida and Texas (Adams et al., 2006). These animals
as along ravines and railways. In Zurich, 15 years after feed widely in gardens and may use golf courses. In
two fox groups colonized separate areas, the population areas with many oaks (Quercus) or beech trees (Fagus)

244
 Species types

the pigs root around in the top several centimeters of

soil for acorns or beechnuts. Garden vegetables and
fruits are favorite foods, and large areas may be dug up
overnight.
In summary, urban areas typically support large
numbers of mid-size pred ators that feed on and reduce
or eliminate many native vertebrates. The mid-size ani-
mals are generalists, also feeding on human-provided
food including garbage. Some cities have top preda-
tors that feed on and somewhat limit the abundance of
these mid-size animals. Consequently, the top preda- Figure 9.3. Rats in the urban underground thrive on abundant
tors help sustain a diverse native vertebrate fauna in and dependable food from humans. Stuffed rats in the Paris Sewer
Museum, Paris. R. Forman photo.
urban areas.

Mammal herbivores high, meaning that the average age of an animal is low.
Worldwide examples of urban mammal herbivores Predators contribute to the mortality, but road kills,
include (Adams et al., 2006; Adams and Lindsey, 2011): disease (often associated with dense populations), and
white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in North other causes are normally more important. Excluding
America, the Caribbean, Europe and New Zealand; arboreal and burrowing mammals, most activity occurs
beaver (Castor canadensis) in North America; gray at night or dawn-and-dusk, when the human popula-
squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) in the USA and UK; rab- tion is mainly indoors or asleep.
bit species (Lepus, Sylvilagus); rat species (Rattus); and Mice and rats are quite familiar to urban residents.
mouse species (Mus, etc.). The house mouse (Mus musculus) and other mouse
Some mammal herbivores mainly live in natural species, and one to three rat species (Rattus), normally
areas but are present in urban areas. Moose (Alces have enormous populations in a city (Figure 9.3). House
alces) wander into urban areas, especially in food- mice are both in and out of buildings, though primarily
shortage times and when juvenile males are looking inside during cold periods, and feed wherever humans
for a mate. Prairie dogs (Cynomys) may persist in col- leave food (Pennycuik and Dickson, 1989; Lorenz and
onies surrounded by residential areas and serve as a Barrett, 1990). Rats may be in buildings, especially
vector for plague (Collinge et al., 2005; Magle, 2008). basements, but also tend to be abundant around docks,
Koalas (Phaseolarctos cinereus) also will persist for a storage warehouses, waterways, stormwater drainage
period feeding on leaves high up in a patch of eucalypt systems, and dumps (tips) (Schroder and Hulse, 1979;
trees (Prevett, 1991). Muskrat (Ondata zibethicus) and Boada and Capdevila, 2000). When a regular food
nutria/coypu (Myocastor coypus) may thrive in urban source is cut off, such as by closing a dump, large num-
marshes. Beaver (Castor canadensis) has moved into bers of rats move into the surroundings searching for
some suburbs, creating dams and ponds along streams. new food sources. Both mice and rats are common vec-
The animals cut down yard and park trees, raise water tors carrying disease. The 14th-century Black Death,
levels, flood driveways, flood basements, and make which killed a third of Europe’s population, occurred
septic systems malfunction. with large numbers of rats, which had lots of fleas, which
Mammal herbivores in urban areas are generalists carried the plague bacteria, which infected people …
with a wide range of foods and habitats. Most of the and all were packed together within city walls.
animals forage for food among ground and shrub vege- Many herbivores use ground burrows, including
tation. Many will also feed on garbage, which is widely rabbit species (Lepus, Sylvilagus), moles (Talpidae),
distributed by people. Many species have dens in or gophers (Geomidae), and woodchucks (Marmota
under buildings and infrastructure. Some reproduce monax). Soil texture is important (Chapter 4),and
in burrows or under brush or debris piles, while others sandy soils that provide good water drainage are
are arboreal. Rapid reproduction with relatively large commonly preferred (Bolen, 2000). Rabbits and cot-
litters of young, probably resulting from the character- tontails that also breed under brush and debris piles
istic abundance of food, is common. Yet mortality is are familiar feeding around vegetable gardens and the

245
 Urban wildlife

edges of lawns. Omnivorous moles and gophers com- and Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) in
monly create curvy raised lines and/or small mounds southern South America; and flying fox (fruit bat) spe-
in lawns, when they burrow just under the soil surface. cies (Pteropus poliocephalus, P. scapulatus) in Australian
Woodchucks in burrow systems may thrive in some cities. Bats normally fly and forage across the urban
residential areas with large house plots, especially area for food at night. By day they mainly roost in the
near greenspaces and green corridors. Shrubs provide hollows of large trees or, if such trees are scarce in an
important cover for above-ground wildlife. urban area, in the roof spaces of buildings.
Squirrels (Sciurus, Tamiasciurus), flying squir- A horizontal highway bridge across a water body
rels (Glaucomys), and possums (Trichosurus, in city center Austin (Texas) serves as a roost for a
Pseudocheirus) are urban arboreal species that use remarkable 1.5 million free-tailed bats (T. brasiliensis).
holes (cavities) in trees, though gray squirrels also These consume an estimated 10 to 15 tons of insects
build nests of twigs and leaves. Squirrels may mainly each night (Keeley and Tuttle, 1999). Citizens have
feed on nuts, seeds, and buds, which tend to change proclaimed the city as “Bat Capital of America,” and
month by month (Bowers and Breland, 1996; Steele and tourists flock to the evening bat-emergence show.
Koprowski, 2001; Thorington, 2006). However, squir- Bats are social flying mammals that require warmth
rels also feed on garbage and may become dependent at night or in cool periods (Parris and Hazell, 2005).
on food put out by people. Squirrels usually store food Turning bright lights on or off often has an effect on bat
to get through scarce-food times such as winter. When movement, because lights attract flying insects, which
moving from site to site, squirrels prefer to avoid the in turn attract bats (Brigham et al., 1989; Rich and
ground where predators may lurk, and thus the con- Longcore, 2006). Most species move along linear features
tinuity of trees, wires, and buildings facilitates move- in the urban landscape, such as tree lines, forest edges,
ment. Greenspaces, such as parks and cemeteries, and shrubby property boundaries, and banks of streams and
residential areas with lines of street trees and property- rivers (Gaisler et al., 1998; van Bohemen, 2005).
boundary trees may be squirrel centers. Many warm-climate cities have large bats, some-
Deer and kangaroo species are large urban her- times called fruit bats or flying foxes, that feed on trop-
bivores. Suburban areas with big greenspaces may ical fruits. Also vampire bats may be present feeding
support very high densities of these species. The large on vertebrates in urban areas. Two flying fox species
greenspaces normally provide necessary cover for suc- frequently occur in eastern Australian cities, and vam-
cessful reproduction, as well as plant food. Residential pire bats are present in certain South American cities
areas provide considerable plant food rich in nutrients, (Parris and Hazell, 2005; Adams and Lindsey, 2011).
because of both the nutrition-rich shrubs and herb- However, most bats are insectivores, and locate insect
aceous species planted and the abundance of fertil- prey by echolocation while flying. At least two human
izer added. Also, residential areas usually have many diseases are associated with bats, the rabies virus and
shrubs and fences convenient for cover and movement. the histoplasmosis fungus.
Although suburban populations of wolf are inadequate A study of bat activity (presumed to correlate with
to control the herbivore populations, coyotes often abundance) across Chicago found that activity corre-
reduce deer populations in an area. Suburban dogs lates positively with the proportion of woodland habitat
will chase deer or kangaroo, but the herbivores readily in an area (Gehrt and Chelsvig, 2003). More woodland,
jump most barriers. The dog, with a relatively limited more bats. Also bat activity is greater if an industrial
“home range,” normally gives up the chase. Although or commercial area is adjacent to a greenspace. Bat
road kill may be a major cause of mortality, the herbiv- activity is lower if farmland is adjacent. However, bat
ores can make babies much faster than drivers can hit activity is greater if both adjacent farmland and a water
herbivores. body, such as a pond, are present.
At a finer scale, bat activity seems to be greater
Bats where trees in a greenspace are somewhat separated
The species of urban bats also vary by region (Kunz and savanna-like (Gehrt and Chelsvig, 2003). In open areas
Racey, 1998; Adams et al., 2006; Adams and Lindsey, such as lawn, successional field, and grassland, bat
2011). Examples of urban bats are little brown bat activity decreases at greater distance from the edge of
(Myotis lucifugus) and red bat (Lasciurus borealis) in a land use. Lawns, successional fields and grasslands
North America; vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) have more bat activity than does cropland.

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 Species types

Although studies are few, it seems that bats are 2007). At this building or microhabitat scale, com-
quite sensitive to both the specific habitats present and pared with buildings at random, the roosts were higher
their arrangement (Fenton, 1997; Gaisler et al., 1998; above ground, warmer, and served as exit points to
Everette et al., 2001; Avila-Flores and Fenton, 2005). large areas. At the urban landscape scale, these build-
Some bats seem to thrive in urban areas, foraging ing roosts were in areas of lower building density and
around street, yard, and park trees, and having ample less vehicle traffic, but with a higher density of streets.
roost sites in trees and buildings (Williams et al., 2006). Studies of bats and many other organisms depend-
At a broader scale, the bat community might be favored ent on air in the planetary boundary layer of cities
by increasing urbanization (Kurta and Teramino, 1992; (Chapter 5) have given rise to a scientific research area
Pierson, 1998; Williams et al., 2006). of aeroecology or aerobiology (Lutgens and Tarbuck,
It seems that urban bats typically use a num- 1998; Kunz et al., 2008). In and around urban areas air
ber of roost locations during the year, and may fre- flows and atmospheric conditions vary widely, espe-
quently move among nearby roosts for daytime sleep cially as they interact with the rough surface of objects
(Figure 9.4a). In the example diagrammed, animals in a city (Geiger and Aron, 2003, Erell et al., 2011).
from a roost mix with other bats on average in 4.8 Thus, the swifts, swallows, nighthawks, falcons, owls,
neighboring roosts (Rhodes et al., 2006). However, a vultures, flies, mosquitoes, midges, spiders, pollen,
detailed study of a large and highly mobile, insectivor- spores, seeds, bats, and many more organisms of urban
ous bat species in Brisbane (Australia) paints a different skies are closely tied to these air flows and atmospheric
picture (Rhodes et al., 2006). A hundred radio-tracked conditions.
bats roosted in 18 trees spread over ca. 200 km2, and
seldom changed roost trees. Yet one central tree served
as a “communal roost” or “hub,” and individuals would Birds
periodically move to roost in this tree for 1 to 20 days We illustrate the urban bird fauna with three major
(Figure 9.4b). In this case, most mixing of individ- groups (Lepczyk and Warren, 2012): (1) raptors (birds
uals presumably occurs in the hub rather than among of prey) and waterbirds; (2) songbirds; and (3) the “big
neighboring roosts. With this type of linkage network, three” city birds (sparrow, starling, pigeon). Urban rap-
the loss of one roost tree has minimal effect on the tors worldwide include: kestrel (Falco tinnunculus and
population, unless the communal roost is lost, which F. sparvarius) in Europe and North America; peregrine
may cause considerable disruption to the population. falcon (Falco peregrinus) in Europe, North America, and
A study of big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) in Fort Australia; and screech owl (Otusasio) in North America.
Collins (Colorado, USA) compared 44 buildings with Widespread urban waterbirds include: mallard (Anas
summer maternity roosts versus the same number of platyrhyncos); coot species (Rallidae); goose species
similar buildings selected at random (Neubaum et al., (Anserinae); and heron/egret species (Ardeidae).

(a) (b) Figure 9.4. Connections among

daytime roost sites for an urban bat
species. (a) Expected connectivity of
roosts somewhat mimicking patterns
in the literature (roosts have a similar
number of links). (b) Based on radio-
tracking of 19 white-striped freetail bats
(Tadarida australis) in a >200 km2 area (77
mi2). Roosts are in large cavities (hollows)
in mature Eucalyptus trees. The central
“communal” roost (or hub) contained
59–291 bats, and “satellite” roosts had
1–21 bats each. 1 km = 0.62 mi. Brisbane,
Australia. Adapted from Rhodes et al.
(2006).

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 Urban wildlife

Widespread urban songbirds include: magpie species Urban birds may be highly mobile, continually
(Pica); European blackbird (Turdus merula) in Europe adjusting to ever changing food sources, nest sites,
and Australia; American robin (Turdus migratorius); roost sites, and human disturbances (Marzluff et al.,
tree swallow (Passer montanus) in China; and chimney 2001; DeStefano and Webster, 2012). Cities in cooler
swift (Chaetura pelagica) and mourning dove (Zenaida climes have a higher proportion of birds that migrate,
macroura) in North America. The big-three dominants such as swallows (Hirundinidae) and storks (Ciconia).
worldwide are house sparrow (Passer domesticus), com- Tropical cities have a greater proportion of year-round-
mon or feral pigeon or rock dove (Columba livia), and resident birds.
European starling (Sturnis vulgaris). Corvids (crows, Especially for songbirds, the amount of vegetation
rooks, jays, etc.) and vultures (Cathartidae) are also is a major determinant of avian density, diversity, and
widespread in urban areas. Tropical cities seem to have distribution. Few birds nest at ground level. The char-
a higher diversity of urban birds. acteristic park with lawn and tall deciduous trees usu-
Some proportion of city birds originally came from ally contains few breeding species. Holes in tree trunks
rock cliff faces where they used crevices and caves add avian diversity. Evergreen trees add even more.
(Gilbert, 1991; Larson et al., 2000). The list includes the And shrub cover considerably increases avian diver-
common or feral pigeon (rock dove), European star- sity and density. Vegetation mostly provides cover for
ling, house sparrow, kestrel (Falco), swifts (Chaetura, urban birds, though it also provides food particularly
Apus), nighthawk (Chordeiles), and gulls (Larus). In for native species.
the city most of these animals thrive around buildings An Adelaide (Australia) study of four widely
with ornament and ledges, or in buildings with little planted street trees in the southern hemisphere pro-
maintenance and avian access to attics. vides insight into bird use of trees (Young et al., 2007).
Most urban birds are diurnal, the same as people. Nectar- and pollen-feeding “nectarivores,” seed-eating
Indeed, people and birds have many effects on each “granivores,” and insect-eating “insectivores” were
other, both positive and negative (Chace and Walsh, recorded in each street-tree type. Nectarivores were
2006; Clucas and Marzluff, 2011; Stracey and Robinson, most abundant in all four street trees (Figure 9.5). All
2012). Many urban birds use food provided by people, bird species and all feeding types (foraging guilds) dif-
either directly in bird feeders or by feeding in a park, fered by tree species. A native tree, red gum, had the
or indirectly by distributing garbage throughout the most nectarivores (individuals and species). A non-
urban area. Although some species are exceedingly native, plane tree, had the most insectivore birds. Tree
abundant, population size is often limited by few suit- use by different avian feeding types did not correlate
able nest sites and low breeding success. Few birds with environmental conditions measured around the
construct open-cup nests, while most species nest in street trees, except for vehicle traffic affecting some nec-
enclosed sites. Predation may or may not be unimport- tarivore use. In short, the species of street tree strongly
ant in limiting urban bird populations. affects the types of birds present.

(a) (b) Figure 9.5. Types of bird foraging

on street trees in a subtropical city. (a)
Results for all songbird species. The
three predominant bird feeding groups
or “foraging guilds” are (b) nectarivores
(nectar- and/or pollen-eating); (c)
granivores (seed-eating); and (d)
insectivores (insect-eating). Plane tree
(sycamore), Platanus × acerifolia; red gum,
Eucalyptus camauldulensis; jacaranda,
(c) (d) Jacaranda mimosifolia; bottle brush,
Callistemon citrinus. Histograms represent
the average (and dots the range) of 5
average values for seasons (autumn,
winter, spring, early summer, late
summer). Relative numbers on vertical
axes are generally ln-transformed.
Adelaide, Australia. Adapted from Young
et al. (2007).

248
 Species types

A study of birds in 40 urban and suburban woods forage around the tops of buildings (Figure 9.6). The
in a small city (Springfield, Massachusetts, USA) found kestrel in Manchester (UK) feeds mainly on (presum-
that the area of woods was the best predictor of avian ably house) sparrows (87% of the animals eaten), other
diversity (Tilghman, 1987). However, bird species songbirds, house mice, rats, and pigeons in that order
richness also correlated with four other interesting (Gilbert, 1991).
variables: density of adjacent buildings (negative cor- Buteos in North American urban areas are best
relation); shrub density (positive); distance from trails illustrated by the red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus)
(positive); and presence of patches of evergreen trees and red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis). Of 77 nests
(conifers) (positive). The lower avian diversity next to of the red-shoulders located in urban areas north of
higher building density emphasizes the importance of San Diego (California), 38% were in non-native trees
adjacency or context. (eucalyptus species, fan palm, and deodara cedar) and
Suburban residential areas commonly have very 62% in native trees (western sycamore and coast live
high breeding bird densities, even reaching 600–641 oak) (Bloom and McCrary, 1996). Home ranges were
breeding pairs per ha (240–256/acre) (excluding house 0.45–0.69 km2 (0.17–0.26 mi2), a third the size of non-
sparrows) (Gilbert, 1991). The suburban area has urban red-shouldered hawks. In five cases, when a
considerable habitat heterogeneity (see Chapter 11), hawk’s territory became more than 50% urbanized, the
including numerous diverse shrubs, and provides territory was abandoned.
ample food, cover, water, nest sites, and roost sites. Red-tailed hawks in urban and suburban Milwaukee
Furthermore residential areas are commonly some- (Wisconsin, USA) mainly nest in trees but may nest on
what close to semi-natural patches and corridors that artificial structures (Stout et al., 1996). Nesting was
function as species sources. successful (fledged at least one young) in 78% of 84 tree
A study of breeding bird pairs in 2 km × 2 km areas
in suburban and urban Manchester (UK) found that Figure 9.6. Fly
(a)
only two of the 25 bird species were denser in the urban and bird,
portion (Wheater, 1999). Common pigeons were in a conspicuous urban
animals. (a) Fly;
9:1 ratio (urban to suburban) and kestrel (Falco tinnun- Zacatecas, Mexico.
culus) in a 6:4 ratio. Four species were in an equal 5:5 (b) Kestrel (Falco);
ratio: house sparrow, European starling, mallard, and Puglia, Italy. R.
Forman photos.
moorhen (Gallinula chloropus). All other breeding spe-
cies were denser in suburban than urban areas.
To look more closely at urban birds, three categor-
ies of birds are usefully recognized in urban areas: (1)
raptors and waterbirds; (2) songbirds; and (3) the “big
three” city birds.

Raptors (birds of prey) and waterbirds

Several types of hawks in addition to ospreys and vul- (b)
tures fit into this urban category. Some falcons, buteos
(large bulky hawks with broad wings), and owls seem to
especially thrive in urban areas. For example, territorial
pairs of peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), following a
period of bird introductions, are found in more than
60 urban areas of the USA (Cade et al., 1996). Food is
normally abundant, but safe nest sites are limited. Most
nest sites are on buildings, while others are on bridges,
overpasses, and towers. The most frequent prey are
common pigeon (rock dove), northern flicker (Colaptes
auratus), and blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), three birds
that commonly fly at tree-canopy level. In London both
the peregrine falcon and a kestrel (Falco tinnunculus)

249
 Urban wildlife

nests observed, and in 100% of 15 nests on artificial roosting wading-bird colony, may lead to disease out-
structures largely in city locations. Red-tails will for- breaks and considerable mortality. In general, however,
age while flying, but mostly use perches to detect prey waterbirds bring pleasure to people, especially egrets/
such as mice and rabbits. Locations of perches in the herons on the edge of a marsh, ducks in a park pond,
Boulder (Colorado, USA) area are negatively corre- the “honking” of geese, pelicans diving for fish, and
lated with developed areas, roadways, and the nearest shorebirds endlessly skittering along a beach.
building (Schmidt and Bock, 2004). Red-tails are often Waterbird groups generally sort out in different
observed at intersections of major highways where wetland and open water habitats (Tucker and Evans,
ample open land with rodents is present. Other favorite 1997; Parsons, 2002). Mudflats and shallow water
sites for these hawks are cemeteries, institutions, golf attract shorebirds (Takekawa et al., 2002). Marshes
courses, and city parks. The distance between active attract wading birds and waterfowl. Rice fields attract
nests is commonly a bit over 2 km, closer in suburbs wading birds (and ricebirds) (Fasola and Ruiz, 1996).
and further apart in city (Stout et al., 1996). Shallow ponds of many sorts are duck and heron/egret
Many large owls, such as the powerful owl (Ninox spots (Wheater, 1999; Huner et al., 2002;Takekawa
strenua) in Australia, great fishing owl (Ketupa blakis- et al., 2002). Wooded swamps tend to have several
toni) in Japan, and great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus) waterbird species but may have few individuals (Erwin
in North America, are characteristic of natural or agri- et al., 1991). Large open water bodies such as lakes and
cultural areas, and forage or nest at low densities in estuary bays attract almost all the waterbird types,
urban areas. The small eastern screech owl (Otusasio) especially ducks, geese, gulls, terns, cormorants, and
is a common resident in many North American urban pelicans in the open water, and wading birds along the
areas, where it may have a 4–6-ha (10–15-acre) home shoreline.
range in suburbs, compared with more than 30 ha in Habitat characteristics within a water body
the city (Bolen, 2000). Based on a 15-year study, the strongly affect both species richness and composition.
density of nesting screech owls was greater in a 30-year- Consider the preferred water depths of certain species
old residential suburb than in a 10-year-old suburb in North America (Fredrickson and Laubhan, 1994):
of Waco (Texas) (Gehlbach, 1996). No difference in 0–6 cm (small sandpipers); 2–10 cm (American bit-
nesting success was present between the two suburbs. tern); 5–17 cm (large sandpipers); 6–15 cm (mallard
However, the suburbs had twice the success rate com- ducks); 10–25 cm (great blue heron); 15–35 cm (pied-
pared with owls in the surrounding rural area. The sub- bill grebe, American coot); and 30–400 cm (redhead,
urban populations were more stable over time, and had ruddy duck, Canada goose, teal species). Water depth,
a reproductive productivity (average 1.8 fledglings per sometimes controlled by gates, is particularly sensitive
breeding pair) sufficient to maintain the population to changing seasons and dry/wet periods, and gener-
(Gehlbach, 1996). ates rapid species responses (Fasola and Ruiz, 1996;
The difference in avian feeding between city and Parsons, 2002).
outer suburb can be striking, as illustrated by the tawny A mosaic of different water depths may be optimal
owl (Strix aluco) in London (Gilbert, 1991). Near the for waterbird diversity. Different salinities in marine
city center, 93% of the owl’s diet was birds and 7% mam- areas also provide habitat heterogeneity. Islands add
mals. In contrast, in the outer suburb, birds were only habitat diversity and, if far enough from the shore to
10% and mammals 90% of the tawny owl’s diet. escape most terrestrial predators, may be good habi-
Waterbirds, another major component of the urban tats for roosting or breeding by wading birds and gulls/
avifauna, depend on wetlands and/or open water. terns (Parsons, 1995).
These birds include waterfowl (e.g., ducks, geese); wad- A complex of wetlands and small open-water bod-
ing birds (egrets, herons, rails); gulls/terns; shorebirds ies is particularly rich and dense in waterbirds, because
(sandpipers, plovers); cormorants; pelicans; and more. it combines large total size with separated and differ-
Some are resident in urban wetlands, ponds, lakes, ent water-and-vegetation conditions, which frequently
streams, rivers, and estuaries. Others, such as waterfowl change over time. The surroundings or context of a wet-
and shorebirds, move through an urban area in huge land typically has a major effect on waterbirds and their
numbers during annual migrations. Large numbers movement patterns (Takekawa et al., 2002). Disturbances
of resident birds, such as geese or gulls, may become and pollutants may come from the surroundings, and
pests. A dense population, for instance in a nesting or waterbirds are sensitive to both (Huner, 2000).

250
 Species types

But some species use the surroundings in their daily city and farmland areas. In the urban park, the most
home-range foraging (Parsons et al., 2001). Certain abundant guild were species of “ground gleaners,”
wading birds feed in crop fields where they may receive which mainly forage for insects and other invertebrates
heavy doses of toxic chemicals. Gulls may feed on in the soil and herb layer. In contrast, the predominant
dumps and other sites with urban waste. Alternatively, guilds in the rural woods were “foliage gleaners” and
geese and gulls may roost inland and feed in open “bark drillers.” The former search for insects on leaves
water areas. Most of the waterbirds can fly kilometers and the latter searching for insects in and under bark by
or tens of kilometers within an urban region. They drilling small holes.
also function as part of an extensive regional popula- A closer look at the distribution of songbird guilds
tion dispersed in patches over hundreds of kilometers and vertical vegetation structure compared patterns in
(Parsons et al., 2001). city versus suburban residential areas in New England
(USA) (DeGraaf and Wentworth, 1981; DeGraaf,
Songbirds 1987). During the breeding season, seed-eating ground
Songbirds represent a broad category of perching foragers predominated at ground level in both city and
(Passeriformes) birds and other land birds that are suburban woods, but were 12 times more abundant in
mostly relatively small and “sing songs.” A few are par- the city woods. The abundance of fruit-eating (frugi-
ticularly widespread in cities, such as magpies with vore) upper-foliage-and-branch foragers did not differ
long tails and white spots that scare predators, swifts between city and suburb. However, insect-eaters (insec-
and swallows that seem to endlessly circle and dive in tivores) of five types (bark gleaners, ground gleaners,
the summer evening sky, woodpigeons and relatives low-foliage-and-branch gleaners, upper-foliage-and-
(not the common rock-dove pigeons) often in tree branch gleaners, and air salliers) were more abundant
tops, blackbirds of varied types, seed-eating finches, in the suburban woods. Omnivores were more abun-
and colorful parakeets in flocks. dant at ground level (ground foragers) in city woods,
The tree swallow (Passer montanus) is a predom- whereas little difference was found for three guilds
inant bird in Beijing, but the abundance of both sum- (lower-foliage-and-branch foragers, hover gleaners,
mer breeding and winter birds seems to decrease with and upper-foliage-and-branch foragers) between city
degree of urbanization (Zhang et al., 2006). Habitat and suburban areas. Thus, in summer, the ground
use correlates positively with more (suburban) brick layer in city areas supports many more seed-eaters and
bungalows, coniferous and broad-leaved trees, and omnivores than in suburban woods, whereas subur-
even air conditioners. Meanwhile, habitat use by the ban areas have more insectivores from shrub layer up
swallows decreases with more area of tall buildings and to tree canopy.
paved roads, higher human density, and more vehicle In winter, the ground-layer bird pattern in these
movement. urban mainly deciduous New England woods is similar
Most songbirds are highly sensitive to vegetation to that in summer (DeGraaf, 1987). However, few birds
structure. The vertical layers of foliage in a wooded of any sort forage in the upper foliage and branches.
urban park of a small city (Oxford, Ohio, USA) were Winter insectivores are scarce except for bark gleaners,
compared with those in woods of a surrounding agri- which are more abundant in suburban woods. Total
cultural area (Beissinger and Osborne, 1982). All layers summer breeding bird density is >2.5 times greater
(canopy, subcanopy, understory, shrub, and ground; in city than in suburban areas, while in winter, urban
see Chapter 8) had noticeably less foliage in the urban avian density is 1.7 times greater. In contrast, the spe-
park (except for the middle understory layer at about cies richness of summer breeding birds is >2.5 times
6 m height, which was about the same in urban and higher in suburban than city areas, and in winter 1.4
rural areas). In the city park the lower vegetation layers times greater. In short, city areas have higher bird dens-
were dominated by ornamental plants. Also, at all five ity, while suburban areas have more species.
foliage-height levels, the horizontal pattern of foliage Residential areas tend to have high habitat hetero-
in the urban park was highly discontinuous. geneity (see Chapter 11) including lawn, flower gar-
The Oxford (USA) study also highlighted the birds den, vegetable garden, shrubs, trees (evergreen and/or
in different levels by focusing on bird foraging guilds, deciduous), crevices and walls, water, untended succes-
the functional ways of finding food. Insects were the sional strips or patches, and brush piles. These micro-
overwhelming food of these (insectivore) birds in both habitats and heterogeneity are especially valuable for

251
 Urban wildlife

songbird density and diversity. In contrast, city parks found no significant difference in the density of both
often have few shrubs and lower habitat diversity, house sparrow and starling between cities in Quebec
and most songbirds apparently have lower breeding (North America) and Rennes (France) in Europe
success. (Clergeau et al., 1998). The abundance of birds, plus
Within a London park, bird density (excluding their widespread feeding on seeds, human-provided
house sparrows) was twice as great in a wooded section food, and garbage, mean that the big three probably
as in either a flower-garden section or lawn-and-tree play a major role in cleaning the city. The birds usu-
section (Gilbert, 1991). All three habitats in the park ally feed in flocks, and without these birds many sur-
had higher, though variable, bird densities in winter faces would likely have much more decaying garbage,
than in summer. The diversity of summer breeding “bugs,” and microbes. These bird species also produce
bird species progressively increased from a park near concentrated spots, plus an endless sprinkle, of bird
city center (22 species) to a park 18 km out in the sub- droppings across the city.
urbs (45 species), a doubling of species richness. A study of greenspaces in Syracuse (New York,
Within suburbs, bird distribution patterns also vary USA) suggests that pigeons, but not the other two spe-
widely, as illustrated in the Brisbane (Australia) Region cies, reduce the species richness of native birds (Johnsen
(Catterall, 2009). Species richness in a “bare” suburb and VanDruff, 1987). The presence of house sparrows
is half of that in a “well-vegetated-with-trees” suburb. and starlings is positively correlated, and hence they
The bare suburb has more non-native bird species, and often coexist in a greenspace. No other interaction
somewhat fewer seed-eating species. It has many fewer (positive or negative) was significant among the big-
large birds (≥50 grams) and fewer vertebrate-eaters three species. Correlations of the presence of the three
(predators). The bare suburb is much lower in fruit- or species with 15 urban variables found different leading
nectar-eaters. It has fewer arboreal insectivores. No variables for each species, and different leading vari-
difference in the number of small-bird (<50 g) spe- ables for summer versus winter birds.
cies is present between bare and well-vegetated sites. House sparrows, with their abundance and darting
The most frequent birds in bare sites are (in order): in and about, probably provide pleasure and symbol-
house sparrow, common (European) starling, and ize nature for people more than does any other urban
pale-headed rosella (Platycercus adscitus). Meanwhile, species. The sparrows especially nest and roost in lit-
the most frequent birds in vegetated suburbs are rain- tle holes and crevices. Nests are in rain-protected sites
bow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus), noisy miner including vegetation, particularly trees, and on arti-
(Manorina melanocephala), and pale-headed rosella. ficial structures (Wheater, 1999; Laet and Summers-
Songbirds typically constitute the bulk of avian Smith, 2007). While adults feed insects to their young,
diversity and are often of particular conservation adult birds mainly feed on seeds, human food, and gar-
importance. Vegetation structure, particularly dense bage. Suitable food seems to be ever-abundant, though
shrub and canopy layers, is of prime importance to the species may presently be in decline in its “native”
songbirds. Safe night-roosting sites for non-migratory London.
birds, which in winter may be exceedingly abundant House sparrows are generally more frequent in
in the warmth of cities, are important. Evergreen trees, weedy patches rather than tidy gardens, and in poor
dense shrubs and small trees in urban greenspaces rather than wealthy neighborhoods (Shaw et al.,
often play key roles as roosting sites. 2008). The sparrows are more abundant in areas with
less space committed to paved car parking, and with
The “big three” city birds a higher proportion of native shrubs rather than non-
Cities are the only habitat where the same species native ornamentals.
tend to predominate from continent to continent, in European starlings are often abundant in both city
this case three species: house sparrow (Passer domes- and suburb, and nest in somewhat larger holes in trees
ticus), European starling (Sturnis vulgaris), and com- and built structures. Few people directly feed starlings,
mon pigeon (feral rock dove, Columba livia). All three though their relatively aggressive nature means that
species apparently originated on rocky cliff habitats they outcompete most other birds for food sources.
(Gilbert, 1991). While densest in the city, all three spe- In cooler months, starlings tend to aggregate in
cies thrive in urban, suburban and farmland areas, and large flocks that have nightly roosts in trees or buildings
sometimes starlings nest in natural land. One study (Gilbert, 1991). The noise and accumulation of bird

252
 Species types

droppings (guano) annoys people, and the guano may (herpetofauna or simply herps) are seldom seen: frogs
contain fungus diseases (Crystococcus, Histoplasma) and toads, salamanders, turtles, and snakes. Lizards,
for humans. however, are conspicuous in tropical cities. Different
The common pigeon (or rock dove, Columba livia) herp species populate urban areas in different regions
colonized London by 1384 (Gilbert, 1991). The pigeon and continents. Amphibians and reptiles are mainly
appears to have genetically adapted to urban condi- predators, feeding on invertebrates and in some cases
tions, and differentiated into at least seven forms during vertebrates. Weedy areas rather than manicured green-
the centuries of urban history (Gilbert, 1991). Pigeons spaces provide food and cover. Many herps are com-
usually breed in groups, typically placing nests on arti- monly eaten by meso-predators such as domestic cats,
ficial structures in locations protected from rain, cats raccoons, and foxes, as well as hawks.
and hawks (Wheater, 1999). Common pigeons breed Most amphibians and some reptiles depend on two
nearly all year long in London, but only about a third dissimilar habitats, such as upland vegetation and wet
of the population is breeding at a time. Although these areas, including ponds, streams and wetlands (Parris,
relatively large birds can fly considerable distances, 2006; Grant et al., 2011). Thus, habitat loss of either
their nesting, roosting, and feeding sites are usually upland or wetland typically reduces herp populations.
nearby within several hundred meters of each other. Habitat degradation, such as chemical contamination,
Other pigeon and dove species, including woodpigeon night lighting, cats, urban heat, and noise interfering
(Columba palumbus), collared pigeon (Streptopelia with calls, also have significant impacts. Habitat frag-
decaocto) and mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), mentation is particularly serious for these animals
also live in many urban areas and may provide a pleas- because they are relatively immobile, generally only
ant “cooing” from tree tops. moving short distances. Barriers, such as railways and
A study of common pigeons in Basel (Switzerland) busy roads, may be nearly impassable and accentuate
using GPS positioning devices found that the birds were the habitat fragmentation effect. Small herp popula-
especially abundant in three quite different areas: (1) in tions isolated in small green or “blue” patches are at
streets, squares (plazas), and parks near their nesting high risk of local extinction.
site (home site); (2) in agricultural areas surround- Considering these spatial characteristics of the
ing the city; and (3) on docks and railways in harbors urban environment, it is not surprising that amphib-
(Rose and Nagel, 2006). In Barcelona, many scattered ians and reptiles have generally decreased over time.
locations contain >300 pigeons/ha (120/acre) (Boada For example, in Philadelphia over some two centuries
and Capdevila, 2000). In Basel, a third of the common and in Washington, D.C. over 57 years, both amphib-
pigeons studied remained within 0.3 km (1000 ft) of ian and reptile species richness has declined by about
the home site (Rose and Nagel, 2006). Very few moved 40–50% (Grant et al., 2011). Lizard diversity and snake
>2 km (1.2 mi) from it, and the maximum distance was diversity dropped the most.
5.3 km. Other (non-GPS) studies of common pigeons Reptiles may be particularly diverse in arid areas,
report widely differing distances moved, e.g., from 0.3 and have been studied along an urban-to-rural gradi-
to 25 km from a nesting site. ent in Tucson (Arizona, USA), in a dry area east of Los
While the big-three birds are abundant and con- Angeles, and in the Las Vegas Region (Nevada, USA)
spicuous in cities, the species differ in ecologically sig- (Beatley, 1994; Germaine and Wakeling, 2001). Rare
nificant ways. The house sparrows nest in tiny holes species abound in these arid urban areas, but are sub-
and crevices and prefer foraging in weedy areas. The ject to habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation,
European starlings are aggressive against many other plus human disturbance. In Southern California, a
birds and seasonally form large roosts. The common park surrounded by urbanization had fewer herp spe-
pigeons prefer relatively bare areas, from urban to cies than a similar park with urbanization only partly
rural, and generally remain rather close to their nest around it (Morrison et al., 1994). At a finer scale, an
sites. institutional campus in Cleveland (Ohio, USA) con-
tained 11 amphibian and 8 reptile species (Dexter,
Reptiles and amphibians 1955). Ignoring reintroduction efforts, it appears that
Alligators and exotic or venomous snakes in urban few if any native amphibians or reptiles are expanding
areas, whether native or as former pets, often their populations in urban areas, though some intro-
make headlines. Yet most amphibians and reptiles duced species are spreading.

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 Urban wildlife

Urban amphibians are especially affected by habi- effects, rather than ecology (Ehler and Frankie, 1978;
tat loss, degradation, and fragmentation (Hamer and Fowler, 1983; Bennett and Owens, 1986; Robinson,
McDonnell, 2008). Based on a literature review, seven 1996; Tello et al., 2005). The subject of urban inverte-
major factors can be identified that determine good brate ecology is extremely broad, yet in its infancy, so
quality habitat for amphibians: (1) ample vegetation we mainly focus on encapsulated patterns from three
through the life cycle; (2) a limited density of predators recent reviews (Hochuli et al., 2009; McIntyre and
and competitors; (3) terrestrial habitat suitable for feed- Rango, 2009; Kotze et al., 2011).
ing and winter survival, as well as accessible to aquatic Urban areas are commonly dominated by a few
habitat; (4) good water quality with limited pollution; invertebrate species with high population levels
(5) a suitably long hydro-period for the aquatic larvae (McIntyre and Rango, 2009). Arthropod species rich-
to grow; (6) a paucity of diseases (such as a “Bd” fungus ness (referring to taxa or groups of species) and abun-
inadvertently transported by people); and (7) minimal dance are usually lower in urban than non-urban areas,
direct human disturbance. The authors conclude that and the species composition is typically quite differ-
amphibian habitat generalists, or those with relatively ent (McIntyre et al., 2001; Shochat et al., 2004). Some
short dispersal requirements, appear best able to sur- species groups usually disappear or nearly so with
vive in urban and suburban areas. increased urbanization, including scorpions, pseudo-
A study of urban reptiles in 59 remnant green- scorpions, and large ground beetles. However, other
spaces of Brisbane (Australia) found reptile occur- groups often increase sharply, such as cockroaches,
rence to correlate more with habitat structure than fruit flies, termites, and Argentine ants.
with the species composition of vegetation (Garden Consider six major ecological functions or roles of
et al., 2007). The presence of reptiles correlated best invertebrates: decomposition, herbivory, pollination,
with the presence of termite mounds, abundant fallen seed dispersal, predation/parasitism, and food source
woody material on the ground, and a moderate cover for vertebrates. The following effects of urbanization,
of weeds. Reptiles decreased with greater soil compac- in this case mainly habitat fragmentation and deg-
tion. The presence of a tortoise (Testudo hermanni) radation, on invertebrates and their roles is revealing
in Rome, Italy correlated with only one of eight habi- (Hochuli et al., 2009):
tat variables studied, i.e., shrub cover (Rugiero and 1. Decomposition (mainly by the species groups,
Luiselli, 2006). Collembola, Acarina, Isopoda, Diplopoda,
Amphibians and reptiles that might thrive in urban Isoptera, Coleoptera) in urban areas. Characteristic
areas (urbanophiles) manifest somewhat distinct- urbanization effects are: loss of invertebrate
ive characteristics (Grant et al., 2011). They have: (1) species, and decrease in nutrient supply and
broad habitat tolerance (e.g., using lawns, buildings, retention, potentially leading to ecosystem
and stormwater drains); (2) a generalist diet; (3) high “instability.”
mobility and dispersal ability; (4) high reproduct- 2. Herbivory (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera,
ive output; (5) small body size; and (6) tolerance of Diptera, Hymenoptera). Changes in host plant
humans. Most urban herps lack some or all of these quality, increasing the probability of herbivore
attributes and thus, rather than thriving, only survive, outbreaks.
decline, or disappear. 3. Pollination (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera, Diptera). Depauperate pollinator
Invertebrates community; decline in pollination levels and seed
The species of urban invertebrates also mainly differ by production; restricted pollen flow; inbreeding.
continent and region. For convenience in the face of 4. Seed dispersal (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Decline
huge numbers, we refer to species groups such as flies in the diversity of seed dispersers, leading to
(Figure 9.6), butterflies, beetles, spiders, snails, and so decreased seed dispersal and plant survival.
forth. Soil animals were discussed in Chapter 4 (see 5. Predation and parasitism (Araneae, Hymenoptera
Figure 4.8) and include many non-arthropod groups parasitic wasps, Hemiptera, Chilopoda). Reduction of
such as earthworms, slugs, and snails. Much of the prey abundance, leading to predator/parasite decline;
urban invertebrate literature focuses on pest animals, herbivore outbreaks due to release from predator
plant pests, public-health disease vectors, and pollutant control, leading to plant damage and dieback.

254
 Vertical structures, vegetation layers, and animals

6. Food source for vertebrates (most invertebrate taxa 2009). Such lights act very much like a vacuum cleaner,
or species groups). Decline in insectivorous birds, sucking insects away from their habitats.
and perhaps herps, owing to food shortage. The richness of butterflies, ants, and many other
The urban spatial patterns strongly affecting inver- species sometimes correlates with the size of green-
tebrates are highly diverse. The following patterns, space and the proximity to species source, but some-
particularly observed in Sydney, may at least suggest times it does not (Giuliano, 2005; Natuhara and
trends present in other urban areas (Hochuli et al., Hashimoto, 2009; Kotze et al., 2011). Invertebrate spe-
2009): cies richness may be particularly high in early succes-
1. Hemiptera (scale insects): trees near roads or sion sites (Gilbert, 1991; Matteson, 2008). Butterflies,
concrete support a higher abundance of scale grasshoppers, woodlice, and land snails are typically
insects. least species-rich on intensively designed and main-
tained land uses, and richer on neglected urban sites
2. Lepidoptera larvae (caterpillars): high mortality
(see Figure 8.12) (Godde et al., 1995). In Britain, gener-
further from city where vegetation cover is
ally the longer a tree species has existed in the country
greater.
the more arboreal insects and insect species it supports
3. Lepidoptera (butterflies): greater urbanized cover
(Kennedy and Southwood, 1984).
leads to decreased abundance and richness for
Invertebrate species thriving in urban areas seem
most species, because of reduction in host plants
to be food generalists (Kotze et al., 2011). Arthropod
and nectar sources.
larvae [such as of dragonflies (Odonata, Anisoptera)
4. Lepidoptera (butterflies): increased species
and mayflies (Ephemeridae)] often require a different
diversity with increased habitat area, connectivity,
habitat than that of the adult. Therefore, the proximity
permanent water, vegetation, and flowers.
of both habitats is important in the urban area. High
5. Lepidoptera (butterflies): connectivity is a key to
dispersal ability enhances arthropod success in the
butterfly management in urban areas.
city. Many invertebrate species groups have been stud-
6. Arthropods – ground-dwelling: small habitat ied along urban-to-rural gradients, with diverse results
fragments support a fundamentally different found. Refuse piles/heaps, roadsides, parks, and early
fauna than in larger fragments. succession sites all tend to be rich in invertebrates, but
7. Arthropods – ground-dwelling: arthropod species each harbors a somewhat different fauna. Urban inver-
composition is different in different land-use tebrate ecology remains a rich research frontier.
types.
8. Non-ant Hymenoptera (bees, wasps): diversity
and abundance are positively related to habitat Vertical structures, vegetation
fragment area, but negatively related to layers, and animals
fragment age. Urban areas provide a wonderful array of vertical
9. Coleoptera – carabid ground beetles: higher species structures, both artificial and natural, used by wild-
richness on early successional sites. life. More varied than the structures out in agricultural
10. Coleoptera – carabid ground beetles: abundance and natural lands, this urban vertical heterogeneity is
and species richness increase from urban to rural. used for nest and den sites, foraging for food, move-
11. Hymenoptera – bees: in general a negative ment and escape cover, courtship, and even water
response to urbanization. (Kunz et al., 2008). Just as on the ground, some ver-
These results barely scratch the surface and do not pin- tical objects are beneficial and others hazardous to
point general patterns. Still, it seems that arthropods animals. The hazardous structures are “artificial”
are often sensitive to, and distributed in, some of the (human-made).
same spatial patterns of importance to most urban We now examine these hazards and habitats for
vertebrates. urban animals: (1) towers, buildings, powerlines,
A few additional observations broaden the per- bridges; and (2) trees, shrubs, vegetation. Urban
spective on urban invertebrates. Huge numbers of ecology studies have primarily emphasized patterns
flying insects are attracted to urban lights (“electric at increasing height above ground, a sort of layers
zappers”), where many insects are eaten or otherwise approach. Also interesting, though less known, is how
die (Rich and Longcore, 2006; Eisenbeis and Hanel, animals fit their diverse daily and seasonal activities

255
 Urban wildlife

with the micro-heterogeneity so evident vertically in Lindsey, 2011). Perhaps a quarter of the North American
urban areas. bird species are vulnerable to such collisions.
It appears that red lights rather than white lights,
Towers, buildings, powerlines, bridges and constant lights rather than flashing lights, are
Hazards and habitats are the two main ecological more disruptive of avian flight (Gauthreaux and Belser,
dimensions of these major human constructions in 2006). Current research suggests that white flashing
urban areas. lights are best on towers. Floodlights pointing upward
to highlight buildings, and the unusual combination of
Hazards lights around large airports disorient birds, often lead-
Two decades ago it was estimated that the leading ing to mortality. In addition, the rapidly rotating ends
human causes of avian mortality in the USA were, of wind-turbine blades are lethal to some birds as well
in order (Klem, 1991): hunting; collisions (strikes) as bats (Adams et al., 2006; Adams and Lindsey, 2011).
with plate glass; and collisions with vehicles. These Of course many hazards exist at a finer scale for
big-three killed 275 million birds annually, 95% of wildlife around artificial structures. Predators lurk in
the total human-caused mortality. Migrating birds diverse locations. Competitors do too. Windstorms
are particularly at risk (Hager et al., 2008), and of the destroy nests. Urban heat waves make surfaces too hot.
collisions with tall structures (towers, stacks, build- Rainwater pours and drips down through leaks and
ings), 98% of the birds hit plate glass. In a New York channels. Snow and ice accumulate. Strong turbulent
City study, 82–85% of the “glass collisions or strikes” and vortex air flows alter animal activities. Dust and
were fatal. Based on better data and with somewhat other pollutants concentrate in certain spaces. Noises
more artificial structures, plate glass, and lights pre- and vibrations from inside a building occur. People
sent today, estimates now range from a 100 million fix and eliminate holes and broken windows. Humans
(Adams et al., 2006; Adams and Lindsey, 2011) to 1 clean surfaces. The complex of stresses and disturbances
billion (Klem et al., 2009) birds killed annually by for wildlife in the high-microhabitat-diversity vertical
collisions with tall structures, especially plate glass world created and maintained by humans remains a
(see Figure 3.1). Glass strikes are now considered little-studied ecological frontier, daily facing us.
to be the leading cause of human-related bird mor-
tality, greater than hunting and roadkills, and much Artificial structures as habitats
greater than pollution, poisoning, wind turbines, and Storks are generally appreciated for their symbolic role
domestic cats. in bringing a baby to the household. The size of a peli-
The presence of ground cover, shrubs, and trees can or large heron, storks (Ciconia) build large nests
in front of a building is hypothesized to increase the atop chimneys and buildings, especially in towns and
rate of bird collisions, and warrants study (Hager small cities of Europe and parts of Asia (Figure 9.7).
et al., 2008; Klem et al., 2009). Also, bird feeders near These summit habitats provide good visibility and
houses probably increase window collisions of local ample essential space for take-offs and landings. With
residential, mainly seed-eating, songbirds. Reducing a tall stork guarding the nest, and with nests often clus-
or changing the nature of plate glass in tall buildings tered nearby, predators usually stay away.
presumably would have the greatest strike-reduction Raptors, especially certain hawks, are the other
effect. Another significant approach is to turn off the large birds nesting high up on built structures includ-
lights in tall buildings at night. Toronto, with reputedly ing buildings, but in this case the birds are at very
one of the highest bird–building collision rates in the low density. Also normally raptor nests are on ledges
world, has such a program (Gauthreaux and Belser, under an overhang providing protection from rain. In
2006). In Boston, the mayor and the Massachusetts the Milwaukee Region (Wisconsin, USA), red-tailed
Audubon Society have collaborated toward this goal, hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) successfully fledged young
especially during bird migration seasons. in nests on electric powerline towers and a tall adver-
In addition to colliding with tall buildings, birds tising billboard (Stout et al., 1996). Raptors and ravens
strike radio, television, communications, cell-phone, (Corvus corax) nest on powerline towers, which also
electric powerline, wind-turbine, and airport tow- serve as perches for foraging (Steenhof et al., 1993).
ers (Johnson and Klemens, 2005; Rich and Longcore, In addition, the peregrine falcon (Falco peregri-
2006; Adams et al., 2006; Kunz et al., 2008; Adams and nus) nests on a variety of tall structures in urban areas,

256
 Vertical structures, vegetation layers, and animals

sparrow, blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), and other birds,

and may be important as somewhat protected winter
roost sites for a variety of urban songbirds.
Urban wildlife use of the microhabitats associated
with built land is illustrated in Barcelona (Boada and
Capdevila, 2000). Swallows feed around lights and rest
on wires. Mice use building interiors from the basement
upward, especially tracking food availability around
kitchens. Magpies use railings and ledges of walkways,
buildings, and small bridges as perch sites for foraging.
Swifts dive into clouds of mosquitoes, midges, and
other insects carried upward in wind or rising warm
air. Lizards frequent walls, especially near corners or
lights, to catch arthropod food. House sparrows slip
into small holes. Common pigeons (rock doves) find
Figure 9.7. Stork and nest atop a city building. Scores or more of access to attics, abandoned buildings, protected ledges,
such nests enrich the skyline of Alcala de Henares, Spain. Drawing and under small-to-medium bridges. Cockroaches
by and with permission of Barbara L. Forman.
and rats move from building to building in drainage
pipe networks. The list goes on. This combination of
where the bird typically hollows out a shallow depres- microhabitats is distinctly urban.
sion in accumulated sand or other soil material. Large In summary, our built structures are both hazard
bridges are often used (Carey, 1998), including at least and habitat for wildlife. Lighted glass on buildings seems
nine major bridges in the New York City Region, each to be the primary bird killer, but numerous features of
supporting a pair of peregrines. Such locations provide our structures cause wildlife mortality. The multitude
good visibility, dive space [the birds can dive at 320 of building features also provides microhabitat diver-
km/h (200 mi/h)] for foraging, and some protection sity and cover for nesting/denning and feeding, thus
from rain, wind, and competitors. supporting a rather distinctive urban fauna.
As noted above, bats also nest and roost in bridges
(Keeley and Tuttle, 1999; Adams et al., 2006), mainly
small or medium-size structures. Building areas in Trees, shrubs, vegetation
Merida (Yucatan, Mexico) are used in different ways by If you were sitting on a park bench or porch just after
four bat species (Rydell, 2006). Large fast bats fly above dark in Melbourne, lights moving around in the
the buildings. Medium-sized fast bats forage between tree canopy might not be a surprise. An ecologist is
the buildings and above the street lights. Small fast bats spotlighting urban wildlife – that is, walking with a
forage for insects attracted to street lights. And slow large spotlight shining a bright beam up into the can-
but highly maneuverable broad-winged bats forage for opy. Possums and gliders live in holes in the canopy
insects just over the low vegetation and ground-level eucalypts and other trees, and when lighted, their eyes
under street lights. Also, mammals around lights on shine brightly and species are readily identified. Ring-
buildings are at risk of being caught by a predator (Rich tailed possum, greater glider, and the abundant brush-
and Longcore, 2006). tailed possum all live overhead. The vertical structure
Green roofs support some insects and occasional of urban vegetation holds lots of wildlife surprises.
birds (Chapter 10). The vegetation on green walls, Some songbirds roost in trees at night, especially
especially vines, supports more insect and bird species, high up away from terrestrial predators. During day-
but still is usually low in species diversity (Dunnett time the birds are foraging at different levels in the trees
and Kingsbury, 2004; Chapter 10). Lacewings, butter- and woods. For instance, as mentioned above, vertical
flies, moths, and many other invertebrate groups on vegetation structure is important for bird species and
walls with vegetation are food for migrant birds, resi- different foraging guilds (DeGraaf and Wentworth,
dent birds, and bats. Some vines such as ivy (Hedera 1981; Beissinger and Osborne, 1982).
helix) are nectar sources. Wall vegetation of vines and In Nishinomiya City (near Kobe, Japan), birds were
other plants occasionally serves as nest sites for house sampled in different vegetation layers in woods within

257
 Urban wildlife

(a) (b) Figure 9.8. Use of urban vegetation

layers by different bird species. (a)
Nishinomiya City, Japan. Based on
vegetation in 20 urban parks, and ≥15
birds per species. From Ichinose (2005).
(b) Cheyenne (Wyoming, USA). Based on
sampling birds in street trees and house-
plot trees along sidewalks at 80 stratified-
random sites in a commercial area, plus
new, medium-age, and old residential
areas. Some columns total <100% due
to bird use of other less-common trees.
Adapted from Sears and Anderson (1991).

20 urban parks (Ichinose, 2005). For the seven most specialist species among these common birds. Clearly,
abundant species, two (common pigeon and sparrow) different species focus activity on different vegetation
were observed mostly on the ground layer (Figure 9.8a). layers, such as the two specialists overwhelmingly in
Very few birds were in the herb and shrub layer. The the canopy, and the blue jay primarily in the under-
other five species were most abundant in the under- story layer. In essence, both tree species and vegetation
story layer. Six bird species used the canopy, though layer are keys to wildlife usage, and different bird spe-
only the crow and “hypsipetes” were observed in it cies have preferences for both variables.
≥30% of the time. Thus, for these common urban birds, The shrub layer is of special importance in urban
the ground layer seems to mainly support two species, areas because it is usually scarce and provides cover for
and the understory layer five species. ground vertebrates. For example, shrub vegetation is
An extensive study of birds in residential and com- the primary habitat for a tortoise (Testudo hermanni)
mercial areas of Cheyenne (Wyoming, USA) provides in Rome (Rugiero and Luiselli, 2006). Relatively few
further insight into wildlife usage of trees (Sears and urban birds nest in either the ground or shrub layer
Anderson, 1991). A total of 2438 birds representing 43 (Johnson and Klemens, 2005), where eggs and young
species were counted in canopy, understory, and shrub birds are readily subject to predation. However, many
layers of more than 14 tree species. Based on the most species feed in the shrub and ground layers. Indeed,
common eight bird species and eight tree species, birds urban bird species richness has been found to correlate
preferentially “selected” for spruce (Picea) (i.e., used it with both shrub cover and shrub height, as well as the
proportionately more than its abundance would indi- height of herbaceous vegetation (Ortega-Alvarez and
cate), and selected against the other seven tree species. MacGregor-Fors, 2009).
Overall, birds used the understory more than the can- Tropical cities also have wildlife distributed in
opy, and used the shrub layer very little (Figure 9.8b). vegetation layers, including daytime songbirds, liz-
The most generalist species appear to be the mourn- ards, snakes, monkeys, and more. Yet after the daytime
ing dove (which used seven trees) and the blue jay and heat passes, dusk-and-dawn and night-time species
yellow warbler (using five species each). The mountain become active. These are mainly a different set of liz-
chickadee only used spruce, and warbling vireo only ard, frog, snake, and mammal species. Adding these
cottonwood and elm, apparently the two relatively nocturnal species to the diurnal group may double

258
 Spatial habitat patterns and animals

vertebrate biodiversity. “Noises in the night” from the same rate. It would be interesting to know whether
animals are familiar in tropical cities, indeed all cities. this spatial-scale pattern holds for other cities.
Tropical frogs are especially vocal, and different spe- The density of breeding birds across the city of
cies may live on the bark and in upper vegetation layers. Warsaw is about 300–700 pairs/km2 (780–1810/mi2),
Furthermore, as in urban Puerto Rico, different frog similar to that in Berlin and Hamburg (Luniak, 2008).
species may be active early in the night and others late In the highly urbanized areas of inner Warsaw, bird
at night. density is estimated at 830–1590 pairs/km2 in the
breeding season. In winter the total population for the
Spatial habitat patterns city averages about 964 birds/km2. Presumably the “big
three” (sparrow, starling, pigeon) predominate. These
and animals densities are much higher than in agricultural and nat-
We first introduce (1) species richness and rare species, ural lands.
which are linked to (2) habitat fragments. Then eco- Such species inventories lump together species
logical patterns are explored along a gradient: (3) city, of diverse types and functional roles, such as key-
suburb, peri-urb/exurb, urban-region ring. Finally, (4) stone, native/non-native, abundant/rare, and species
animals of particular habitats are highlighted. dependent on human-supplied food/garbage versus
those using more-natural food sources. The top preda-
Species richness and rare species tor, coyote (Figure 9.2), is a keystone species, that is,
How many species are there in a city? Warsaw has one it has a much greater effect on the ecosystem than its
major river, 1.7 million people, 320 vertebrate species, limited abundance would suggest. Native and non-
and at least 3800 species of terrestrial invertebrates in native species were discussed in Chapter 8 on plants.
a 517 km2 (207 mi2) area (Luniak, 2008). These species Abundant and rare species were mentioned above. A
are 12% of the total for Poland. Approximately 40 mam- few examples relating to non-native animals and rare
mals, 247 birds (137 breeding), 5 reptiles, 11 amphibi- species in urban areas are useful here.
ans, and 30 fish constitute the Warsaw vertebrate fauna. A Syracuse (New York, USA) study indicates that
Similar numbers are reported for Moscow, Berlin, and in summer the presence of common pigeons (rock
Lodz (Poland). Such numbers do not include analyses doves) reduces the diversity (richness) of native bird
of the “invisibles,” i.e., soil animals, tree-canopy inver- species (Johnsen and VanDruff, 1987). Richness does
tebrates, and microorganisms (see Figure 1.2) not correlate with the abundance of house sparrows or
Habitat heterogeneity, associated with the combin- starlings. In winter, native bird diversity decreases with
ation of city center, large parks, other greenspace types, either the presence of common pigeons or starlings,
major corridor types, and residential, commercial, and but correlates positively with the presence of house
industrial areas, is normally extremely high in a city sparrows. Native bird diversity in summer also corre-
or metro area. This distinctive habitat heterogeneity lates with several urban-environment variables: build-
prevents internal urban homogenization of the fauna, ing volume (negative correlation, i.e., larger buildings,
and helps maintain a high species richness. From city fewer species); bird feeder density (positive); herb-
to city the predominant species are often similar, just as aceous cover-to-pavement ratio (positive); area of
for peat bogs in forestland or scattered mountains in a coniferous-tree cover (positive); and area of commer-
desert region. However, an unending input of species cial land use (negative). In winter, native species diver-
from habitats around cities helps maintain diverse and sity correlates with somewhat different environment
somewhat distinctive ruban faunas. variables: area of coniferous cover (positive); abun-
Comparing the Warsaw species numbers at four spa- dance of children (negative); age of structures (nega-
tial scales (Luniak, 2008), (1) region, (2) city, (3) urban tive); and area of commercial land use (negative).
parks, and (4) city-center non-park green cover (court- In Los Angeles, a rare butterfly (Euphilotes battoides)
yards, lawns, street trees, etc.), helps place the city scale is reported to survive in only two sand-dune locations,
in perspective. Percentages of the regional invertebrate an airport site of 122 ha (300 acres) and an industrial
fauna decrease by scale, from100% (region) to 75% site of 0.6 ha (1.5 acres) (Arnold and Goins, 1987). The
to 33% to 19% (city-center green cover). Of 10 insect butterfly has several predators on its scarce dune habi-
groups plus spiders, earthworms, and terrestrial snails, tat, where the caterpillar feeds on an uncommon native
percentages for almost all groups decreased at about buckwheat plant (Eriogonum). At the small site over

259
 Urban wildlife

10 years, the host plant species slowly declined, while

the rare butterfly suffered a much steeper decline. With
Habitat fragments
A habitat perspective in urban areas, rather than a
99% of the butterfly’s former habitat urbanized, and no
species-by-species approach, highlights the ecological
known successful dispersal and colonization, the rare
effects of habitat fragmentation mainly caused by sub-
butterfly species seems to have a dim future.
urban and exurban spread (Johnson and Klemens,
In 1987 in Tijuana (Baja California, Mexico), only
2005; Haslem and Bennett, 2008). Here we focus on
four pairs of the rare least Bell’s vireo (Vireo bellii pusil-
species richness, and secondarily on species compos-
lus) were breeding in the 51 ha (135 acres) of ripar-
ition, since they seem to be the prime concern in urban
ian habitat suitable for the small insect-eating bird
areas, but many additional ecological dimensions
(Beatley, 1994). Since then the human population of
are affected by habitat fragmentation (see equations,
Tijuana has grown enormously, and it is quite possible
Appendix B) (Marzluff and Ewing, 2008).
that the bird is now extinct there as a regular breeder.
First consider the species-area effect of greenspace
Just to the north in San Diego (USA), 21 nesting pairs
patch size affecting species richness (Tilghman, 1987;
of the vireo inhabited the 154 ha of riparian habitat pre-
Adams and Dove, 1989; Fernandez-Juricic, 2000b;
sent. San Diego has also grown considerably, but has
Fernandez-Juricic and Jokimaki, 2001; Murgui, 2007;
implemented a habitat conservation plan for the vireo
Natuhara, 2008).The diversity of native mammals and
and numerous other rare species. Perhaps the species
birds in San Diego was related to the area of greenspaces
hangs on there. The vireos in these two adjoining cities
[0.4–03 ha (1–258 acres)], as well as to the area (0.1–68
are part of a broader-scale population, e.g., (in 1987) of
ha) of semi-natural vegetation within the greenspaces
291 total breeding pairs in 11 areas. All of the sites are
(Figure 9.2a) (Soule, 1991). Species richness correlated
affected by urbanization, which continues, or increases,
better with area of semi-natural vegetation than with
the risk of rare-species extinction.
area of greenspace.
A portion of the Las Vegas (Nevada, USA) Region
The same pattern was found with avian diversity for
has 11 greenspace (brown desert) locations of a
wooded areas within parks of 0.2–3.4 ha (0.5–8.5 acres)
rare, slowly reproducing reptile, the desert tortoise
in Nishinomiya City (Japan) (Ichinose, 2005). In parks,
(Gopherus agassizii) (Beatley, 1994). Only three of the
lawn-and-ornamental-plant areas provide more benefit
patches have an estimated 100 or more individuals, and
than do the surrounding impervious spaces for the verte-
six locations only have 1–5 individuals. All 11 “popula-
brate species. However, the planted area is still much less
tions” are likely to decrease to extinction as urbaniza-
ecologically suitable than the semi-natural vegetation.
tion and other stresses continue.
Bird species richness also increased with area in
These rare-species stories can be repeated in urban
remnant greenspaces of 1–2 ha, 4–10 ha, and 10–20
areas worldwide. The native species barely survive, or
ha in Brisbane (Australia) (Catterall, 2009). Species
disappear, in fragmented remnants of semi-natural
composition also changed greatly with area. The small
vegetation (but see Fuller et al., 2009).All cities probably
greenspaces had more species of large birds than did
contain rare species. Paris has 7 nationally protected
the medium and large patches. No patch-size effect
amphibian species (78% of the city’s amphibians), 11
was present for the number of non-native species or
protected mammals (34% of the total), and 119 nation-
seed-eating species. In Madrid, several groups of birds
ally protected bird species (72% of the city’s avifauna)
were denser in the interior than in the edge portion of
(Beatley, 2012).
urban woods, whereas house sparrows and common
Protecting rare species in an urban area may often
pigeons (rock doves) were denser in the wooded edges
be a local priority, but not a regional or national pri-
(Fernandez-Juricic, 2001).
ority for conservation. This is because in a metro area
Species–area relationships were compared for
the probability of successful protection over human
several groups of organisms in greenspaces of Osaka
generations seems minuscule. Concentrated human
(Japan) (Natuhara and Hashimoto, 2009). Bird, butter-
impacts, plus outward urbanization (even without
fly, tree, and fern species richness were each correlated
climate change effects added), nearly assure the local
with greenspace area (r2 from 0.88 to 0.64), but ant
extinction of rare native species in urban areas. What
diversity (in Osaka and Kyoto) was not. Also both bird
to do if the only known population or individual of a
and butterfly diversity were correlated (r2 = 0.60 and
species lives in an urban area is perhaps mainly an eth-
0.73, respectively) with distance from species source or
ical question.

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 Spatial habitat patterns and animals

from an average of 13 to 4, as the percentage of forest

in the surrounding 1 km2 decreased from 100% to zero
(Marzluff and Ewing, 2008).
Overall, it appears that species richness for verte-
brate groups normally increases with area of semi-nat-
ural vegetation within greenspaces, and also increases
with proximity to species sources or other greenspaces.
For invertebrate diversity, it appears that usually neither
variable is significant. Nevertheless, positive species–
area correlations typically only explain a limited amount
of the variability (r2) in urban studies, and other factors
are also important in understanding diversity patterns.
Although research is limited and results are variable,
the distance from species source or other greenspace
may be especially important in urban areas.
A planning study in Syracuse (New York, USA)
mapped large, medium, and small urban greenspaces
Figure 9.9. Daytime distance of predator from shrub and forest
habitats in city. Based on 108 sightings of coyote (Canis latrans) in and used the preceding two concepts (species-area and
Seattle (USA). Total shrub habitat = 1415 ha (3538 acres) and forest distance-from-source) to estimate the relative number
habitat = 634 ha in the 220 km2 (85 mi2) city. − and + = significantly of wildlife species present (Hilliard, 1991). Four groups
less or more sightings than expected on the basis of area alone.
Adapted from Quinn (1991). of greenspaces were hypothesized to vary in species
richness, listed from high to low: (1) >12 ha (large
greenspace) with direct connection (partially adja-
continuous large forest. Once again, ant diversity was cent) to the surrounding non-built area as the key spe-
not correlated with distance. cies source; (2) >12 ha with corridor connection to the
Although urban mammals and birds may nest or surroundings; (3) >12 ha with no connection; and (4)
den in a greenspace, they normally move out from it, <12 ha (small), irrespective of connection. While based
though we still know little about the distance moved by on principles, plus evidence from elsewhere, the expec-
different species. This pattern is illustrated by the top tations are useful for planning in the absence of empir-
predator, coyote, in Seattle (Washington, USA) (Quinn ical data, and could be validated or sharpened up by
1991; Gehrt et al., 2009; Way and Eatough, 2011). Of ecological study. Additionally, numerous human activ-
108 animals observed, very few moved more than about ities can increase urban biodiversity during landscape
275 m from urban forest habitat (Figure 9.9). However, design, building design, site work, building process,
normally large forested greenspaces are the preferred plantings and vegetation, adding artificial structures,
den sites, and animals moved further outward from and management/maintenance (van Bohemen, 2005).
these (mainly up to about 400 m) into built areas. The Even though urban areas have so many distinct-
animals also mainly moved up to about 400 m from ive characteristics, some of the ecological principles
shrub habitat, which provides good cover. learned in natural and agricultural areas should be con-
Where a section of an urban area is ≥25% forest, the sidered and evaluated for use in cities. Until we have
animals mostly remain within 600 m of forest. If shrub a robust set of urban ecology principles, biodiversity
habitat is ≥15% of an area, the animals may often move management could cautiously use existing ecological
further from a shrubby area. If neither forest nor shrub concepts of scale and hierarchy, species composition,
cover is abundant, animals commonly roam still further habitat fragmentation, habitat degradation, and much
from the main greenspaces. Overall the results highlight more (Savard et al., 2000).
the importance of “distance from source” of species.
Another way to visualize the effect of distance
between greenspaces is by relating the presence of ani-
City, suburb, peri-urb/exurb,
mals, or species diversity, to the percentage of vegeta- urban-region ring
tion within some radius of a site. Thus, the number of In New England (USA) the density of birds in a city
native forest-bird species at a site in Seattle decreased is reportedly 2.5 times greater than that in suburbs

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 Urban wildlife

(DeGraaf, 1986). In contrast, avian diversity is 2.5 successional-regrowth land, deciduous woodland,
times higher in suburbs than in the city. The density coniferous forest, and peri-urban area. Most all-built
or abundance pattern is considered to be largely due metropolitan areas are surrounded by agricultural land
to the abundance of human sources of food in the city. (Forman, 2008). Where semi-natural land adjoins sub-
The species diversity or richness pattern is correlated urban land, it is almost always much altered by urban
with more habitat diversity in the suburbs, and may be effects (and probably would not be viewed as “wild-
linked to habitat connectivity. land” by most ecologists). In effect, land use type at
The greater density or abundance of organisms in the rural end of a gradient greatly affects the shapes of
city than suburb is supported by a number of studies, curves along the city-to-rural gradient. With this cav-
including: birds in Palo Alto (California, USA) (Blair, eat, and knowing that it would be surprising if much
1999) and common pigeons (rock doves) in Manchester ecological were the same in urban and rural areas, we
(UK) (Wheater, 1999). However, the opposite pat- can still learn from urban–rural comparisons.
tern, i.e., greater density in suburb, is also reported for In Basel (Switzerland) two of the prime sites for
butterflies in Palo Alto (Blair, 1999) and 6 of 25 bird common pigeons are city-center streets and squares/
species in London (Wheater, 1999). parks; the third site is agricultural land surrounding
Nevertheless, species richness higher in suburb the city (Rose and Nagel, 2006). Of 25 breeding birds in
than in city, plus a gradual decrease from suburb to the Manchester (UK) Region, 14 were most abundant
city, seems to be a well-supported widespread pat- in the rural area (Wheater, 1999). Differences in kes-
tern. Illustrative studies include: butterflies in Palo trel (Falco tinnunculus) abundance and biology were
Alto (Blair, 1999); lizards in Tucson (Arizona, USA) reported between a city and a rural site (700 km away)
(Germaine and Wakeling, 2001); and birds in Buenos in Spain (Tella et al., 1996). Along a gradient of city,
Aires, London, Palo Alto, and Oxford, Ohio (USA) suburb, peri-urban, semi-rural, and rural of Buenos
(Wheater, 1999; Blair, 1999, 2008; Faggi et al., 2008). Aires, avian diversity was lowest in the city and high-
Considering the different food sources and species pre- est in the semi-rural area (Faggi et al., 2008). Gradient
sent, it is not surprising that bird foraging guilds also studies also provide ecological comparisons between
differ in city and suburb (DeGraaf and Wentworth, suburb and rural.
1991). Interestingly, in the Osaka Region (Japan), the city
Although suburban areas may differ more from has the highest bird species diversity, which progres-
each other than do different urban areas, few eco- sively decreases in suburb and rural areas (Natuhara,
logical comparisons of suburbs of a city are available. 2008). This at-first-glance unexpected result seems
In Brisbane (Australia), a (“bare”) suburb with few analogous to an oasis pattern. Trees and diverse food
trees differs markedly in many ecological variables sources are concentrated in the city, while the sur-
from one with considerable tree vegetation: number rounding rural land is relatively homogeneous crop-
of bird species; seed-eating species; vertebrate-eating land supporting few bird species.
species; arboreal insectivores; and non-native species. The preceding ecological results point to the import-
Indeed, major differences were present for: number of ance of the urban-region ring surrounding a metro
species of fruit-or-nectar feeders, large birds, and spe- area (Forman, 2008). Lots of important and intriguing
cies composition, i.e., the particular species present. In spatial patterns in the ring-around-the-city are major
a study of screech owls (Otus asio) in 10-year-old and determinants of ecological conditions in the city.
30-year-old suburbs of Waco (Texas), little difference
in life history and population characteristics was pre-
sent (Gehlbach, 1996). However, owl nest density was Animals of particular habitats
60% higher in the older suburb. Comparison of resi- Most habitats characterizing urban areas, such as
dential areas of different density in Tucson found liz- tree-lined street, park plaza, house plot, and wastewa-
ard diversity highest in low-to-medium house-density ter treatment facility, are scarce or absent elsewhere.
areas (Germaine and Wakeling, 2001). Indeed, our zoos are probably the pinnacle of high spe-
The idea of “rural” in urban–suburban–rural gra- cies diversity. Here exotic non-native species are most
dient studies has remained a challenge for interpret- conspicuous and appreciated. But the huge amounts of
ing results, since non-urban land surrounding a metro human-provided food and consequent waste attract
area differs markedly, as in cropland, pastureland, many other species from city, suburb, and exurb alike.

262
 Spatial habitat patterns and animals

Indeed, many of the other species thrive at exception- species attracted to the more maintained portions
ally high densities. (Roth, 1987) (Chapter 11).
A study of a small city, Dusseldorf (Germany), 6. Institution. Often savanna-like mowed grass
identified 75 habitat types present, of which 38 were and trees, sometimes with a water body present,
considered widespread or important (Godde et al., cover the grounds of academic, health, religious,
1995). The diversity of plants, butterflies, land snails, and government building clusters. This pattern
wood lice, and grasshoppers was measured in each supports modest levels of native species and
habitat type, and ranged from relatively high to zero generalist scavengers. Aquatic animals and
(see Figure 8.12). Rather than developing an exhaust- wildlife attracted to a water body greatly increase
ive list of habitats and their ecological attributes, species diversity (Swank, 1955; Dexter, 1955)
here we simply list a series of major land uses of (Chapter 12).
cities worldwide, and highlight some key wildlife 7. Golf course. The usual open strips, widely spread
characteristics. people, presence of pond, removal of shrubs,
1. City center. House sparrows, common pigeons, intensive mowing, and abundant use of irrigation
starlings, rats, mice, cockroaches, and other water, fertilizer, and pesticides typically produce
insects thrive on an abundance of human food and a relatively sparse but unpredictable wildlife
garbage. Relatively few species of agricultural and community. With few trees between fairways the
natural lands are present (Gilbert, 1991). area attracts species preferring open areas such as
2. Stormwater drain or basin. Nocturnal scavengers gulls, geese, and hawks. With more semi-natural
such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), rats and vegetation, more resident species and migrant
cockroaches rest and feed in stormwater structures, birds are present (Moulton and Adams, 1991;
which provide escape from vehicles, cats, dogs, and Blair, 2008) (Chapter 12).
people (Bolen, 2000) (see Chapter 1). 8. Airport. The large open space attracts grassland
3. Cemetery. Grass-only cemeteries are species poor, birds and mammals. Raptors from hawks to
whereas the presence of diverse shrubs provides vultures and eagles feed on the easily detected
cover for vertebrates and some nest sites for native rodents and other animals. Because airports
birds. A large tree-covered cemetery is likely to often border water bodies or wetlands, water
be an overnight feed-and-rest spot for migrating birds including herons/egrets and flocks of gulls,
birds in an extensive built urban area (Bolen, 2000; ducks, and geese may be frequent. The large
Adams et al., 2006) (Chapter 12). birds and flocks of small birds pose hazards to
4. House plot. Although a mainly lawn site has aircraft, so various control measures are common,
few species, the microhabitat heterogeneity of from introducing predators to planting certain
most house plots is relatively high, supporting plants that do not attract birds (Cooper, 1991;
considerable species richness of many animal Satheesan, 1996; Adams et al., 2006; Linnell, 2009;
groups. Added artificial structures, such as Bernhardt, 2009) (Chapter 12).
rock wall, bird feeder, or water feature, can 9. Dump, tip, landfill. As a major active source of
raise biodiversity well above natural-area levels garbage and other refuse, the dump is home to
(Johnston and Don, 1990) (Chapter 10). large concentrated populations of local animals,
5. Housing development. High- and medium-density including rats and other mammalian and some
multi-unit housing normally supports few species avian scavengers. However, some birds, including
other than the common urban scavengers and gulls and corvids (crows, etc.), regularly travel
seed-eaters. On the other hand, high-density considerable distances to feed (Adams et al.,
single-family-unit housing tends to have a 2006) (Chapter 12)
considerable diversity of wildlife, because of the 10. Island in harbor. When far enough from the
high concentration of front spaces (gardens) mainland so that foxes and other predators do not
and backyards with highly different design and reach them, harbor islands may support heron/
maintenance approaches. Developments with large egret colonies. Coastal birds and mammals use
house-plots may have most of the surrounding islands to rest and feed (Howell and Pollak, 1991;
natural-area species as well as many generalist Parsons, 1995; Parsons et al., 2001) (Chapter 7).

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 Urban wildlife

Wildlife movement and cats and rats have been observed dining “shoul-
der to shoulder.” Many other animals from insects to
We begin with (1) animal biology and movement,
foxes, coyotes, raccoons, opossums, possums, corvids,
and then focus on (2) urban pattern and wildlife
and gulls of course join in the daily feast (Bolen, 2000;
movement.
Gehrt et al., 2009; Way and Eatough, 2011).
People also directly feed many urban animals, from
Animal biology and movement house sparrows and mallards in the park to varied bird
Garbage and other human-provided food play a major species in the backyard. The density of birds in an area
role for many wildlife communities, both in city and increases with more home bird feeders, but apparently
suburb. Feeding people in a city requires huge amounts, not the diversity of birds (Fuller et al., 2008).
diverse types, and widely distributed food (Figure 9.10), Most vertebrate wildlife species have several well-
a portion of which becomes “food waste.” For instance, known types of movement. Four types, from shorter
the average family in the USA throws away about 0.6 kg to longer distance moved, are of primary importance
(1.3 pounds) of food per day, 14% of the total brought to fit with urban spatial patterns. Many vertebrate spe-
into the home (Adams and Lindsey, 2006). Considering cies have a territory, a small area around the den or nest
how many people are concentrated in a city, that high- that is defended, especially against other individuals of
lights a lot of garbage or rubbish in home garbage cans, the same species. Overall though, this territoriality is
restaurants and hotels, dumpster containers (for accu- less prevalent in urban areas than in natural and agri-
mulation and transport), dump trucks, and dumps cultural lands. The home range is a larger area covered
(tips, landfills). These are thoroughly scattered across in day-to-day movements, particularly in foraging for
the urban area. The numbers are for a rather consump- food. Animal dispersal refers to a sub-adult animal
tive and wasteful population, but which has somewhat moving away from its birth home range to mate and
efficient waste removal, transport, recycling, and dis- establish its own new home range. Migration refers to
posal processes. In cities of certain developing nations, the cyclic movement of certain animals that avoids a
people may be less consumptive and wasteful, but the stressful environment, such as winter, and provides
waste removal and disposal processes are often less effi- suitable living conditions throughout the cycle. Urban
cient, so rubbish is more widely spread over the area. ecologists usually focus on home range and dispersal.
The amount and dependability of the garbage food Territories and home ranges are strongly linked to
supply is observable in some dumps and dumpsters. urban features. Thus, lizards on tree trunks or walls in
Urban cats are predators and will attack small rats tropical cities typically display their brightly colored
(Adams and Lindsey, 2006). Meanwhile, large rats will inflatable throat (dewlap), and fiercely defend their
consume kittens. But with an abundant regular food territories against other intruding lizards. The size of
supply, it is easier for both species to consume garbage, home ranges for urban wildlife of course varies widely,
illustrated by about an 80-m radius (262 ft) for female
cats (110 m for males) in Brooklyn (New York), 1100
m radius for raccoons in Toronto, and several kilom-
eters for gulls flying between nest site and rubbish
dump (Haspel and Calhoon, 1991; Rosatte et al., 1991).
Home range sizes also seem to be highly dependent
on amount of food available. Thus, in London, red fox
home ranges are 25–40 ha (70–100 acres) in residen-
tial suburbs with ample food sources, and >100 ha in
industrial and government-building areas with less
food available (Gilbert, 1991).
Several other movement patterns are important in
urban areas, including escape from predators, court-
ship, and species range expansion or spread. Escape
from predators requires nearby protective cover vir-
Figure 9.10. Open market selling fruits and vegetables. tually wherever an animal moves. Raccoons have
Canterbury, UK. R. Forman photo. stormwater drains “everywhere” and readily escape

264
 Wildlife movement

cars, dogs and other predators. Many species appar- Therefore, living with and adjusting to urban wildlife is
ently most prefer shrub cover, which is often limited often the preferable option.
in urban areas. Courtship of urban wildlife seems to
be little studied though it presumably occurs mostly Urban pattern and wildlife movement
within a home range.
We start with (1) species sources and adjacencies, and
The geographic range of some species is continu-
then highlight (2) corridors and stepping stones.
ally expanding and/or shrinking, often northward or
southward, and cities at the border of a species range Species sources and adjacencies
therefore normally either lose or gain a species. The Normally, large contiguous natural areas or patches
arrival of an animal species from another city or con- serve as the major sources of native species moving
tinent, such as a non-native species, occurs frequently across the urban area. Typically, a large natural or
in cities (Elton, 1958; Davis, 2009). Yet the spread of semi-natural patch is either within or adjacent to the
these species within the urban area seems to be rather all-built metro area. Tiergarten Park in Berlin, Table
little studied. Mountain Park in Cape Town (South Africa), and
At times a single animal repeatedly causes a problem Reserva Natural Costanera Sur in Buenos Aires illus-
for people, or a wildlife population becomes abundant trate the large central species source. Table Mountain
enough to be annoying. Such animals are considered to Park is primarily a remnant of former more-extensive
be pests, and control measures such as killing or redu- vegetation, while Tiergarten and Costanera Sur are
cing food or habitat are considered (see Chapter 1). restored or reclaimed vegetation land. Large green
Ants and mice entering a kitchen may be trapped and patches adjacent to the metro area are illustrated in the
killed, if better approaches are not available. Brasilia and Seoul regions (Forman, 2008).
One control measure related to animal movement Natural land surrounding a city may be adjacent
involves translocation of the animal away to a distant to the metro area, as for Sapporo (Japan) and Kuala
site. If the animal is taken to a suitable habitat, other Lumpur (Malaysia), but is usually largely separated
animals present do not appreciate the newcomer, and from the metro area by agriculture, as for Santiago
the survivorship rate of such translocated animals is (Chile) and Portland (Oregon, USA) (Forman, 2008).
usually quite low (e.g., 10% within a year) (Bryant and In a few situations, a wide green wedge or lobe of the
Ismael, 1991). Some animals quickly leave for home surrounding natural land projects well into the city,
(homing), while others move about in the general as in Stockholm and Portland. Also a wide green river
vicinity of the release site. For example, white-tailed corridor may bisect a city, as for Edmonton (Canada).
deer (Odocoileus virginiana) were translocated from a In both the wide green wedge and corridor cases, the
Milwaukee (Wisconsin, USA) suburb and released in species source is therefore close to the core and much
good deer habitat, apparently several tens of kilom- of the city.
eters distant (Bryant and Ismael, 1991). Within a few Some cities, such as London and Chicago, have no
months the translocated deer settled at sites an average large natural land remaining in their region to serve as
of about 15 km (9 mi) from the release site, whereas the a species source. For such cities, the main source of spe-
resident suburban deer moved an average of only 1.3 cies is agricultural land, either at a heterogeneous fine
km. Canada geese (Branta canadensis) also sometimes scale (London) or a less-heterogeneous area of exten-
become pests in parks and airports, and have been sive cropland (Chicago). In general, farmland species
translocated elsewhere. Geese were translocated from do little better in urban areas than do natural-land
Minneapolis-St. Paul (Minnesota, USA) to sites 30–80 species. Large water bodies, which exhibit similar spa-
km distant and 1100 km distant (Oklahoma) (Cooper, tial relationships to cities as natural land, are sources
1987). Interestingly, more birds returned from the dis- of most aquatic species. The effect of nearby large nat-
tant site (not on the species’ migratory pathway from ural areas on ecological conditions in cities remains an
Minneapolis) than from the nearer sites with suitable important research frontier.
habitat. These large areas highlight the importance of adja-
In effect, translocated animals move much greater cencies, where one habitat or land use is ecologically
distances than do resident wildlife. However, the sur- affected by a different adjoining one (Hersperger and
vival rate of translocated animals is normally low. Forman, 2003; Dunford and Freemark, 2004; Luck
et al., 2004). Bird species from a nature reserve are
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 Urban wildlife

often present in an adjacent residential neighborhood, We see several apparent major inhibitors to move-
as a kind of “spillover effect” (Loss et al., 2009). Such an ment of the birds: (1) a large busy boulevard; (2) a com-
effect may extend some 0.5 km (1600 ft) from the nature mercial strip; (3) a canal about 40 m (125 ft) wide; (4)
reserve (but see Clergeau et al., 1998). Omnivores and a recent housing area; and (5) older housing primarily
seed-eaters seem more likely to cross a wooded patch with palms, pines, and/or small trees that are relatively
edge into a dense residential area than do insecti- unsuitable for the lizards. Urban patterns that would
vores and nectar-feeders (Hodgson et al., 2007). Thus, seem to facilitate or promote spread of the lizard are
over time the bird fauna of a botanical garden in Java also conspicuous: (1) lines of large or convoluted-bark
(Indonesia) came to “mirror” the birds of the changing street trees; (2) strips of similar-type trees aligned
surroundings (Diamond et al., 1987). Adjacency effects along back boundaries of house plots; (3) a sequence
may be strong and widespread. of suitable stepping-stone-like habitat patches, mostly
At a broader scale, plant species richness in forest as nearby small parks; (4) a large high-quality-habitat
patches of Barcelona is affected by whether agriculture patch as a source of lizards; (5) abundance of fig trees
or urbanization is adjacent (see Chapter 2) (Guirado (Ficus) and perhaps live oaks (Quercus virginiana); and
et al., 2006). One study found that bat activity was (6) small bridges mostly lined with vegetation over
higher in urban space adjacent to industrial/commer- canals.
cial area, lower if next to farmland, and higher if adja- Finer-scale conduits, filters, sources, sinks, and
cent to farmland containing a water body (Gehrt and habitats also exist, though are harder to detect. For
Chelsvig, 2003). However, butterfly species richness instance, in daytime a subtropical wide street has a
and composition in grassland patches near Boulder hot surface, so the diurnal lizard is likely to cross only
(Colorado, USA) did not correlate with the amount where trees on opposite sides cover the street with
of development in the surroundings (Collinge et al., cool shade. Cats and bicycles can be lethal, so avoid-
2003). In the same area a small songbird, plumbeous ing them is wise. Big hungry green lizards in occasional
vireo (Vireo plumbeus), has its nest “parasitized” more tree canopies are to be avoided. Longer-distance move-
[by cowbird (Molothrus ater), a larger bird] if an urban ment requires getting onto one of the fallen large palm
area is adjacent (Chace et al., 2003). Indeed, parasit- leaves or other plant waste that are regularly collected
ized nests were closer to the city boundary (average 3.0 by the city and transported to certain park and other
km = 1.8 mi) than natural unparasitized nests (4.9 km). locations. In this way the lizard quickly moves a few
The pattern of nesting problems for the songbird was kilometers. Yet, alas, the destination may or may not be
consistent with observations of cowbirds flying from suitable for lizard life.
the urban area into the adjacent natural land. Dispersed tiny patches of vegetation in a built area
seem to be important in enhancing conditions for both
Urban stepping stones for animal movement nesting/denning and movement by urban vertebrates.
In simplest terms green corridors are vegetated strips. For example, avian diversity within a park near Kobe
They function as conduit, filter or barrier, source, (Japan) correlated with the proportion of woodland
sink, and habitat (Forman 1995). Stepping stones are within 500 m of the edge of the park (Ichinose, 2005).
small green patches used sequentially in movement. Analogously, spatial patterns closely surrounding a
Networks of interconnected green corridors are also large woods in Dutch farmland strongly affect species
important for species movement (see Chapter 12). within the woods (Forman, 1995).
To envision fine-scale movement in an urban area, For the greater tit (Parus major) in nearby Osaka,
join me looking at how a small lizard species (Anolis a model calculates the probability of occurrence of the
cristatellus) might spread across Miami (Florida, USA). bird, based on the area of tree cover within 250 m (675
We are looking for spatial arrangements or features that ft) of a point, plus the number of other habitats within 1
function as facilitator patterns (enhancing movement) km (Natuhara, 2008; Natuhara and Hashimoto, 2009).
or inhibitor patterns (blocking or reducing movement). Thus, at least 1.8 ha of tree cover within 250 m (9% of
The species was introduced from Puerto Rico some the circle), and three other habitats within 1 km, are
35 years ago, defends territories mainly on lower trunks apparently needed to provide suitable habitat for the
of large trees, and has spread over a few square miles of species. The model suggests a tradeoff between the two
mostly residential area (Losos, 2009; Jason Kolbe and variables, so if tree cover is greater, fewer other habitats
Jonathan Losos, personal communications, 2011). are required.

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 Wildlife movement

(a) Figure 9.11. Predicted maximum

distance moved by songbirds between
vegetation stepping-stones in city.
Based on a model that compares four
resident bird species, different amounts
of woody vegetation in grid cells,
different potential movement distances
from a greenspace patch, and the spatial
arrangement of summer and winter
habitat. (a) Maps of Kyoto City, Japan
(b) (center) and surrounding forest (dark
area) for each bird species. S = summer
breeding habitat patches (also breeding
in the forest); W = winter habitat patches;
0 = species absent. (b) − = not considered
to be a suitable stepping stone; * =
estimated 250–300 m. 1 m = 3.28 ft.
Adapted from Hashimoto (2008).

Another model for four bird species in nearby related to urban forest cover (see equations, Appendix
Kyoto focuses more directly on movement, in this case B) (Marzluff and Ewing, 2008). Termites stream from
between summer breeding patches and winter habi- house to house, while cockroaches and rats run between
tats in the city (Figure 9.11) (Hashimoto, 2008). First, buildings through connected stormwater drainage
woody vegetation is measured in different-sized circles pipes. Red foxes in Britain apparently regularly move
around parks across the urban area. Then, presumably in and out of urban areas along railway corridors (Kolb,
based on empirical observation of birds leaving parks 1985). The broad-scale regional arrangement of land
in different directions, suitable stepping stones, and the use affects migratory species such as birds, which pref-
maximum distance a bird moves between them, are esti- erentially fly along natural and farmland areas, even
mated. The stepping stones, distances between them, well-vegetated suburbs, rather than highly urbanized
and potential routes identified are then compared with areas (Bonter et al., 2009; Loss et al., 2009).
the actual distribution of summer and winter patches. The expansion of “containerized shipping” in recent
One species (bush warbler) is predicted to move 200 decades probably alters wildlife, insect, and microbial
or 250 m from a point depending on which stepping- movements in a big way (Levinson, 2006; Gehrt et al.,
stone type is calculated to be present. A second species 2009; Way and Eatough, 2011; Conor O’Shea, personal
is expected to only move 100 m, and the other species communication, 2013). Species move long distances
250–300 m from a point. None of the model-predicted in the containers on ships to docks, then on flat-bed
distances was sufficient for any bird species to reach its trucks, and onward (perhaps via warehouses) to com-
winter habitats. Although movement patterns were not mercial and industrial centers. These destination cent-
successfully modeled, the approach was interesting and ers are widely spread across the urban area, and are
results lead to alternative hypotheses for urban move- readily colonized by the transported species. Urban
ment. The birds may be using finer-scale stepping- wildlife in turn are attracted to the containers and
stone patterns, or alternatively, broader-scale regional arriving species.
cues, in moving across the city. Bats add to the wildlife movement story. Most
Other studies provide added insight into wildlife insect-eating species apparently move along connect-
movement through cities. Species can be expected to ive elements in the landscape, such as tree lines, forest
reach a well-connected patch more than an isolated edges, lines of buildings, shrubby property boundaries,
patch (Snep et al., 2006; Murgui, 2007; Vergnes et al., and banks of streams and rivers (van Bohemen, 2005).
2012). Colonization and extinction processes are In the city some bat species are reported to use dozens

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 Urban wildlife

of roosts in trees or artificial structures to rest by day, Most Mayan cities, abandoned by AD 875, are today
and frequently move over time among 5–10 roosts, mainly covered with tropical rainforest. Desert cities
even when mothers have young (Figure 9.4a). A bat of history and pre-history in Africa, the Middle East,
thus regularly traces a shifting network that combines and Asia are today covered by sand. Rather than being
roosts, flight paths, and foraging areas. The changing permanent, perhaps cities usually have centuries-long
roosts and network of movement routes means that lifetimes.
bats can rapidly respond to the ever-changing patches First we explore wildlife changes at varied time
of prey abundance, such as mosquitoes, in the air. scales, from days to centuries. Then we address the
Finally in North America, commercial areas, high- question of whether urban animals have altered
density residential housing, and areas of single-family their behavior or genetically adapted to the urban
homes are commonly kept relatively separate, often by environment.
zoning. That requires substantial transportation, time,
and cost for people. An alternative is the traditional
mixed-use juxtaposition of land uses of both urban and Multi-scale changes and succession
rural character present in some Asian cities (Yokohari Imagine living near a greenspace with thousands of
et al., 2000). In parts of Kyoto and other Japanese cit- flying foxes. These large fruit bats, as in Melbourne
ies small productive rice paddies are partially or com- (Australia), sleep hanging from the trees during the
pletely surrounded by urban housing, plus streets for day and disappear foraging at night. The million and a
shopping. With mixed-use patterns including semi- half small bats roosting in a Texas bridge also dramat-
natural vegetation, a relatively high biodiversity of ically change locations daily (Keeley and Tuttle, 1999).
wildlife would coexist with people in urban areas. In Thousands of common pigeons in St. Mark’s Square
this way diverse resources are closer together so barri- in Venice, or blackbirds roosting in a park, make equally
ers to wildlife movement are normally less. dramatic daily fluctuations, but in this case they feed
In brief, foraging for food in home ranges accounts by day and sleep at night. However, these birds also
for the bulk of urban wildlife movements. Due to the change location seasonally in equally impressive num-
pattern of fragmented vegetation patches and a multi- bers. In spring the Venice Square is often flooded, so
tude of tiny vegetated spots, movement through built the pigeon population mainly feeds elsewhere until the
areas primarily uses stepping stones. Diffuse clusters waters recede. The blackbirds use their park as a winter
or arrays of plants and tiny vegetated sites may in effect roost, then move elsewhere for the reproductive period
serve as stepping stones. Species sources and adjacen- in spring and summer.
cies seem to be especially important in determining However, wildlife changes occur over several time
broad patterns of urban wildlife movement. scales. These daily and seasonal fluctuations are cyclic.
Normally non-cyclic changes occur over years, dec-
Changing urban wildlife and ades, centuries, and millennia. Few cities have lasted
millennia and relatively little is known about changes
adaptation in animals in a city over millennia or centuries. So we
Visualize a city after the people suddenly left. In focus on wildlife changes over years and decades, the
1986, following a massive explosion at the Chernobyl latter also being a typical time scale for ecological suc-
nuclear power plant, the population of the nearby cession on an urban site.
small city of Prypyat (Ukraine) was expelled from a Consider censusing birds of a park in Dortmund
27 km radius (17 mi). Ecological succession immedi- (Germany) eight times in 43 years (Abs and Bergen,
ately began, and species from the surroundings and 2008). A total of 33 species was recorded and the cen-
long-distance arrivals poured into the abandoned suses varied modestly from 16 to 23 species, with a
city area (Forman, 2008; Adams and Lindsey, 2011). slight increase over time. Ten bird species remained
Moose (Alces alces), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), in all recordings, which means that 23 birds (70% of
wild boar (Sus scrofa), fox (Vulpes vulpes), river otter the total) disappeared, appeared, or both during the
(Lutra canadensis) and rabbits (Lepus europaeus) are four decades. Five species (15%) were only seen once,
now observed in the exclusion zone, but apparently and two species twice. Five species from the first cen-
not in most of the land just beyond where people con- sus disappeared at some point and were not seen again.
tinue living. Six birds were only present for a period in the middle.

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 Changing urban wildlife and adaptation

Nine species appeared sometime in the middle years Ecological succession in urban areas generally
and remained to the end. The “turnover rate,” i.e., the occurs over years and decades. Invertebrates on the soil
proportion of bird species from the first census that surface of brick-rubble sites in London, such as many
is present in the last census, was 42% for the whole vacant lots and some soil-contaminated brownfields,
period. Turnover rates between successive surveys illustrate certain patterns of animals in succession
(about 5–6 years apart) ranged widely, from 5% to 24% (Gilbert, 1991) (Figure 9.12). In sites of 0–1, 4–6, and
for individual species. 12–15 years age, species richness increased markedly
The population density [expressed as number from the first to second phase (15 to 36 invertebrate spe-
of bird territories per 10 ha (25 acres)] also changed cies/taxa), but only slightly increased from the second
markedly over the four decades (Abs and Bergen, to third phases (36 to 40 species). In contrast, total
2008). Over time the total number of territories var- abundance of animals markedly increased through all
ied from 98 to 180. Some of the variation in population stages (ca. 103 to 335 to >785 individuals). Sixty per-
density was due to fluctuations in territory number by cent of the species in the first stage remained to the end,
the ten species always present. The species that disap- while 40% of the species disappeared. Fifteen species
peared, appeared, or both were almost always at low colonized the youngest sites, 21 new species colonized
density. Thus, the number of these temporary species the 4–6-year sites, and 14 new species colonized the
present also contributed to the variation in population oldest sites, indicating that colonization continues, but
density in the park. Note that species appearances and fluctuates, during succession. Of species in the first two
disappearances at this time scale could also be termed stages, 71% increased in abundance, and 55% of those
colonizations and extinctions (MacArthur and Wilson, in the last two stages increased in abundance.
1967; Marzluff and Ewing, 2008). In effect, the trees in Changes in species composition also describe suc-
this urban park change very slowly over four decades, cession. At the beginning of this urban rubble succes-
while the avian community is highly dynamic. sion, many money-spiders parachute in on their silk
Shorebirds censused in spring five times in 50 years threads, to be followed by generalist winged beetles and
on tidal mud flats of an Osaka park show some similar moth/butterfly larvae (Gilbert, 1991) (Figure 9.12).
patterns of variation (Natuhara, 2008). Species rich- By years 4–6 small accumulations of soil are present.
ness varied from 29 to 36, and 20 species remained in These help attract a few species of woodlouse, cara-
all censuses. These are mostly flocking birds in spring bid (predator) ground beetles, slugs, millipedes, cen-
migration, and the total number of birds varied enor- tipedes, and moth/butterfly larvae. By the 12–15-year
mously, from 226 to 3148, a 14-fold difference. Large stage, the soil is more continuous and compact with a
flocks of a single species were common, so in each cen- root mat. Large soil invertebrates such as earthworms
sus one species represented 24–46% of the total. Yet and ants are abundant, along with a diversity of spiders.
different species were most abundant in four of the five The predator-and-prey relationships through the suc-
censuses. No significant increase or decrease over time cessional sequence become more numerous, and the
for either species richness or abundance was evident. food web more complex. Clearly the soil invertebrates
Thus, while overall community measures of richness interact in many ways with the changing vegetation,
and abundance often suggest modest change, individ- and also vertebrate predators become more diverse and
ual species populations may be appearing and disap- abundant over time.
pearing, as well as fluctuating wildly. “Anthropogenic climate change” seems to also
Variation is lower when groups of similar species mainly produce major effects over decades (even years)
are lumped. For example, annual winter bird-count (IPCC, 2007). As urban heat gradually increases,
data for 7 years in Edmonton (Canada) can be grouped warm-weather species may colonize urban areas pre-
as waterfowl, birds of prey, owls, woodpeckers, finch- viously inaccessible due to cold. One listing of climate
like birds, and so forth (Wein, 2006). Total species rich- change effects directly on urban wildlife (ignoring
ness and abundance did not change significantly over broad issues such as sea-level rise, habitat loss and
the 7-year period. Of the 15 species or species groups degradation, spreading development, and so on) high-
identified, only one showed a significant decline or lights the following (Wilby and Perry, 2006): spread of
rise (house sparrow declined). Indeed, jays and crows disease and pests; summer drought stress on wetland
(Corvidae) remained amazingly constant over the and woodland wildlife; altered nesting/denning time;
7 years (3075 to 3676 individuals). invasive and naturalized species favored; less snow and

269
 Urban wildlife

Figure 9.12. Invertebrates in ecological

succession on brick rubble sites. Based
on collecting and counting organisms
in or on the soil surface of a 1-m2 plot in
each of four sites for each time period.
* Excludes money spiders. ** Results
for earthworms and ants given as very
rare, rare, occasional, and common; thus
numbers plotted are only relative for
illustration. Note that particular species
within an invertebrate group may
colonize or disappear at different times.
Sheffield, UK. Adapted from Gilbert
(1991).

longer frost-free periods. Some species may deal with we focus on the way wildlife changes. Almost every-
these changes by altering behavior, others by genetic- thing characteristic of urban wildlife differs from that
ally adapting, and still others may disappear. for non-urban animals. Do the urban animals simply
Finally, at a decades-to-centuries scale, compari- change their behavior in the urban environment, or do
sons of the reptiles and amphibians in Philadelphia and they genetically adapt to it?
Washington, D.C. over time are revealing (Grant et al., Behavioral adjustment or change (or even “adapta-
2011). In Philadelphia, records in 1789 and 1999 show tion”) refers to an animal altering its activity or response
reptile diversity dropping from 25 to 11, and amphibians when encountering different environmental condi-
from 16 to 10. In Washington from 1950 to 2007, reptile tions. A peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) changes
species richness decreased from 29 to 17, and amphib- from nesting on a rock cliff to nesting on a building or
ians from 20 to 13. These are rather consistent 40–50% large bridge in the city. Such a species is pre-adapted
declines. All individual groups decreased in diversity for urban conditions, with genes suitable for tolerat-
(lizards, turtles, snakes, frogs/toads, and salamanders), ing or thriving in diverse environments, including the
but the sharpest drops were for lizards and snakes. urban (the species has high “phenotypic plasticity”).
Thus, over varied time periods, we can recognize Behavioral adjustment refers to an individual animal
a general sequence of species responses to change. altering its behavior. Physiological change normally
Species richness seems to change the least (signifi- accompanies behavioral change (Evans, 2010; Brearley
cantly increase or decrease). Total abundance of ani- et al., 2012).
mals varies somewhat more. Groups of similar species Some bats switch roosts from holes in trees to holes
may typically change still a bit more. Species compos- in buildings. Blackbirds sing higher-pitched songs in
ition seems to change considerably, even fluctuate. cities than in non-urban areas, presumably a response
And the abundance or density of individual species to low-pitched traffic and other urban noise (Nemeth
populations tends to fluctuate the most. Short-lived and Brumm, 2009). In the Eastern USA, chickadees
animals, mainly small ones, often fluctuate markedly. (Parus) in winter have adjusted their feeding behav-
Long-lived plants (e.g., some trees) may change little in ior from seeds of conifer cones in forest to seeds on
diversity and density. Few long-lived animals such as suburban bird feeders. Mockingbirds (Mimus poly-
turtles and eagles thrive in urban areas. glottos) changed from depending on fruits of many
woody plants in rural areas to fruits of a new subur-
ban rose species (Rosa multiflora). Instead of their
Genetics and adaptation natural diverse diet, coyotes (Canis latrans) moving
Change is the norm, constancy the surprise. Although into suburbs consume house cats, raccoons, and rats,
something that remains constant warrants study, here while cougars (Felis concolor) along the edge of housing

270
 Changing urban wildlife and adaptation

developments in California add domestic dogs and cats and house flies (Musca domestica) and German cock-
to their diet. roaches (Blatella germanica) very high resistance, to
The primary alternative to behavioral adjust- several modern insecticides commonly used in urban
ment is genetic adaptation to the urban environment environments. Also termites and ants have increased
(Parmesan, 2006; Evans, 2010; Marzluff, 2012). In this insecticide resistance. These species are widely con-
case, over generations the population becomes more sidered to be pests in urban areas and are extensively
fit, or better able to live in the new urban conditions. treated with insecticides. They are also generalists with
Animals, such as invertebrates, with shorter life cycles wide environmental tolerance. Most invertebrate pests
or generation times in older cities are more likely to depend on suitable habitats in small isolated urban
have adapted. Since most cities are only decades or locations.
centuries old, urban genetic adaptation is effectively The house sparrow (Passer domestica) has spread
an evolutionary adjustment within a limited number across North America in a century and a half (Johnston
of generations (Ditchkoff et al., 2006). Evolutionary and Selander, 2008). A series of different color and
biologists increasingly recognize rapid evolutionary size traits, in widely dispersed populations, together
change, including its genetic adaptations, driven by strongly suggest genetic differentiation and adaptation
natural selection. in this time period. Wing length of adult males is signifi-
Consider the 100 wild-tufted capuchin (white- cantly greater in Edmonton (North-Central Canada)
faced) monkeys living in a single 158-ha (400-acre) than in California cities (Figure 9.13). Bill length of
woods in the city of Ribeirao Preto (near Sao Paulo, adult males is significantly longer in Honolulu, and
Brazil) (Amaral et al., 2005). Two relatively separate shorter in California, than it is in Mexican cities. The
groups of 60 and 40 animals coexist in this greenspace. reflectance of feathers on female breasts at all visible
Genetic analysis indicates that the genetic diversity of wavelengths is significantly greater for California birds
the two groups only differs by 1.9%, indicating that than for Mexico City and Honolulu birds. These geo-
they are of the same population. Also, despite being graphic differences are similar to those for native spe-
isolated in a single patch surrounded by urbanization cies with readily identifiable types or races. The authors
where one would expect considerable inbreeding, the suggest that racial differentiation in this sparrow spe-
population has high genetic diversity, indicating adap- cies may occur in only 50 years. The apparent genetic
tation to a wide range of environmental conditions. change in sparrow populations across the continent
Interesting and surprising patterns appear for wildlife relates not to rural-to-urban differences, but probably
in an urban patch. to “genetic drift.” The urban species was separated in
To test between the behavioral adjustment and different climatic/environmental conditions where
genetic adaptation hypotheses, researchers studied successfully reproducing populations became genetic-
urban and non-urban populations of the common ally more distinct over time.
European blackbird (Turdus merula) (Partecke et al., Also, the common pigeon (rock dove, Columba
2004; Partecke and Gwinner, 2007). The reproductive livia) differs in size and shape traits from the wild native
gonads develop in urban birds 3 weeks earlier than in rock dove (Gilbert, 1991). In the London population
non-urban forest birds. Researchers then reared birds seven color varieties have been recognized. These could
from both populations in constant environmental con- have arrived from other locations, or may have evolved
ditions. If gonad development were the same time in on site over two millennia from a small Roman city to
both, it would suggest behavioral adjustment, whereas today’s megacity.
if urban birds developed gonads earlier, probably it is The house mouse in Tunisia has two identifiable
genetically determined. Gonads developed at the same races or morphs based on chromosome differences
time. The blackbirds were generalists with phenotypic (Chatti et al., 1999). One is all over the country, while
plasticity, and had not genetically adapted for this the second is only in the oldest sections (medinas) of
trait. towns and cities, where the first one is absent. Although
At least 500 species of insects and mites of urban the environmental conditions differ markedly, popula-
areas have developed insecticide resistance (Ehler and tion densities differ little. The overlap in spatial distri-
Frankie, 1978; Carpenter, 1983; Robinson, 1996). This bution of the two mouse races is commonly <500 m.
is genetic adaptation by small many-generation ani- Amphibians also adapt to urban conditions. Within
mals. For instance, fleas have developed high resistance, a large central park in Montreal, four populations of

271
 Urban wildlife

Figure 9.13. Adaptive variations in size

and color of house sparrow in widely
dispersed cities. Passer domesticus.
Histograms = average. Reflectance
is for middle of the visible range (550
nanometers wavelength). Bird size
attributes for adult males; reflectance for
adult females. 1 mm = 0.0039 in; 1 gram =
0.035 ounce. Adapted from Johnston and
Selander (2008).

eastern red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) et al., 2003). Despite origin, the urban boxes were found
live in forest patches separated by roads, cemeteries, and to have less genetic differentiation into subpopulations
buildings (Noel et al., 2007). These urban salamanders than the rural foxes. The species continues to move into
were compared genetically with four populations out the city, so there is considerable incoming gene flow.
in non-urban continuous forest. Individual salaman- Also, the city fox population is expanding rapidly.
ders of the city park had lower genetic diversity than A review of genetic adaptations and urban wildlife
those of the non-urban forest. The fragmented urban- (Evans, 2010) explores evidence for urban–rural and
park populations were more genetically differentiated other differences in “species traits” (abundance, body
into subpopulations, whereas the continuous forest size, communication, physiology, disease risk), and
populations were genetically rather homogeneous. “demographic traits” (timing of reproduction, repro-
Thus, habitat fragmentation within a large urban park ductive success, survival). For population genetic
is apparently sufficient to cause genetic differences structure, worldwide evidence indicates the following
(probably related to genetic drift). significant effects:
A somewhat similar study of a common urban frog, 1. Change in genetic diversity of urban populations:
Rana temporaria, found genetic differentiation for dif- 1 moss; 3 vascular plants; 1 insect; 7 amphibians; 2
ferent subpopulations in town ponds (averaging 2.3 km reptiles; 3 birds; 3 mammals
apart) to be greater than for subpopulations in much
2. Divergence of urban and rural populations: 1 moss;
more isolated rural ponds (averaging 41 km apart)
2 vascular plants; 5 amphibians; 1 reptile; 3 birds; 2
(Hitchings and Beebee, 1997). Although the town frog
mammals
population was apparently not declining, evidence of
3. Divergence within urban populations: 1 moss;
inbreeding depression (and genetic drift) was present,
2 vascular plants; 3 amphibians; 1 reptile; 2
and the genetic diversity of individual frogs was low.
mammals
This suggests that, although no obvious major barrier
separated town ponds, the frogs did not often cross 4. No significant differences reported for 2 vascular
between them. plants and 5 insects relative to #1; 1 reptile
Even red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in urban areas may relative to #3
differ genetically from those in surrounding rural areas. Overall, the evidence for population genetic differ-
Only 15 years before being studied, two separate groups ences is still limited though growing, and includes all
of foxes colonized Zurich (Switzerland) (Wandeler major wildlife groups.

272
 Changing urban wildlife and adaptation

A further review pinpoints 2 insects, 9 birds, and “inbreeding depression,” and “hybridization.” It is too
1 mammal species that have genetically evolved in early to know the relative importance or frequency
response to specific human activities within urban of such changes, and under which conditions and
areas (Marzluff, 2012). The evolutionary processes gen- which animals each mechanism would be prevalent.
etically changing these species are selection (11 cases), For instance, although the urban heat island effect is
plasticity (5), and drift (4) (some species have more primarily at night, studies of possible adaptation by
than one process). The selective forces identified are nocturnal species are scarce indeed (Parmesan, 2006;
primarily microclimate (including temperature), pol- Angilletta et al., 2007). Sometimes we have strong
lution, predation, new food, and low-frequency noise. indirect evidence for genetic change, yet the expect-
So, both behavioral adjustment and genetic adap- ation must remain a hypothesis. It also appears that
tation are common for urban wildlife. In addition to decades of living in urban conditions is sufficient for
adaptation through natural selection, other mecha- genetic change in vertebrates, while invertebrates may
nisms of genetic change occur, including genetic drift, often adapt in years.

273
 Part III Urban features

Human structures
Chapter

10
The outcome of the cities will depend on the race contrast to the irregular curves, or vice versa. Indeed,
between the automobile and the elevator, and anyone the two forms are well intertwined in urban areas.
who bets on the elevator is crazy. Buildings, roads, and their surfaces come and go,
Frank Lloyd Wright, quoted on Public Broadcasting while the city carries on. Construction makes a build-
System, May 27, 1974 ing; degradation, destruction or demolition creates
rubble. Ribbon-making machines lay concrete and
Rome did not look like the capital of a great empire … tarmac/asphalt streets and highways; traffic and wea-
no broad avenues and few open spaces … Few streets ther then pound the ways to pieces, sending the ribbon
were wide enough to allow vehicles to pass one another machines out to unroll yet another smooth surface.
and most of them were unpaved. … [T]o eliminate day- Cracks and crevices endlessly appear in and around
time traffic jams … the night clattered with the cacoph- our structures. Water, soil particles, microbes, spores,
ony of wooden carts … The rich lived in houses with no seeds, and invertebrates, in an everlasting “rain,”
outside windows … rooms were grouped around one quickly find, fill, and widen these cracks.
or more open-air courtyards … Shops lined many of The persistence or sustainability of structures
the main streets … Rome was a city of horrible smells. effectively results from using four “principles of good
Rubbish and sewage, even occasional human corpses, design,” described in Roman times by the architect
were tipped into the street. Passersby were so often Vitruvius for buildings. The structure: (1) fits well in the
hit by the contents of chamber pots emptied from the surroundings (i.e., has both positive effects on the sur-
second floor or the roof that laws were passed … City rounding area and vice versa); (2) is aesthetic or inspir-
life was made bearable only by the ready availability of ational; (3) is constructed well using good materials;
water. Four aqueducts … strode across the land, bring- and (4) works well for people. In densely built areas,
ing fresh, clean water … roads and buildings are overwhelmingly designed by
engineers and architects. In less-dense areas, most road
Anthony Everitt, The Life of Rome’s First Emperor
construction involves engineers, while many buildings
Augustus, 2006
are in essence designed by contractors and residents,
Once again we explore the core of urban ecology. without architects. Analogously, landscape architects
This time built structures, interacting with organisms especially contribute to design in dense areas, and sel-
and the physical environment, play the leading roles dom in low-density areas.
(Bartuska and Young, 1994). Concentrated urban roads Not surprisingly, numerous interactions link
and buildings represent a pinnacle of human engineer- organisms, built structures, and the physical environ-
ing and architecture, indeed construction. ment in densely built areas. Yet important frontiers for
Hard straight lines, rectangles, grids, and other understanding remain. For example, how important
patterns close to Euclid’s geometry predominate. Such is vegetation on walls (green walls) in affecting air-
patterns, providing many benefits to people packed borne particulate pollution, summer air temperature,
together, contrast with more natural lands worldwide and animal habitat around streets? Can green roofs
mainly displaying the soft curves of nature. Yet even the not only improve water and temperature conditions,
casual observer will notice and feel nature throughout but also serve as an “archipelago” for habitat, foraging,
the densest parts of city centers, commercial areas, and and migrating species in an extensive built area? How
high-rise residential areas. Here the hard lines provide important is the enormous diversity of species in ever-

275
 Human structures

changing house plots (yards, gardens), which in turn

reflect the diversity of residents who add, eliminate,
and re-arrange their habitats and species? What is the
relative importance of railways and highways as eco-
logical barriers, connectors, and habitats around cit-
ies? Such tough intriguing questions abound in urban
areas.
Most of the ecological dimensions of roads and
buildings have been introduced or described in pre-
ceding chapters. This chapter pulls threads together
to highlight the roads, buildings, and associated struc-
tures. Five broad topics are presented in order: (1)
railways; (2) roads and associated features; (3) hard
surfaces and cracks; (4) house plot, garden, lawn; and
(5) buildings. Figure 10.1. Commuter train, railway, and gravel bed with
essentially no plants. Railway bank (left) with soil erosion mainly

Railways related to vegetation cutting under powerline; (right) with little

managed trees and shrubs. Outer suburb of Boston, near Henry
Railways and trains began between London and David Thoreau’s 1840s cabin (and periodic walking route home for
dinner). R. Forman photo.
Manchester in 1825–30 (Lay, 1992), so plants and
animals have had more than 18 decades to adjust or
adapt to the distinctive environmental conditions (ballast) (Gilbert, 1991; Carpenter, 1994; Wheater,
around tracks. Railways for the transport of people and 1999; Cederlunde et al., 2008). The highly porous bed
goods permeate urban areas, and interconnect to form is typically raised above the adjoining surfaces to min-
remarkably different networks. In all cases, the central imize water accumulation. A cross-section of a typical
strip of the transport corridor is intensively used and urban “rail corridor” illustrates considerable habitat
maintained (Carpenter, 1994). Adjoining ditches or heterogeneity: (1) outer fence/wall/bank lined with
pipes accelerate water drainage away, and ditches may woody plants; (2) open flattish strip; (3) ditch; (4) slope/
contain many wetland-related species. The outer edges embankment of the raised rail bed; (5) nutrient-poor
of most urban railways receive relatively little mainten- top surface (about 3 m wide per track) of rail bed; and
ance attention, and thus typically contain considerable the same types on the other side. The rail-bed slopes
and rather distinctive biodiversity. facing opposite directions, such as on sunny and shady
Overall these “way” corridors are quite straight and sides, tend to have different vegetation.
narrow, often forming a trough through higher adjoin- An abundance of distinctive structures along an
ing land usually of buildings and/or trees (Figure 10.1). urban railway, including posts, culverts, bridges, and
Corridor connectivity is essentially complete; no gaps stations, provides special habitats for diverse spe-
exist. Usually the five corridor functions – conduit, cies. A wide “rail yard” (marshalling yard) for stor-
barrier/filter, source, sink, and habitat – are all eco- ing, servicing, and redirecting trains may contain
logically important (Forman, 1995; van der Grift and rich biodiversity, especially of non-native species
Kuijsters, 1998). (Muhlenbach, 1979). Although herbiciding generally
Railway ecology is much less studied than road ecol- limits plant cover, a rail yard is best considered as a
ogy (Forman, 1995; Spellerberg, 2002 Forman et al., large greenspace rather than built space.
2003; Trocme et al., 2003; Davenport and Davenport, Trains for freight, commuting, and inter-city travel
2006). Nevertheless, the somewhat distinctive flora use the tracks, often relatively frequently. That means
along railways, including urban ones, has been of repeated loud short-duration noise, vibration that com-
considerable ecological interest (Thellung, 1905; pacts adjoining soils, and brief strong airflows in the
Messenger, 1968; Muhlenbach, 1979; Gilbert, 1991). direction of train movement. Usually the top surface of
In urban areas a rail corridor with two tracks is the rail bed is frequently and intensively herbicided to
common (Figure 10.1). The steel rails are attached to minimize plant growth, and the herbicides also affect
ties (sleepers) set in a rail bed (cess) of gravel or cinders vegetation on the rail-bed slopes and beyond (Gilbert,

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 Railways

1991; DeSanto and Smith, 1993; Wheater, 1999). Trains water flowing through it. Thus, a clean-water supply or
also spread pollutants along rail corridors, including rare-species habitat near a railway may be at risk.
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and coal dust, depending Unlike highway traffic noise, train noise is louder,
on the fuel used. Some trains spread grain and other briefer, and less frequent. Effectively noise levels in
seeds along urban tracks, and some emit wastewater decibels increase exponentially with speed (Pronello,
from open-pipe toilets. Chemical spills happen. 2003).Apparently at low speeds (e.g., <50 km/h) train
Hydrology is especially critical for stable railway noise is mainly produced by the acceleration and decel-
beds, so rail beds are of coarse material (DeSanto and eration of diesel engines, and by rolling wheels on rails
Smith, 1993). Ditches alongside are designed to drain with a rough worn surface. Rolling on rails is the pri-
water out of and away from a rail bed. Wetland plant mary noise source at medium speed (ca. 50–275 km/h),
cover is usually considerably less than that along road and aerodynamic noise at high speed outside cities.
ditches, due to the porous substrate, herbiciding, and Electric trains are much quieter than diesel and steam
shower of pollutants. engines, and are more common in urban areas.
The outer edges of rail corridors vary considerably, Urban wildlife seem to adjust behaviorally to train
but overall contain relatively high biodiversity since noise, though this is little studied. Frequent com-
they escape most herbiciding and other maintenance muter trains might have noise effects analogous to the
activity (Tikka et al., 2000). Adjoining land owners chronic traffic noise from busy highways. A 61 m (200
often dump various solid-waste and yard-waste mate- ft) width of forest adjoining a rail corridor is reported
rials into the corridor edge, a process that adds a diver- to only reduce noise levels from 79 to 73 decibels (dBA)
sity of seeds, animals, and plants (ergasiophygophytes, (Marsh, 2005). Very little noise reduction was recorded
for terminology lovers). But also adjacent properties at low frequencies [<1000 Hz (hertz)], whereas high-
have a rich variety of plants and animals that colonize frequency noise (4000–8000 Hz) dropped by 18–33%.
or use the rail-corridor edge. The leaf litter layer of the forest may be important in
The diverse structures along the railway are effect- decreasing noise transmission.
ively different microhabitats. For example, concrete The long-distance dimension of railways may also
posts may contain crustose lichens, and stations may affect vegetation and plants. Thus, many railways are
be special sites for certain ferns (Gilbert, 1991). Rail connected to ports and to warehouses, both being
sidings and unused track areas with shrubs and small important sources or entry-points for non-native spe-
trees are often nest sites for birds (Laurie, 1979). cies (see Figure 3.2). Also, many industrial areas con-
Railway corridors are distinctly polluted (Stengel nected by rail contain pollutant-resistant species that
et al., 2006). Diesel engines, as well as coal-burning may thrive along rail corridors. Trains carrying grain
ones in parts of China, Eastern Europe, and else- and other seeds often spread some seeds along tracks,
where, emit significant amounts of CO, CO2, NOx, and the frequent stopping and starting of trains in urban
SOx and particulates. On a per-kilometer or per-train areas shakes seeds loose from the train cars (wagons/
(per-km) basis, pollution rates are very high. Yet on a carriages). The Sudgelande Park in eastern Berlin has
per-person or per-ton (per km) basis, emission rates a rich and unique assemblage of plants largely origin-
are very low. Electric engines, particularly in urban ating in this way from across the former Soviet Union
areas, mean that the combustion pollutants occur and (Kowarik and Langer, 2005). The uninterrupted open
produce effects near power facilities rather than along central portion of a rail corridor means that turbulent
the railway. and vortex airflows readily lift seeds and spores from
However, heavy metals come from wear and corro- surfaces. Furthermore, strong streamline airflows, plus
sion. Toxic wood preservatives spread from ties, poles, the movement of trains, readily transport wind-borne
and other wooden structures. Oils and lubricants are seeds along the rail corridor.
used in many railway operations. Herbicides, which Early successional habitats predominate in rail
vary in persistence and toxicity, are generally used in corridors, basically for train safety. Thus, mainten-
high amounts. For example, rail beds represent the lar- ance activities minimize the presence of plants and soil
gest use of herbicides in Germany (Muhlenbach, 1979; atop the rail bed, limit woody plants and soil on the
Torstensson et al., 2005; Stengel et al., 2006). Soil micro- rail-bed slopes, and keep woody plants low in the ditch
bial activity seems to be especially low. This concentra- and adjoining open portions of the corridor (Tikka
tion of pollutants contaminates the soil, as well as local et al., 2000). Trees mainly survive in the outer corridor

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 Human structures

edges and on abandoned sidings. Thus, high micro- a potential important connector for native species
habitat diversity describes both the normal cross- enriching the city. Slight evidence suggests that moose
section and the lengthwise dimension of a railway (Alces) enter Boston suburbs and wild boar (Sus) enter
corridor (Muhlenbach, 1979; Gilbert, 1991; Cilliers Berlin in this way. Within the metro area, rail corridors
and Bredenkamp, 1998). are often connected to greenspaces, hence providing
Most rail-corridor plants are tolerant of low-nutri- valuable connectivity for wildlife movement.
ent soils (Muhlenbach, 1979). A particularly thorough Trains themselves carry and spread seeds, spores,
study of plants of rail corridors and rail-yards in St. and various animals (Wheater, 1999). The straightness
Louis (USA) found hundreds of species, of which 393 of railways favors the movement of seeds, spores, and
were spontaneous (adventive, unplanted). Many spon- certain invertebrates by wind. Grassland and mari-
taneous plants were non-native species and considered time plants have moved along railways (Gilbert, 1991;
to be naturalized rather than invasive, since they had Tikka et al., 2001). Coyotes (Canis latrans) and foxes
apparently reproduced and spread successfully in the (Vulpes vulpes) have moved along railways, the latter
railway habitats over many years. Annuals represented perhaps in dispersal (Trewhella and Harris, 1990; Way
65% of the total railway flora, perennial herbaceous and Eatough, 2006). Other mammals and various rep-
plants 27%, and woody plants 8%. Other studies con- tiles/amphibians move along rail corridors (van der
firm the relatively high proportion of non-native spe- Grift, 1999). Many additional species are observed
cies in rail corridors (Gilbert, 1991; Williams et al., in the urban corridor, but have not been studied for
2005; Hansen and Clevenger, 2005). Some such species movement patterns (Huijser and Clevenger, 2006). The
apparently spread into adjoining land, though this is apparently important ecological conduit function of
little studied in urban areas. rail corridors contrasts with the rather limited wildlife
Wildlife also benefit from urban rail corridors, movement along urban roads.
both as scarce greenspace and for habitat connectiv- The barrier or filter effect on urban wildlife attempt-
ity. The microhabitat heterogeneity is an attractant. ing to move across a railway corridor relates both to
For example, the open sun may be used for basking by physical and behavioral factors. The physical structure
reptiles, train-killed animals (carrion) attract scaven- of an open area, ditches, slopes, rail-bed top, and rails
gers, hedgerow wildlife often use the outer corridor represents concentrated habitat diversity, and doubt-
edges, the rail-bed slopes attract tunneling animals, less deters many species (van der Grift, 1999; Takehiko
and droppings of grain and seed along the track attract et al., 2005). But also, the train noise, light, pollution,
sparrows, small mammals, and other species (Edgar and frequency, plus human maintenance activities,
van der Grift, personal communication, 2009). Beetles, behaviorally inhibit some species.
butterflies, and other invertebrates may thrive, espe- Songbirds in Calgary (Canada) crossed a railway
cially if herbicides are limited to the upper surface of more readily than they did either a road or a river
the rail bed (Croxton et al., 2005; Saarinen et al., 2005; (Tremblay and St. Clair, 2009). However, bees in the
Small et al., 2006). Boston Region rarely crossed a railway corridor, even
Animal mortality due to trains may be of limited where a patch of flowering shrubs used for feeding
importance in urban areas. Certainly urban birds was on opposite sides (Bhattacharya et al., 2003). Bees
and mammals are hit by trains (van der Grift, 1999; mainly crossed when nectar on one side apparently
Spellerberg, 2002), but most such species reproduce became scarce. Many non-urban studies have shown
much faster than trains can kill animals. Mortality may that wildlife readily move through culverts, tunnels,
result from a train’s high speed and quiet approach, and overpasses in crossing railways, and what the key
as well as the long interval since the preceding train design and ecological factors are for successful cross-
(Seiler and Helldin, 2006). Removing trees and shrubs ing (Hunt et al., 1987; DeSanto and Smith, 1993; Yanes
may be more effective in reducing train-kills than is the et al., 1995; Rodriguez et al., 1996; van der Grift, 1999;
case for roadkills (Jaren et al., 1991). Clevenger et al., 2001; Iuell et al., 2003).
The “conduit function” for movement of species In urban areas, the surrounding land usually con-
along an urban rail corridor appears to be relatively trasts markedly with the rail corridor, which in turn is
important ecologically. Railways slice through a metro an attractant or a deterrent for wildlife. Also, adjoin-
area, typically connecting city center with agricultural ing land uses change markedly and endlessly along
and natural lands outside (Laurie, 1979), thus being a rail corridor, which is much more homogeneous.

278
 Roads and associated features

Since rail corridors are relatively straight, adja- that are rather little-used by most animals. Still, the
cent wetlands, ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams are two green strips in the urban sky would be interesting
frequently sliced or edged by the railway, with con- to evaluate for their local, as well as city-wide, wildlife
sequent hydrological and pollution effects. The inten- and biodiversity value.
sity of corridor management also varies spatially and
temporally. Roads and associated features
The extremely species-diverse Sudgelande Nature
We first introduce the varied types of urban/subur-
Park in Berlin, as mentioned above, effectively repre-
ban roads and their ecological features. Second, street
sents a former rail-yard. Elsewhere sidings and disused
and roadside trees plus associated plants and animals
railroads covered with shrubs and small trees support
are the focus. Third, we consider the objects moving,
many animals including nesting birds (Laurie, 1979).
from vehicles to pedestrians. Finally, a diverse array of
Where whole rail lines have been abandoned, some
objects associated with urban roads is briefly consid-
have then been converted to walking and/or biking
ered. More detailed analyses of the ecological compo-
trails (Ryan and Winterich, 1993; Searns, 1995; Poague
nents are presented in the preceding chapters on urban
et al., 2000; Flink et al., 2001). Wildlife seem to readily
air, plants, wildlife, and so forth.
cross such trails (Poague et al., 2000), though wildlife
movement along urban trails heavily used by people
and often dogs may be quite limited. Wildlife found Highways, roads, streets, networks
along the trails may be mostly resident species, with Road ecology, elucidating the interactions of roads and
considerable movement between trail and surrounding vehicles with soil, air, water, plants, and animals, is a
lands (Searns, 1995). small relatively distinct field and still rapidly growing
Two examples of disused elevated railways, having (Figure 10.2) (Forman et al., 2003; Trocme et al., 2003;
been converted to walkways with ample plantings, are Iuell et al., 2003; Forman, 2004a; National Research
wonderfully evocative: the Promenade Plantée in Paris Council, 2005a; Davenport and Davenport, 2006).
and High Line in New York City (Kellert et al., 2008). Non-urban roads have received emphasis, though
The plants seem to be mostly horticultural varieties some studies focus on urban roads.

Figure 10.2. Distances of ecological

effects from roads with vehicles.
Horizontal box or short vertical line
indicates approximate range of average
and maximum distances from a road that
significant ecological effects have been
recorded. Upper portion adapted from
Forman et al. (2003). Lower portion on
grassland birds from Forman et al. (2002),
Forman (2004). O = occasional presence
of birds; R = regular breeding of birds; n.s.
= not significant.

279
 Human structures

Urban highways Slowly reproducing predator species such as some rep-

Multi-lane limited-access highways (e.g., expressway, tiles and large mammals, plus some amphibians, seem
motorway, autoroute, freeway) mostly radiate out- to be most at risk to urban roadkill.
ward from a city, though ring highways are prominent A rich assortment of mitigation structures is used
around most large cities (Forman, 2008). Portions of worldwide to facilitate the movement of animals across
these highways may be elevated to avoid disrupting roads (Forman et al., 2003; Iuell et al., 2003; Trocme
local urban traffic, to permit floodwaters to pass harm- et al., 2003;). Impressive wildlife overpasses and under-
lessly on a floodplain, or to protect valuable farmland passes are often used in Europe and are present in
(e.g., Changsha ring road, Hunan Province, China). Canada, USA, and elsewhere. Tunnels, wildlife cul-
However, most of the length of a multi-lane highway verts, pipes, overhead poles, rope ladders, and engi-
with considerable traffic is a barrier to wildlife crossing neered structures are designed for, and used by, varied
and a major source of traffic noise. Such highways also animal species. Where avoiding an ecological impact
contribute to animal roadkill totals, stormwater flows, appears to be impossible, “mitigation” minimizes the
stormwater pollutants, greenhouse gas emissions, and effect. Where mitigation seems impossible, “compen-
unhealthful air pollution. See Chapters 4 to 7 for water sation” to provide the equivalent ecological benefit is
and chemical aspects, and Chapters 8 and 9 for vegeta- used (Cuperus et al., 2002).
tion and wildlife dimensions. Traffic disturbance, especially noise, inhibits certain
vertebrate species for considerable distances from a road
Roads (Reijnen and Foppen, 1995, 2006; Forman et al., 2002).
Two-lane highways and other busy roads are promin- Most traffic noise is at a low frequency, and mainly results
ent features in suburban and exurban/peri-urban areas. from the tire and road surface interaction, plus truck
The abundance of such roads with nearly continuous traffic. Sensitive forest and grassland birds are absent or
traffic, combined with the presence of semi-natural scarce within a few hundred meters of a road with some
patches and corridors of varied size in these areas, 6000 vehicles per day passing a point (Figure 10.2). This
means that busy two-lane roads have diverse ecological effect extends outward for several hundred meters on
effects. Together, four effects of a road reduce wildlife both sides of a road (e.g., two-lane highway) with about
populations (Rajvanshi et al., 2001; Forman et al., 2003; 12 000 vehicles/day. Typically the traffic disturbance
Laurance et al., 2009): (1) habitat loss due to the road; effect extends outward >1 km (0.6 mi) for a multi-lane
(2) degraded adjoining habitat; (3) roadkilled animals highway with >30 000 vehicles/day.
(Seiler and Helldin, 2006); and (4) the barrier effect Traffic noise may especially affect a bird’s ability to
disrupting connectivity for wildlife movement. successfully raise young. Indeed, some birds and frogs
Roads fragment the land into small patches of nat- are likely to make louder and higher-pitch sounds near
ural land and farmland, and cut the connecting wildlife urban roads (Brumm, 2004; Nemeth and Brumm, 2009;
corridors. Road width seems to be especially important Parris et al., 2009; Evans, 2010). Also, many trucks roar
for small animals, whereas traffic is a greater impedi- at night when many frogs call. Although narrow strips
ment to mid-size and larger animals (Oxley et al., 1974; of trees do little to cut noise propagation, soil berms,
Forman et al., 2003; Reijnen and Foppen, 2006). noise walls (e.g., covered with plants), and wide tree
Small habitats mean small populations of ani- strips (e.g., >200 m) significantly decrease noise levels
mals and plants. Small populations typically fluctuate (Fang and Ling, 2005).
demographically in population size over time, and are The diverse effects of busy roads reverberate widely
subject to inbreeding. That results in loss of genetic in a suburban area. Most significant effects extend
variation plus more weak or sterile offspring. The com- outward on both sides of a road the following general
bination of these demographic and genetic effects leads distances (Figure 10.2) (Forman et al., 2003): (1) road
to more disappearances (local extinctions) of species surface and roadside effects, 2–25 m; (2) chemicals and
from the fragmented habitats. materials, 5–50 m; (3) water and aquatic ecosystems,
Overall, roadkills or animal mortality are greatest 10–250 m; (4) traffic disturbance (noise, vibration,
on two-lane highways. While most of the animals killed light, visible moving objects), 20–1000 m; and (5) other
can reproduce faster than vehicles hit them, roadkills broad-scale effects (fragmentation and small popula-
may reduce local population sizes and are ecologic- tions; disrupted wildlife corridor; human access effects
ally significant for certain uncommon or rare species. on habitats and species), 500 to>1000 m.

280
 Roads and associated features

Suburban roads also cause diverse hydrologic of stormwater management that emphasize ecological
effects, including changing the water-table, blocking solutions (Beatley, 2000a; Hill, 2009; Stephanie Hurley,
flows, redirecting flows, increasing and decreasing personal communication, 2011).
wetland sizes, and accentuating floods. Stormwater Street dust is a combination of particles from the
pollutants from the roads may contaminate ground- atmosphere, adjoining buildings, vehicle wear (includ-
water and pollute local water bodies. Road salts for de- ing engine, brakes, and tires), and road-surface wear
icing cause corrosion and pollute local water supplies by vehicle use. An analysis of street dust in a small city
(US Geological Survey, 2010). But sodium chloride (Urbana, Illinois, USA) found 35 chemical elements,
and other salts also degrade soils, water quality, aquatic with the highest concentrations (in order) being man-
ecosystems, amphibian populations, trees, and much ganese, zinc, barium, nickel, strontium, chromium,
more (National Research Council, 1970; Shortle and and zirconium (Spirn, 1984). The lowest concentra-
Rich, 1970; Hofstra and Hall, 1971; Hofstra and Smith, tions were for silver, lutetium, lead, and mercury.
1984; Langton, 1989; Trombulak and Frissell, 2000; The movement of vehicles lifts dust off the road sur-
Brownlee and Lorna, 2005; Domenico and Hecnar, face some meters high, where it is readily inhaled by
2006). wildlife and people, and deposited on plants. In Kuala
Lumpur, street dust levels were found to be highest
Streets around street intersections during vehicle rush-hour
City and suburb roads permeating built areas include periods (Carpenter, 1983).
alleys, lanes, streets, avenues, and boulevards (Rowe, Summer heat can be fierce along city streets (see
1991; Jacobs, 1993; Watson et al., 2003. The primary Chapter 5). At an intersection in a north-south-east-
difference among them is width. With width comes the west street grid, summer heat may be excessive at noon
number or prevalence of traffic lanes, sidewalks, street and in the afternoon (Figure 10.3). On the other hand,
trees, and vehicular traffic. Width, the objects along in a diagonal northeast-southwest-northwest-south-
streets, and the height of adjoining buildings (forming east grid, some shade is present along most sidewalks
a street canyon; see Chapter 5) affect heat, dust, air- at those times. These shade and heat patterns provide
flows, stormwater pollution, tree growth, animal use, the basis for optimal street-tree locations (Figure 10.3).
and other ecological dimensions. Plantings can be arranged to provide warmth in winter
A quarter to a third of the surface of most US cities and cooling in summer.
is street. Stormwater is normally channeled along gut- In Vienna, air temperatures in a narrow street, wide
ters into storm drains. From these it flows through a avenue, and wide-open square or plaza without trees
network of progressively larger pipes typically to a local illustrate patterns of streets and urban heat (Federer,
water body (see Chapter 6). Thus, the street network 1971). On a summer afternoon the hottest location
effectively functions as the “headwaters” of a large was the wide-open square, while the narrow street was
downslope pipe system, with rushing stormwater. coolest. But at night the wide avenue with street trees
Lots of stormwater-related features of streets affect was the coolest site. In the hotter drier Mediterranean,
water quantity, water quality, and aquatic ecosystems many design elements of streets, including balcony
in local water bodies (US Environmental Protection vegetation, overhanging facades, arcades, street trees,
Agency, 1999). These include the use of street trees, narrow street canyons, and tall adjoining buildings,
ditches/trenches, swales, vegetation strips, pervious cool the air somewhat. These features also significantly
and impervious hard surfaces, curbs (kerbs) and curb improve conditions for organisms such as trees and
cuts, conveyance structures, detention basins, reten- people (Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2007). The longer a
tion basins, wetlands, and biofilters. Overall such horizontal surface is exposed to direct sun (“sky view”
features increase evapo-transpiration, water infiltra- relative to solar trajectory), as in east–west street can-
tion, absorption, pollutant filtering, and microbial yons, the greater the heat stress is on organisms.
decomposition of pollutants. The street features also Green walls, as described in a section below, improve
decrease water runoff, peak flows, flooding, pollutant street conditions in several ways. These walls may be
runoff, inputs to and pollution of local water bodies, covered by varied combinations of vines, window-box
and degradation of aquatic ecosystems and fish popu- plants, green roof plants hanging down, balcony plants,
lations. Seattle, Portland (Oregon, USA), and various outside-stairwell plants, and epiphytes (Beatley, 2000a;
Northern Europe metro areas provide many models Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004). Biodiversity is higher,

281
 Human structures

Figure 10.3. Shade and trees in street

intersections of regular and diagonal
grids. Diagrams assume approximately
15-m-high (50 ft) buildings and
18-m-wide (60 ft) roads. Regular north-
south-east-west grids in most cities;
diagonal (Cerda or Spanish) grids in
Barcelona, Lima (see Figure 3.10a), and
other cities (Pallares-Barbera, 2005). On
right, high to low priorities (#1 to #4) are
listed by each street side. Adapted from
Craul (1999) citing Knowles (1981).

stormwater runoff lower, air temperature lower, and by road width portrays the hierarchy characteristic of
aerial-particle pollution lower. The wall is cooled by large and small roads in most road networks. However,
shading, insulated, and shielded from ultraviolet radi- mapping the flows of traffic emphasizes the importance
ation by vegetation. The plants also reduce noise, fil- of the road hierarchy in the metro area (Carpenter,
ter air pollutants (especially street dust), and humidify 1983; Forman et al., 2002).
the air. Still, the benefit levels are poorly known in this Basic or widespread network attributes highlight
obvious research frontier. orientation (relative to north–south), road hierarchy
Traditionally streets have been “full” of domestic (different road widths or traffic levels), curvy or recti-
animals and animal waste, with associated urban wild- linear grid, and mesh or grain size (Figure 10.4). Also,
life (Robinson, 1996). Pigs, chickens, and ducks were special network features include: the relative abun-
raised in urban streets. Dogs and cats roamed widely. dance and arrangement of greenspaces; cul-de-sacs/
Until about 1925, horses provided horsepower to move spur roads (with no outlet); loops (circuits); grid of
almost all goods and people. squares/rectangles/elongated blocks; triangles; diago-
Finally, the biodiversity of most street canyons is nals; traffic circles (roundabouts); radial roads; ring
very low, so even small hotspots of species richness roads; dendritic (tree-like) patterns; and discontinuous
provide a noticeable benefit (see Chapters 8 and 9, plus roads. Each of these attributes has ecological implica-
the roadside section below). Providing microhabitats tions on microclimate, air quality, stormwater runoff,
where species live, plus connectivity with rows of street stormwater pollutants, vegetation type, habitat diver-
trees or stepping stones of tiny green cover, enhances sity, plant species richness, animal species richness,
streets. wildlife movement, and aquatic ecosystems (includ-
ing fish) in nearby water bodies. Both “road density,”
Road networks the total length of road per unit area (see equations,
Diverse road-related networks vary from city-center Appendix B), and “network form” strongly affect eco-
grids of varied form to hierarchical suburban networks logical conditions.
to the multi-lane-highway networks of urban regions. Three simple measures or indices of network pat-
Network forms are exceedingly diverse (Easterling, tern provide considerable insight for objects that
1993; Watson et al., 2003; Marshall, 2005b; Pacione, move along or alongside roads, including vehicles,
2005 American Planning Association, 2006). Mapping pedestrians, and wildlife. Networks composed only of

282
 Roads and associated features

(a) Grid of squares (b) Squares Figure 10.4. Eight alternative forms
+ corner mini-neighborhoods of street networks. Illustrations from (a)
Portland (Oregon, USA), (b) Barcelona, (c)
Streets Tokyo, (d) Savannah (Georgia, USA), (e)
+ mainly
paved Paris, (f) Vienna, (g) Cairo, (h) New York.
common Based on Easterling (1993), Jacobs (1993),
spaces Ebrey (1996), Siksna (1997), Panerai et al.
(1999), Bianca (2000), Watson et al. (2003),
Marshall (2005b), American Planning
Association (2006), Maclean and Campoli
Mainly (2007), Bosselman (2008), and other
built space
sources.

(c) Hierarchical grid (d) Grid with alleys

+ small greenspaces
Mainly
greenspace

(e) Circles, radii, + connections (f) Irregular-width street

+ tiny common spaces

(g) Network with no-outlet (h) Rectangular grid

branched-alley neighborhoods + large greenspace

linkages (roads) and nodes (intersections and ends) of a network is the number of linkages (connections,
(Figure 10.4a) are described by connectivity, circuitry, edges) divided by the maximum possible number of
and node connections, using the gamma, alpha, and linkages. Circuitry is the number of loops (circuits, i.e.,
beta network indices, respectively (see equations, alternative routes between nodes) divided by the max-
equations, Appendix B) (Forman, 1995). Connectivity imum possible number of loops. Node connection is the

283
 Human structures

average number of linkages per node. Where nodes to enhance all of the flows in networks, especially for
differ in size, the “gravity model” (based on Newton’s species.
physics) is useful. This model emphasizes that dis-
tance between nodes can be expected to have a greater
effect than node sizes on the movement or interaction Street trees and roadsides
between nodes. Street trees cool the air by evapo-transpiration, by
New cities often display regular road-network shading buildings, sidewalks and roads, and in some
geometries such as a near-perfect grid, circles with cases by accelerating airflows (see Chapters 5 and 8).
radiating lines, and concentric ring roads. Old cities In a feedback, trees cool the road, thus enhancing the
typically retain geometries related to streams, top- growth of trees. A row of trees effectively creates a cor-
ography, and solar angle. Consider the early street ridor of shade, enhancing conditions for wildlife and
network of Guangzhou in South China (Ji Kangil, people movement during high-heat periods (Shashua-
personal communication, 2013). The irregular net- Bar and Hoffman, 2004; Marsh, 2005). Although many
work apparently contained a hierarchy of street sizes, factors affect trees, overall the stress from inadequate
many spur (no-outlet) streets, varied size-and-shape water in the root zone is the primary limitation on
blocks, and small fine-scale grids embedded in the growth and survival of street trees (Bradshaw et al.,
broad pattern. Wind, seeds, water, animals, and 1995; Trowbridge and Bassuk, 2004).
people moved along all streets of the network. Most Vehicular air pollutants often inhibit tree growth
main streets were perpendicular to active streams (Stengel et al., 2006), as illustrated by shorter branch
lined with tree vegetation. The stream corridors pro- length and lower seed weight in three tree species stud-
vided cooling, clean area, and a magnet for people, ied in Bratislava (Slovakia) (Iqbal and Shafiq, 2000). But
while the street/stream arrangement provided effect- in another feedback, street trees also tend to decrease
ive stormwater drainage. Pedestrians used narrow somewhat most air pollutants, thus enhancing tree
shaded alleys, while wagon vehicles passed in wider growth. For instance, dust particles may be reduced
tree-lined roads. Devoid of monotony, this highly 80–85% in streets lined with trees (van Bohemen,
functional network was adapted to both the physical 2005).
environment and human uses. In urban Japan, a study of 70 roadside tree species
Eight forms or types of street networks seem relative to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels in the air found
to represent the range present in cities worldwide four categories of trees (Takahashi et al., 2005). One
(Figure 10.4). To ecologically compare these, I evalu- group of trees had both high assimilation (absorbed
ated each case for 12 variables related to habitats, and reduced the air concentration of NO2) and high
plants, animals, soil, air, and water (e.g., see Table 7.1). resistance (not damaged much by the pollutant). Other
Negative roles or functions predominate in one case groups had high assimilation and low resistance; low
(Figure 10.4a). Positives strongly outweigh negatives in assimilation and high resistance; and low assimila-
four street network types (d, f, g and h). Water and air tion and low resistance. The four top species of the
variables are considerably more important than habi- first group (in order) were broad-leaved deciduous
tat/plant/animal variables in ecologically differentiat- trees: black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia); sophora
ing the street networks. (Sophora japonica); poplar (Populus nigra); and cherry
In considering the form and optimal design, basic- (Prunus lannesiana). These species would be especially
ally road networks are important for four quite-differ- promising for growing in NO2-polluted air and clean-
ent flows: vehicles; pedestrians/bicyclers; water; and ing (phytoremediating) the air.
species. These flows differ and vary both spatially and An experimental study of the effect of street trees
temporally. For instance, commuter traffic is concen- and vehicles on air pollution in urban street canyons
trated at times different than movement of pedestrian provides valuable insight (Gromke and Ruck, 2007).
shoppers (Berke et al., 2006). Water flows reflect the Small tree crowns had little effect on pollutant con-
basic pre-urban topography, as well as rainfall pat- centration. For large tree crowns, pollutant concentra-
terns and stormwater-drainage systems (Marsh, 2005). tion was lowered on the windward side, and elevated
Wildlife movement, both by day and at night when on the leeward side. Increased spacing between trees
fewer people are around, generally requires some con- resulted in lower air pollution concentration. While
nectivity of vegetation. Creative thinking is needed stationary vehicles with engines running increased the

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 Roads and associated features

concentration, moving traffic decreased and tended to birds predominate on streets mainly lined by eucalypts
homogenize the pollution level along the street. Traffic (Eucalyptus) and jacaranda (Jacaranda) in subtropical
jams are bad for air quality along streets. Brisbane (Australia) (see Figure 9.5). In the small city
Urban roadsides often have rather continuous of Cheyenne (Wyoming, USA), small street trees are
strips of chronically disturbed herbaceous vegeta- little used by any birds (see Figure 9.8b). Several species
tion. Disturbance-tolerant plants, weeds, non-native of mid-height trees are used by many common bird
species, small mammals, amphibians, butterflies, and species. Tall canopy-height street trees are also well-
many other species may thrive, mostly because of used by many bird species, which seem to be more tree-
local habitat conditions (Forman et al., 2003; Huijser species specific. Thus, two bird species almost only use
and Clevenger, 2006; Harper-Lore et al., 2007). In cottonwood (Populus), while another bird essentially
The Netherlands, 30 butterfly species are found in avoids the tree. A fourth bird species commonly uses
multi-lane highway roadsides (motorway verges) (van five canopy-level tree species. Uncommon bird species
Bohemen, 2005). About half are roadside residents, mainly used the mid-level and tall trees. In effect, the
and 20% are rare (red-listed) species. In general, few species of street trees have a major effect on avian com-
animal species move effectively along roads or road- position and diversity.
sides, though urban studies are scarce.
The fauna present is highly sensitive to the tree Moving objects
species present in streets and along roads (Fernandez-
Cars and trucks, the primary vehicle users of roads, emit
Juricic, 2000a; Young et al., 2007). Nectar-feeding
lots of pollutants including noise, particulate matter,

(a) Figure 10.5. Netway-and-pod

transportation system in city and suburb.
The elevated way is composed of “wings”
and “spanners” on pillars about 30 m (100
ft) apart. Lightweight personal pods,
public bus/van pods, and freight pods
are silently transported, using electric
power from a wire buried in the netway
surface, and with automated controls.
Some pods can leave the no-driving
netway system, and be driven at ground
level using battery power. (a) City; (b)
suburb. Dimensions and characteristics
given are illustrative and can be tailored
to specific needs, such as only having
elevated bus/van pods over selected
streets in the city. Adapted from Forman
and Sperling (2011).

(b)

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 Human structures

CO, CO2, SO2 and NOx (see Chapter 5) (Forman et al., High percentages
2003). The world has over a billion cars (a quarter bil- • Walking: Pittsburgh, Portland (Oregon), Seattle,
lion in the USA), and a large portion moves on roads in Newark, Milwaukee
urban areas (Sperling and Gordon, 2009). In the main • Bicycling: San Jose, Portland, Sacramento, Seattle
cities of Upper New York State (based on 80+ km diam- • Public transit: Newark, Seattle, Portland,
eter “commuter sheds”), car commuters are major pol- Pittsburgh, Miami, Denver
lution sources (Hartshorn, 1992). Trucks are the other Low percentages
major transportation pollution source, particularly for
• Walking: Orlando, Fort Lauderdale, Kansas City,
particulates and noise.
Fort Worth, Indianapolis, San Jose
Plants and animals are transported along roads by
vehicles. Thus, seeds of 204 species, half non-native, • Bicycling: Kansas City, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, San
were vehicle transported along a radial Berlin high- Antonio, Fort Worth, Newark, Indianapolis
way (von der Lippe and Kowarik, 2007). Interestingly, • Public transit: Fort Worth, Kansas City,
more species moved outward from the city than inward Indianapolis, Orlando, Norfolk, Fort Lauderdale
toward the city. In Canberra, seeds germinated from Portland and Seattle are high for all three commut-
a carwash indicated that 85 plant species came from ing types, while Kansas City, Indianapolis, and Fort
the city and surrounding cropland, 60 came from the Worth are low in all three. Interestingly, Pittsburgh
natural-vegetation land of the surrounding region, and and Newark are high in two and low in one commuter
20 species came from afar (probably >150 km) (Wace, mode. Nevertheless, all 20 cities have low values in all
1977; Forman et al., 2003). three modes compared with most European cities.
Roadkills (animal mortality) by vehicles are also Well-used bicycling and especially walking routes
commonly observed by urban residents (Forman et al., are usually safe, appealing, and at least partially lined
2003; Iuell et al., 2003; Trocme et al., 2003; Huijser and with trees. The connectivity provided by tree lines
Clevenger, 2006). However, data for roadkills specific- enhances movement by both people and wildlife,
ally in urban areas apparently has not yet been pulled which move at somewhat different times. Most urban
together to discern patterns. In the city of Edmonton birds move during the day, flying insects by day and
(Canada), the rate of deer (and a few moose) and night, and mammals at dusk, dawn, and night.
vehicle collisions is 59/year on major highways, and Traffic calming in urban areas usually focuses on
44/year on minor highways (Wein, 2006). Many com- slowing vehicles, plus encouraging walking, bicycling
mon urban animals such as house sparrows, squirrels, and use of public transit. Common approaches include
rabbits, house cats, and raccoons are killed by vehicles, on-street parking, traffic circles (roundabouts), speed
but their abundance and reproductive rate is high, so bumps, raised intersections, and “bulbouts,” i.e., walk-
overall the ecological effect is probably low. ways extended into the parking lanes at intersections
Buses, trollies, and motorcycles are abundant on or mid-blocks to facilitate safe pedestrian crossing of
roads in many metro areas, but their ecological effects streets. While these approaches slow traffic to enhance
are yet to be evaluated. In urban areas (Vuchic, 2007): walking and bicycling, they could readily be enhanced
(1) buses are slow, have large people-capacity, and have or extended for biodiversity and stormwater benefits.
very large space requirements; (2) cars are slow, have
medium capacity, and take medium space; (3) motor- Other road-related features
cycles are fast, low-capacity, little space-users. These Strip or ribbon development is a particularly character-
transport mechanisms differ considerably in noise, istic pattern in the suburban and exurban/peri-urban
space consumed, and pollutant emissions. Motorcycles areas of North American cities, and increasingly cit-
and cars are parked along streets where vegetation often ies in some other regions (Davies and Baxter, 1997;
could be planted and grow. Forman et al., 2003). Although development along a
Public transport, bicycling, and walking are three road must be an important habitat-fragmenting force
primary ways to commute to work in much of the and barrier to wildlife movement, studies of the subject
world. In a study of 20 medium-size cities in the car- are still scarce. Stream and groundwater degradation
dominated USA, the following cities had relatively by strip development is doubtless widespread. Wildlife
high and low percentages for these commuters (Adler underpasses and overpasses could be effectively tar-
and Dill, 2004): geted to stretches of roads with strip development.

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 Hard surfaces and cracks

Some cities emerge and expand as a large node around 2004). First-flush carpark pollution is considered to
a major road (Garreau, 1991; Hall, 2002). New roads be extremely toxic. Heavy metals, apparently mainly
bypassing a city also markedly change land uses and deposited from the air in small particles, are readily
warrant ecological study (Shindhe, 2006). Indeed, the picked up and carried by stormwater. Grassy swales
first ring road being built around Rio de Janeiro prom- in parking lots are especially useful in limiting run-
ises ecological impacts over a vast area (Tangari, 2013). off from light rains and the pollutants from most first
Alternatives to ring highways need evaluation. flushes.
Traffic circles or roundabouts usually contain vege- Light-colored or white surfaces reflect more
tation patches, which, however, are hazardous loca- incoming radiation and heat the air less. Porous mate-
tions for wildlife. One ecological study of roundabouts rials are quieter, but accumulate pollutants such as
found that plant and insect (Hemiptera) diversity are road salt and heavy metals. Stone surfaces are noisier,
mainly related to patch area, habitat diversity, and but have less stormwater runoff and more water infil-
management regime (Heiden and Leather, 2004). tration. Carparks covered with asphalt and hydrocar-
Bridges, with their storm drains, culverts, shaded bons from vehicles heat up more in the absence of tree
areas, steep banks, and other attributes are widespread shade, resulting in more hydrocarbons being emitted
and of considerable importance for certain species. as air pollutants. Surfaces with more cracks may have
Lizards, birds, and insects frequent bridges (Boada more vascular plants and insects, whereas well-used
and Capdevila, 2000; Adams et al., 2006), while per- sidewalks often have trampling-resistant mosses in the
egrines (Falco peregrinus) nest on large bridges (Houck cracks. Alleys and driveways may be covered with light-
and Cody, 2000). Bats are the champion bridge users colored gravel so that incoming energy is reflected and
for roosting and nesting. More than a million bats use runoff is minimized. Roots of trees along these var-
an Austin (Texas) bridge, and 24 species have been ied structures may expand, causing surface bumps.
recorded as resident on bridges in the USA (Keeley and Meanwhile, the tree canopies provide cool shade,
Tuttle, 1999; Adams et al., 2006). nesting sites, feeding locations, and connectivity for
Carparks, driveways, sidewalks, and alleys each have wildlife movement. The opportunities for ecological
their distinctive attributes, and thus have different eco- benefits are rampant around road-related features.
logical characteristics (see Chapters 5 to 9). Asphalt and A netway system with pods may represent the future
concrete cover most urban roads and their associated of surface transportation (Figure 10.5) (Forman and
surfaces. Yet cut stones and cobblestones cover some Sperling, 2011). In essence, roads are replaced by
city streets, while porous pavements are sometimes used narrow elevated (or sunken) ways, along which sleek
for carparks or sidewalks (Ferguson, 1994; Bean et al., lightweight pods silently move. Powered by renew-
2007). Various fitted block pavers are also used for drive- able energy transmitted in buried wires, plus induc-
ways and some walkways. Water flows and energy fluxes tion technology to run small electric motors, pods
are greatly affected by these different surface types. move with automated control. Bus, van, and freight
Carparks (parking lots for cars) cover a consid- pods move quietly over some streets, while car pods
erable area of most cities (Davis et al., 2010; Ben- or a mixture stream along other routes. No driving. No
Joseph, 2012). A small city in the American Midwest accidents. No roadkills. No fossil fuel use. No green-
(in Tippecanoe County, Indiana) is 6.6% carpark. The house gas emissions. No unhealthful air pollutants.
average car occupancy is 28% (maximum 56%), and Terrain lost to roads and roadsides is recovered. Land
indeed if all cars registered in the county were in the is reconnected for people and wildlife. Space is gained
carparks, 83 000 parking spaces would remain unused. for market gardening near communities. New recre-
Carparks are major urban heat, stormwater, and pollu- ational trail networks conveniently develop near towns
tion sources (see Chapters 5 and 6). and cities. In short, the netway system provides both
Thus, motor vehicles are major sources of NOx and human and ecological benefits thoroughly permeating
hydrocarbons, including volatile organic compounds our land and cities.
(VOCs) that evaporate even when vehicles are parked
(Scott et al., 1999). Tree shade reduces VOC evapor-
ation (emission). Stormwater runoff also transports Hard surfaces and cracks
carpark pollutants, especially in the “first flush” when Hard relatively impervious surfaces cover our urban
a rainstorm begins (see Chapter 6) (Greenstein et al., areas. But such surfaces are normally inflexible, and lots

287
 Human structures

of mechanisms strain, vibrate, erode, expand, shrink, Cracks in steel surfaces, such as bridges and sky-
and damage the surface materials. Consequently, sur- scrapers, are rare, in part because their appearance may
face cracks or crevices appear nearly everywhere, so indicate a structural problem that is quickly addressed.
vegetation and animals colonizing the cracks appear Wood surfaces often have natural cracks due to drying,
as growing linear bits scattered across the city, denser but colonization by plants usually indicates moisture
here, sparser there. First we consider the (1) surface rotting the wood. Finally, various surface coverings
types and crack formation, and then (2) crack plants, such as paint, stucco, and thin tiles may have small
animals, and succession. cracks, which usually are too small or temporary for
much plant colonization. So here we focus on cracks
Hard surface types and crack formation in vertical and horizontal surfaces composed of con-
crete, asphalt/tarmac, and repetitive blocks with grass
Surface types (Figure 10.6).
Concrete, is typically composed of limestone dust, sand/
gravel, and water. When combined, these harden to Crack formation
form long-lasting structures such as highways, bridges, Most horizontal hard surfaces are used by vehicular
buildings, and walls. The surface often seems relatively traffic or walkers. Tarmac/asphalt and concrete cover
smooth and homogeneous. Concrete is so inflexible roads and highways. Tarmac, flat cut stone, and cobble-
that it is poured in sections, separated by narrow seams stone cover most streets. Without the weight of truck
or joints to account for expansion and contraction due traffic, carparks and driveways use all types of cov-
to temperature changes and other factors. erings, including porous pavement and blocks with
Tarmac or asphalt (black-top) in contrast is a com- holes for soil and grass. Walkways predominantly use
bination of gravel and hot tar (fossil fuel) that hardens asphalt/tarmac, concrete, porous pavement, and vari-
upon cooling. Roads, streets, and driveways are often ous smooth block designs, though usually not blocks
tarmac, which has no expansion joints. At this scale with holes for soil and grass.
surfaces appear nearly smooth and homogeneous. Expansion joints between concrete sections, the
The third widespread hard horizontal or vertical boundary between tarmac strips in carparks, and the
surface is composed of rectangular or square repeti- boundary between a traffic lane and a road shoulder are
tive blocks in huge numbers. Fired bricks, dried mud characteristic locations for linear cracks (Figure 10.6a
or adobe bricks, concrete blocks, cinder blocks, flat cut to g). Roads with surfaces of flat cut stone, cobblestone
stones, and cobblestones are widely used in different or blocks, with or without mortar, tend to have a fine-
regions. Often mortar or cement is inserted between scale rectilinear network of cracks. Vehicular traffic
the blocks to hold them in place. Without mortar, water tends to break hard surfaces, especially mortar between
readily infiltrates through the surface material between blocks, causing cracks and eventually sometimes holes.
blocks. Over time, mortar tends to dissolve or break, so Heavy truck traffic accelerates the process.
cracks permitting water seepage may be may be pre- Concrete commonly breaks into large polygonal
sent or widespread. pieces, particularly triangles plus some 4- and 5-sided
Several other hard-surface types may exist in cities. polygons (Figure 10.6a and b). Long diagonal cracks,
Large flat stones, such as on ancient Roman roads, and often curvy but seldom convoluted or zig-zag, prod-
coarse boulders, rocks, or stones, as in some classic gar- uce many 30°, 45° and 60° angles. In contrast, tar-
den walls, leave lots of space for water flows and plant mac/asphalt cracks are sometimes long but more
growth. Porous pavement, both of concrete and asphalt/ often short, and commonly somewhat convoluted or
tarmac, has tiny holes for water infiltration (Ferguson, zig-zag in appearance. The tarmac/asphalt crack net-
2005). In light rains this reduces water runoff and flood work produces intermixed irregular different-sized,
hazard. but often small, surface shapes. Oblong patches with
Permeable pavement, in contrast, is constructed somewhat pointed ends may be prominent. In both
with blocks of geometric shapes fit together to form a concrete and tarmac a weak spot (e.g., from settling)
surface. One type has blocks containing soil and grass in the foundation typically results in a cluster of small
in their centers. Where vehicle traffic is light and vehi- surface polygons. Loss of one or more polygon pro-
cles are not constantly parked, this surface becomes duces a hole (pothole) in the surface that tends to
grass covered. enlarge over time. Holes also often form when corners

288
 Hard surfaces and cracks

(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.6. Eleven alternative forms

of surface cracks. (a) to (g) = horizontal
surfaces used by vehicles or walkers; (h)
to (k) = vertical surfaces (walls). For each
form, upper diagram = typical pattern of
surface cracks lower diagram = typical
plant cover in the cracks.

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

(j) (k)

of concrete sections break, or the edge of a tarmac strip Walls of buildings, walls separating areas, and walls
is damaged. holding back soil are the primary vertical surfaces. If
Temporary repair of cracks and small holes is made of blocks or bricks, long diagonal zig-zag “cracks”
accomplished by pouring hot tar, which covers and appear, typically from the unequal sinking or settling
kills crack plants. Larger cracked areas and holes are of a foundation (Figure 10.6h to k). Human construc-
repaired with a patch of tarmac or concrete. Both the tion results in some cracks, while nature’s processes,
tarred strips and the edges of repair patches are prone especially water-related, produce other cracks. Stone
to further cracking. Periodically the entire surface may walls without mortar of course have cracks around
be repaved by adding a new surface. For tarmac the all stones and may be much covered with vegetation.
surface is readily removed and the material recycled in The most common location and luxuriant vegetation is
the new surface. along the bottom of a wall, where water drains down,

289
 Human structures

soil accumulates, and a deep crack or “crevice” between These surfaces and mechanisms highlight a hand-
wall and adjacent surface is typical. ful of types of locations where crack vegetation is
Purposeful cracks, such as joints between con- mostly likely to grow in urban areas: (a) between con-
crete sections, may be colonized by plants. Boundaries crete sections and between parallel strips of tarmac
between different surface materials, construction pro- (as in a carpark); (b) discontinuities in a surface due
cesses, aged surfaces, and angles of surfaces, are famil- to material, construction, age, or angle differences; (c)
iar locations for cracks to form (Figure 10.7). Strains on between surface blocks with or without mortar; (d) a
surfaces due to sinking foundations, uneven weights, weak, stressed, or damaged spot; and (e) the edge of a
compression, or tension cause crack formation. Cracks surface.
may form at weak spots related to materials or con-
struction, or a subsequently damaged spot, such as Crack plants, animals, succession
caused by an auto accident or snow plow. Such spots Where soil particles accumulate in a crack and water is
commonly lead to holes in a surface. sufficient, plants colonize (Larson et al., 2000). Seeds
Frequent seeping, dripping or running water may and spores germinate and tiny roots spread through
dissolve surface material, such as mortar between the soil. But the species that subsequently survive and
bricks, creating crevices. This is particularly common thrive are drought-resistant, since wind and heat can
for walls holding back soil, which normally contains quickly dry out a crack. Such species are also resistant
groundwater pushing against the wall (Peterken, 2008). to temperature extremes, especially the high tempera-
Freezing and thawing of water producing expansion tures of a surface and the air close to it. These drought
and contraction causes many cracks in cold climes, and high-temperature resistance characteristics mean
especially in roads. However, such freeze–thaw cycles that crack vegetation is somewhat distinctive. Some of
are usually less important in urban areas, due to heat the species are uncommon elsewhere in the urban area.
buildup, low water-table, and the predominance of Crack vegetation is likely to grow faster and denser on
porous sandy fill. shady sides unless outcompeted by other species.
Rather than causing surface cracks, plants tend to Overall, lichens are of little importance as crack
colonize them and widen and deepen them. However, formers and colonizers of urban hard surfaces.
woody plants adjacent to a hard surface that have shal- Typically, few lichen species survive the dry and pol-
low roots often tend to lift and crack the surface. Trees luted urban air, and, except on tile roofs and in very
with shallow roots such as maples (Acer) commonly moist climates, hardly any lichens are widely abundant.
crack sidewalks. Algae usually grow over surfaces that are frequently

Figure 10.7. Plant colonization

providing successional habitats on a
ruined building.

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 Hard surfaces and cracks

wet. In contrast, a few mosses (e.g., Bryum argenteum,

Ceratodon purpureus) grow quite well in cracks, though
probably they are of negligible importance in crack
widening. Sometimes called “sidewalk mosses,” these
are resistant to both surface conditions and moderate
trampling by pedestrians.
Vascular plants in cracks, especially flowering
plants and sometimes ferns, however, have roots.
Successful crack species, such as some grasses, have
dense fibrous roots that can penetrate the complex
spaces in a crevice. Carrots with tap roots would not be
expected. Drought-resistant plants with dense foliage
may also be favored, because they “catch” dust and con-
tribute ample leaf litter, both of which accelerate soil
accumulation in a crack. Figure 10.8. Plant succession on network of cracks of former
parking lot. Short white lines indicated parking spaces; long parallel
Animals are abundant in many cracks and crevices cracks indicate tarmac/asphalt strips originally put down; over time
including those without vegetation, though often these vegetation patches enlarge and interconnecting corridors widen.
species are well-hidden and little-seen by us. Insects of Sudbury in suburban Boston. R. Forman photo.
diverse types live in the crack soil and on plants. Flying
insects frequently land on hard surfaces, and spiders crevices. In a positive feedback, a larger crevice favors
build webs, often over cracks, to catch the flying insects. more woody plant growth, which in turn enlarges the
Butterflies and moths, and sometimes hummingbirds crevice.
and bats, may pollinate crack flowers. Lizards forage The lengthening of cracks tends to form a network
for insects on hard surfaces and in cracks. Deeper holes over the surface (Figure 10.8). Where shrubs or trees
and crevices become homes and nest sites for diverse thrive, often with more deeply penetrating roots, a
animals, from snakes to colorful beetles. Some birds small patch of vegetation is often recognizable. With
often forage along surface cracks. further cracking by woody plants, the patch becomes
In crack succession, soil particles from airborne a node in the network. Still more woody plants colon-
dust and the surface material itself initially accumu- ize; more cracks form, enlarge, and lengthen; and more
late in a crack, along with water. Leaves and tiny plant vegetation patches appear and enlarge. Meanwhile, the
roots die, adding organic matter, a source of energy original extensive hard surface becomes composed
for bacteria that thrive in these usually high-pH envir- of progressively more and smaller surface patches.
onments. Although microbial decomposition makes Finally, the vegetation patches begin to coalesce while
some plant nutrients available, ample inorganic nutri- the hard-surface patches shrink and disappear. At
ents from the accumulation of dust and surface materi- this point woody plant cover, herbaceous plant cover,
als suggest that the plants are seldom nutrient limited. and soil are all three complete across the former sur-
The food web of soil animals grows in complexity. face area. If that surface area were a city, the city would
Ecological succession is readily observed on hard be gone.
surfaces (Figure 10.8) (see Chapter 8). Mosses may be But those later successional stages seldom occur.
the initial crack colonizers in abundance, or indeed Disturbance intervenes. The hard surface with crack
may follow the vascular plants with roots. Irrespective, vegetation is herbicided. Or covered with road salt. Or
the rooted plants, overwhelmingly herbaceous (non- intensely brushed by a street cleaner. Or painted. Or
woody) species, are especially effective in building soil demolished. Or, indeed, tidied up by a maintenance
in a crack. Roots spread and hold soil particles, which crew. Yet inexorably, ecological succession always fol-
accumulate and hold more water. Plant and animal lows. Urban hard-surface succession is quite distinct-
diversity increases. ive from that in natural areas.
The next major step follows from successful col- Vegetation in cracks of many surface types is too
onization by shrubs or trees. These woody plants have sparse to play a significant overall role in a city, though
roots that rapidly thicken, contributing to the noticeable a few important exceptions exist (Figure 10.6). Crack
enlargement – widening, deepening, lengthening – of vegetation may often provide considerable ecological

291
 Human structures

benefit in three locations: (1) cracks of vacant lot or USA and “domestic gardens” or gardens in the UK).
former carpark; (2) stone wall without mortar; and (3) Detached housing units also normally have narrow
home driveway using blocks without mortar and with side spaces.
or without holes for soil and grass. Normally negligible Patios and courtyards commonly contain one or
ecological benefit is provided by cracks in concrete more trees that provide partial shade. Many plants
highway, tarmac road/street, active carpark, paved are usually present, including shrubs, flower beds,
walkway, and wall of blocks and mortar. and plants hanging or attached to building and tree.
The overall roles of crack vegetation remain a Walkways, a water feature, and pets are also common.
research frontier. The drought- and extreme-temper- Patios and courtyards are particularly characteris-
ature-resistant vegetation, being somewhat distinctive, tic of single-level houses. Low-rise buildings of 2–8
raises urban plant diversity. The vegetation is a source levels may have rectangular or square cylinder-like
of plant and animal species, including pollinators, dis- courtyards with windows on each level. Such court-
persing across urban areas. The narrow strips serve as yards in the central portion of buildings may permit
stepping stones for movement of species such as bees smells, pollutants, and exhaust from kitchens, toilets,
and butterflies. and other family activities to escape. Also some air
Abundant crack vegetation doubtless significantly movement helps cool the air in buildings. Such low-
cools surfaces and adjacent air temperatures at hot rise courtyards may have common space for residents,
times. It also cleans the air somewhat, as particulate including some plants, at ground level.
matter adheres to leaf and stem surfaces. It reduces The front- and back-space house plot is well illus-
water runoff a bit, mainly by friction but also by evapo- trated in the outskirts of moist tropical cities, where
transpiration. An abundance of crack plants may also a fence or combination shrub line and fence mark the
somewhat reduce stormwater pollutant runoff. plot boundaries. Both back space (yard) and front
People express pleasure and delight with crack flow- space contain trees and shrubs, including many food-
ers, pollinating butterflies and hummingbirds, a lizard producing plants in layers. A canopy of mango trees,
waiting for an insect, a bird flitting and foraging, even understory of coffee and bananas, shrub layer of man-
a tiny green plant showing life in a tough urban spot. If ioc and papaya, herbaceous layer of melons and maize,
urban maintenance budgets and stewardship by neigh- and fruit-producing vines here and there are illustra-
bors suddenly stopped, residents would be amazed at tive. Chickens, dogs, and other animals are frequently
the profusion of proliferating vegetation across the present. The house-plot front space is often more-
built land. Society spends funds to hold nature back, maintained and open beneath the trees, with an attract-
but natural processes are powerful and eternal. History ive diversity of flowers, while the back space may have
well shows us cities that turned to dust. Spreading crack an outhouse, sheds, storage, and less-tended garden.
vegetation often played a key role. Such a house plot produces food throughout the year,
and provides some financial stability for the family in
the face of regional or national economic fluctuations.
House plots, gardens, lawns Biodiversity is relatively high because of the vegetation
To provide an outdoor space for family activities, a stratification and productive plants.
small area immediately around a house is commonly In Northern Europe (including Britain), as well as
delineated. Buildings, walls, fences, and hedges often in New Zealand, houses are often attached in a row,
line the boundaries of a plot (lot) or property. A private thus creating a row of front spaces separated from a
space is sufficient for sitting outside, children playing, row of back spaces. Typically a front space is covered
growing vegetables, drying clothes, and much more with flower garden, and has a wall or fence or hedge
(Andrzejewski, 2009). Two arrangements of space in front, while the back space has extensive flower gar-
are particularly widespread. One, the courtyard or den and often a small lawn. In North America, both
patio surrounded by building, especially character- the smaller front yard and larger back yard are often
izes tropical Latin America, the Mediterranean Basin, mainly covered by lawn, with flower gardens in small
Islamic cities, and the hutongs of China. The other pat- patches along edges, plus scattered trees and shrubs.
tern results from placing the building somewhat near In dry climates with scarce costly freshwater, a
the center of the plot, usually producing a front space property is sometimes “xeroscaped” mainly to reduce
and larger back space (typically called “yards” in the water use. Succulent plants, wildflowers, and rock

292
 House plots, gardens, lawns

garden plants often predominate, with much of the area space are secondary predictors. The similarity of front
covered with pebbles or rocks. Plants may be grouped spaces is greater on one side of a street than for the same
according to similar water requirements. Such a design distance to a front space on the opposite side of the
dramatically reduces water use compared with lawns street. Mimicry is alive and well for front-space design.
and typical flower gardens. This suggests that conformity and monotony are val-
Two other distinctive house-plot designs are less ued. Yet it is unclear whether a plot that stands out for
common. For one, an evergreen ground cover is main- species richness, interest, and individuality would be
tained over much of the plot, thus greatly reducing care mimicked, and thus lead to an entire distinctive street
and management effort. For the second, a somewhat or neighborhood.
natural meadow of native wildflowers and grasses cov- A house property may also function as an import-
ers most of the property and is cut once a year. Overall, ant part of a vegetation corridor or a sequence of “step-
xeroscaping, evergreen ground cover, and natural ping stones,” in which case species continue to move
meadow are beneficial due to low water use, low use through the plot. However, house plots do not resem-
of lawn chemicals, low cost, low maintenance, and the ble other vegetation types, so this would mainly be
expression of individuality by residents. the case for species moving along a row of house plots
(Rudd et al., 2002).
Internal structure of house plots Habitat diversity and spatial arrangement
Three spatial aspects of house properties are central A house property may be covered with a single type of
to understanding their internal pattern: (1) role of planting or may be enormously heterogeneous with
the surroundings; (2) habitat heterogeneity; and (3) a richness of habitats and species (Smith et al., 2005;
spatial arrangement. A fourth dimension, (4) bio- Gaston, 2010). Many types of habitats and many habi-
diversity, provides insight into the species structure. tats are both keys to high habitat heterogeneity. More
Maintenance and care of a property also have a large habitats also normally means smaller ones. Spatial
ecological effect (Nassauer, 1988, 1995, 1997). Thus arrangement, as explored in the following section, also
messy and manicured areas differ strikingly in spe- affects heterogeneity.
cies composition, diversity, soil, water conditions, and Consider the five major habitat types in house
wildlife movement. plots, each serving as a different habitat for species: (1)
buildings, (2) trees/shrubs, (3) gardens, (4) lawn, and
Role of the surroundings (5) corridors along borders. These of course come in
Because house plots are small, their surroundings have varied forms. House, garage, or shed. Individual trees
a powerful impact. A wooded plot surrounded by open and shrubs, clumps of them, or combinations. Flower
plots is analogous to an oasis, where wind and heat and garden or vegetable garden. Intensively managed or
open-land species pour in (Forman, 1995). In contrast, little-managed lawns. Strips along front, side or back
if the property is relatively open and surrounded by property lines, and composed of trees, shrubs, fence,
wooded plots, seeds and animals and cool air pour in. If or wall.
the property is on a significant slope, water and materi- To these five predominant components of house
als wash in, and out. If it is in a major wildlife corridor, plots, add other relatively common objects present:
animals charge in and out. If the plot is representative driveway, walkway, courtyard/patio, terrace/porch/
of the surrounding lots, it will be harder to create and deck, pond or other water feature, compost pile/heap,
maintain distinctiveness against an overall homogeniz- and street trees. Finally, an array of specific objects
ing force. The proportion of land in natural habitat, say, designed to attract wildlife, such as bird feeder, bird
within 1 km radius of a plot may be a good predictor of, bath, bird nest-box, brush pile, bat box, rock wall, and
for example, animal diversity on the property. rock pile, may be added. The potential for high house-
A study in Montreal finds that the best indicator of plot habitat heterogeneity is enormous.
the structure of a front space (i.e., the types and loca- In Sheffield (UK) an estimated 87% of the 175
tions of plants and flowers) is distance from or prox- 000 urban house plots have gardens, overwhelmingly
imity to another front space of similar type, which flower gardens (Gaston et al., 2005b). The properties
accounts for 20% of the variability (Zmyslony and contain 350 000 trees >3 m high, an average of two
Gagnon, 2000). The depth, width, and type of front trees per property, though all the trees are on 48% of

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the properties. Twenty-nine percent of the house plots Corridors typically facilitate flows and movements
have a compost heap (51 000 total), 26% have bird along their length, and form a filter or barrier for
nest-boxes (45 000 nest-boxes), 14% have ponds (25 movement across. Corridors exhibit edge conditions,
000), and 14% have one or more cats (52 000 total cats). and also function as sources and sinks. Corridors are
Outdoor spaces in these properties have an average of normally the most effective routes for species move-
about 10 plant species per square meter, approximately ment in urban areas and elsewhere. Open sight-line
the same as for “derelict” or vacant land in the city. corridors, for example from a back terrace or deck, may
Landscape ecology provides the essential theory be important for some open-habitat species, though
and framework for understanding a small area such probably in a house plot, the size of an open area is
as a house property (Forman, 1995; Farina 2006). The more important. Side-boundary shrub corridors or
“patch–corridor–matrix” model applies to the entire fence-lines or walls are effective movement routes for
surface, which is composed of patches and corridors, some species, even in the presence of cats, dogs, and
with a background matrix frequently present. Patches people on both sides. Dense shrub-lines provide good
vary from large to small, round to elongated, smooth- escape cover and sometimes nesting cover, and thus are
to convoluted-margined, and so forth. Corridors vary prime sites for many urban vertebrates.
from wide to narrow, straight to curvy, continuous to Ecologically the most important corridor in house
discontinuous, etc. Wooded, garden, and lawn patches, plots is the backline strip of vegetation (Figure 10.9e
and corridors as boundary hedges, foundation plant- and h). If the back property line is more than about
ings, and view lines, are widespread in house plots. 15 m (45–50 ft) behind the house, it tends to escape
Combining and spatially arranging these patch- intensive management or manicuring. Weeds and
and-corridor building blocks opens up a huge range woody plants colonize and may thrive, forming a strip
of possible patterns. For instance, adjacencies refer of semi-natural vegetation. If this vegetation forms on
to conditions influenced by an adjoining land use or both sides of the property boundary, the backline strip
habitat. Thus, adjacent pairs of patches or corridors or corridor may be somewhat wide. Such a corridor
have distinctive conditions, e.g., for a species or for enhances movement along the line, and also serves as
biodiversity (Figure 10.9e and g). Edge types, named a habitat for nesting and denning species. Frequently
for the adjacent habitats, such as a shrub-lawn edge house plots along a street are about the same length so
or garden-pond edge, generally support different spe- backline strips are aligned, forming a long strip. This is
cies. Convergency points (coverts), where three or more likely the most important corridor for wildlife move-
habitats converge, are particularly important for nest- ment from parks and other greenspaces though a resi-
ing by some seed-eating birds and for foraging by some dential built area.
predators. Trees, especially on the sunny afternoon Although a continuous corridor is most effect-
side of a house, cool the walls (Gartland, 2008). A patch ive, a discontinuous one, essentially a row of stepping
surrounded by three or more different types of habitat stones, is also effective for movement by some species
is likely to be richer in species than a patch embedded (Figure 10.9c and e). Thus, a sequence of shrub patches
in a single type. For a particular species or process, one often provides adequate connectivity for many wildlife
type of habitat is often a “source” from which individ- species of house yards. At a broader scale, a row of back
uals move outward, while another type is a “sink” that space lawns along a block may facilitate movement by
absorbs the objects moving. some open-habitat species. Or, more importantly, a
Convoluted patch edges tend to be much used by row of wooded-patch stepping stones in a sequence of
wildlife, so S-shaped or serpentine boundaries with house plots is probably frequently used by wildlife for
coves and lobes are effective designs (Figure 10.9h) movement across a built area.
(Forman, 1995). Wildlife frequently move along Aggregating habitats on a property with those in
straight boundaries, whereas convoluted boundaries adjoining properties adds additional benefit. Back-
favor animals moving between habitats. A gradual eco- corner patches of vegetation are the key. A back corner
tone, rather than abrupt boundary, between habitats is normally the best place for a somewhat large patch
supports a large number of species, though normally of nature containing several vegetation layers, cool
most are common species. Larger patches often sup- moist rich soil, and some less-common specialist spe-
port some species that are scarce or absent in small cies (Figure 10.9f). But combining this patch with a
patches. similar adjacent one on the adjacent plot, or better still,

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 House plots, gardens, lawns

(a) (b) (c) Figure 10.9. Eight alternative forms of

house plots. Area of each = 0.03–0.1 ha
(1/12 to 1/4 acre). Entrance from street at
bottom. Two houses per lot in (g) and (h).
1 foot = 0.3 meter; 1 acre = 0.4 hectare.
Based on Goldstein et al. (1981), Kress
(1985), Owen (1991), Girling and Helphand
(1994), Forman (1995), Gartland (2008),
and other sources.

(d) (e)

(f) (g) (h)

with three others on the plots that converge at the cor- of the house plot best correlated with an overall posi-
ner, forms a significant patch of natural conditions in tive ecological condition.
a built area.
Eight forms or types of house plots appear to Biodiversity and wildlife
represent the range present in and around cities world- Plant diversity can be extremely high on a house prop-
wide (Figure 10.9). To compare these types, I evaluated erty. Many tens of thousands of plant species purchased
each with 17 variables related to habitats, plants, ani- from nurseries and seed sources are planted in yards.
mals, soil, air, and water (see, for example, Table 7.1). A house plot provides ample space to plant a veritable
Negative roles or functions are predominant in two profusion of species, and such properties seem to exist
cases (Figure 10.9d and g). Positive roles strongly out- in nearly every neighborhood. Overwhelmingly these
weigh the negatives also in two cases (e and f). The planted species are non-native plants and horticultur-
presence of a wooded patch with trees in a back corner ally bred cultivars that would not grow well in a nearby

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 Human structures

natural ecosystem. Native plants would outcompete environmental requirements coexisted, and all resisted
and kill them. However in house yards, some invasive persistent attempts at eradication.
species (see Chapter 8) successfully spread and repro- So, at the scale of an urban area, plant diversity is
duce, despite intensive human efforts to eradicate them. extremely high, mainly due to the totality of planted
Such species become naturalized in residential areas. exotics and cultivars. Evidence also exists for relatively
Most people like to surround themselves with high diversity of mammals, birds, butterflies, bumble-
showy exotic plants, unusual objects, and photographs bees, ants, lizards, and plants in suburban areas, though
of stunning far-off scenes. Native species in the local perhaps generally not as high as for similar-sized rural
woods too often seem boring (until they are watched areas with diverse habitats (McKinney, 2002). Diversity
carefully). Nevertheless, native house gardens or yards, in a house plot or yard may be high or low, and mainly
as an alternative design, with native species essen- reflects an abundance of planted species plus a small
tially throughout the space, are occasionally planted. proportion of native species. In the Sheffield study,
These gardens generally require little or no fertilizer, no evidence was found for higher plant diversity in
pesticide, watering, or mowing, and thus represent a quadrats of larger yards or in those with longer border
low-cost, low-maintenance space. Ecological succes- lengths (Thompson et al., 2003). Also, scarce species
sion keeps changing such properties. Let nature take were not correlated with high-diversity quadrats.
its course. Overall, it appears that these high plant-diversity
However, the house plot is embedded in a residen- results are primarily a result of both the huge species
tial area bursting with non-native species, so over time pool of planted species, and the gardening or manage-
the intensively maintained property looks less and less ment effort of residents. Intensive gardening involves
like a natural ecosystem. Indeed, in a natural ecosys- soil preparation, planting, weeding, and pruning of
tem, species normally increase, decrease, appear, and plants. Weeding plays a central role in plant biodiver-
disappear. So if the resident wants the species origin- sity. The planted species, which usually are poorly
ally planted to persist in some semi-stable condition, adapted for the natural conditions of the area, survive
as most gardeners do, considerable maintenance effort because gardeners weed out the better-equipped com-
is required. petitors. Thus, in effect, the house property supports
Still, the profusion of planted exotics (non-natives) numerous species at very low population sizes.
and horticultural cultivars is not the only import- Two other factors are keys to house-plot biodiver-
ant story. A study of 120 quadrats in 60 private house sity. First, plant productivity is usually high because
plots in Sheffield reports that the most frequent plant residents add fertilizers, often in excessive amounts.
species, those present in the most quadrats, are native Or gardeners’ techniques of mulching, compost-
weeds (unwanted plants such as Taraxacum officinale ing, enriching the soil with humus, adjusting the pH,
and Epilobium montanum) (Thompson et al., 2003). attempting to control herbivores and diseases, and
The next ten most frequent species are also weeds, pruning may be used to enhance plant growth.
both native and non-native. Most of these frequent or High nutrient levels of, e.g., nitrogen or phos-
widespread species are characteristic of vacant or dere- phorus, can have different effects on biodiversity.
lict sites in the city (see Chapter 8). A huge number of Compared with a low-nutrient habitat, considerably
planted species, basically exotics and cultivars, are pre- more plant biomass, often nutrient-rich and palatable
sent in the house plots (Smith et al., 2006). Most planted to herbivores, is produced. That provides a larger base
species are scarce (low population size) and many are to the food web, and the potential to pack together
“singletons” (represented by a single individual). Each more species. However, excessive nitrogen or phos-
property has a somewhat different set of species so that phorus commonly leads to one or a few aggressive
none of the planted species is found frequently in the species dominating, by outcompeting other species.
samples. The net effect is a reduction in biodiversity. Overall, a
A 25-year study of a Leicester (UK) house plot modest nutrient increase may produce high biodiver-
recorded 95 annual and perennial weed species sity while a large nutrient increase reduces the number
(unwanted plants) (Tutin, 1973). During the period, of species.
there were many species colonizations, as well as Second, biodiversity usually strongly correlates
some extinctions. Also, some native species became with habitat heterogeneity. Increasing the number of
aggressive weeds. Weed species with very different microhabitats – house exterior, lawn, shrub patch,

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 House plots, gardens, lawns

rock garden, old fruit tree, vegetable garden, flower

bed, hedge, wall, pond, ecotones, and compost heap –
Yards, gardens, lawns
In England and Wales 78% of the houses have pri-
progressively increases the number of species (Gilbert,
vate outdoor spaces (yards), while the figure is 56% in
1991). The particular plant species planted, rejuve-
Holland and 32% in France (Gilbert, 1991). The 15 mil-
nated growth from pruning, and abundant nectar/pol-
lion house plots in England and Wales cover 3% of the
len/seeds/fruits also affect animal diversity. A mosaic
entire land surface. This abundance of private green
of specific habitats can increase or decrease biodiver-
spots around houses seems to have been accelerated by
sity depending on their arrangement. Adding an array
the so-called Garden City movement of Howard (1902)
of structures to attract species, such as bird feeder, bird
and others, who promoted the idea of 12 dwellings per
bath, bird nest-box, bat box, brush pile, and so forth,
acre (30/ha), e.g., at Letchworth and Hempstead out-
can be expected to further increase diversity. However,
side London.
this may depend on other factors, such as the existing
Based on five UK cities, the area covered by house
level of diversity and the nature of the surroundings.
yards ranges from 22% to 27% of an urban area (Loram
One study reported little effect on biodiversity
et al., 2007). In Dunedin (New Zealand), 30% of the
by adding such specialized structures to a house plot
urban area is covered by these private spaces, and 42%
(Gaston et al., 2005a). No bumblebees colonized the
of residential neighborhoods are house yards (Mathieu
artificial nests that were added. Small ponds added
et al., 2007b). The UK yards are primarily for garden-
few invertebrates, though amphibians visited the
ing, sitting outside, children’s play, and clothes drying.
ponds. New logs added were not colonized by sapro-
phytic organisms. Adding nettle clusters did not attract
butterflies. Front and back outdoor spaces
Nevertheless, adding habitats normally does Front spaces or yards cover 26–38% and backyards
increase species number. As Jenifer Owen’s small 62–74% of the outdoor spaces on house properties
house plot in Leicester (UK) showed (see Chapter 8), in five UK cities (Loram et al., 2007). Most combined
thousands of species may use the space over time front- and back-yard spaces are 100–800 m2 in area,
(Figure 10.10) (Owen, 1991). A high diversity of though the commonest yards are 100–200 m2 (about
microhabitats plus intense management attracted 30 ft × 30–60 ft) (Gaston et al., 2005b). The common
over a third of all the butterfly, ladybird (ladybug), land uses and habitats present are cultivated borders,
and harvest spider (daddy longlegs) species known in intensively mowed grass, infrequently mowed grass,
the British Isles. A London house plot had more than vegetable patches, uncultivated areas, ponds, compost
700 beetle species in 47 years (cited by Gilbert, 1991), heaps (piles), and trees >3 m high. The diversity of land
during which major changes in species composition uses (habitat heterogeneity) increases with area of out-
occurred continuously. No “normal” year or “normal” door space (Loram et al., 2007). As the outdoor space
faunal community existed for the beetles there. Similar decreases, the number and size of sheds and compost
results were observed in a 7-year study of macro-fungi piles remains about constant. In smaller yards, shrub
in a Bristol (UK) lawn. hedges and flower beds cover a greater proportion of
Finally, in addition to biodiversity, the density of the area. Lawns essentially disappear in tiny outdoor
various groups of organisms may be either higher or spaces. Care and maintenance effort in these domestic
lower than in surrounding natural habitats. House plots private spaces is considerable to maintain the land-use
have the highest breeding bird density of any habitat diversity present in even a 100–200 m2 area.
in Britain, as suggested by 600 and 641 pairs/km2 (not The vegetation and spatial structure of front private
including house sparrows) in two London area studies spaces in Sheffield seems to be especially correlated
(cited by Gilbert, 1991). At a finer scale, some 20–80 with the size and the age of a house plot (Gilbert, 1991).
slugs (slimy mollusks) per m2 (2–8/ft2) are found in a Larger older houses are surrounded by more planted
UK garden. Even after removing 10 000 to 17 000 slugs vegetation and habitat diversity. House size and age in
from the garden per year for 4 years, no reduction in turn relate to socioeconomic factors such as income of
slug population was evident (Barnes, 1949). Relative residents.
to surrounding natural habitats, normally bird and A study of trees in the front spaces or yards of 44
butterfly densities are higher, whereas the abundance areas across a small city (Akron, Ohio, USA), adds
of amphibians and trees is lower, in house plots. insight (Whitney and Adams, 1980). Based on trees,

297
 Human structures

(a) (b) Figure 10.10. House plot designed

and managed for both family use and
biodiversity. Plot = 0.1 ha (0.25 acre)
in housing development (estate) of
Leicester, UK. (a) Front space (garden/
yard) to south (bottom); back space to
north (upper). Front-space trees and
large shrubs mapped (30 live, 5 dead) =
7 tree species and 10 shrub species. Side
space (12 live, 2 dead). Back-space woody
plants (30 live, 5 dead) = 10 tree and 12
shrub species. Total diversity (excluding
side-yard woody plants) for 70 woody
plants = 14 tree species and 19 shrub
species. (b) View from near greenhouse
looking southward toward house.
(c) Native plants = flowering plants;
ladybirds (ladybugs) = Coccinellidae in
part; lacewings include allied species. 1
meter = 3.28 feet. Adapted from Owen
(1991).

(c)

five types of residential areas are recognized: (1) inner pungens, and other spruces Picea) of 40–60-year-old
city area (e.g., tree of heaven Ailanthus altissimus, mul- modest houses; (4) mixed suburban area (maples Acer
berry Morus alba, and fruit trees) with fast-growing spp. and pin oak Quercus palustris) in newer <35-year-
trees, sometimes spontaneous (self-seeded), and tol- old housing; and (5) old oak area (including oaks
erant of urban conditions; (2) maple area (Acer spp.) Quercus spp. and white ash Fraxinus americana) on
in 30–80-year-old middle-income housing; (3) conifer large wooded plots of mostly native species. The group-
area (arborvitae Thuja occidentalis, blue spruce Picea ing patterns are interpreted to be overwhelmingly due

298
 House plots, gardens, lawns

to human, not natural, factors. Fashion at time of plant- garden plants are showy ornamentals. The bulk of the
ing, availability of different plant species, and house plants are exotic species, hybrids, and cultivars, mostly
value or resident’s income are considered to be primary planted outside their native range and normally poorly
determinants of tree cover. adapted to live outside a garden (Gilbert, 1991). Thus,
Front house-plot spaces without high walls along plants with dwarf form, pendulous branches, colored
the street are visible to the public and essentially leaves, and white variegated leaves typically compete
represent what residents want to show. Thus, sitting poorly in surrounding natural vegetation. Such species
areas, children’s play areas, clothes drying, vegetable are usually planted to show a large patch of a single spe-
gardens, outhouse toilets, sheds, and so forth are scarce cies, medium-size patches of a few species, or a diver-
in front spaces, but may be common in the larger back sity of species packed together.
yards (Figure 10.11). In addition to entrance walkways Another common goal is to show a sequence of
and driveways, a profusion of flowers, a golf-green-like blooming flowers over time. To accomplish this in the
lawn, or a distinctive object or sculpture highlighting face of changing weather conditions and a permanent
the resident’s individuality is more likely to be con- “rain” of weeds (native and non-native wildflowers
spicuous in front. and other species especially from the surroundings),
Normally front and back spaces are quite different, maintenance and care are intensive. Soils may be
with habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity greater in enhanced by digging, adding humus, or liming. Water
back yards. Wildlife is normally more abundant and may be intensively and repeatedly added, and fertil-
diverse in back spaces, and often greatly appreciated izer is commonly added. Pesticides may be added. If
by residents. Indeed, the average house-plot yard, the urban garden soil contains some toxic chemicals,
with combined front and back spaces, packs habitats soil removal, addition, and/or mitigation is appropri-
together and displays a richness of native, non-native, ate. Success requires keeping the weeds at bay and the
and planted ornamental species. flowers showy over time.
Where properties are wider than houses, side Relatively few insects live in a flower garden due to
spaces, usually narrow, are present. Mostly a connect- pesticides, often relatively low plant diversity, and sim-
ing conduit for residents’ movement between front and plified vegetation structure. In addition, many of the
back yards, sometimes side spaces are fenced-off out- cultivars planted are insect-resistant and unpalatable
of-sight strips used for storage or debris. Side yards are for wildlife. Even the plants weeded out or trimmed
usually of rather little ecological value, though wildlife are often carted away to a compost pile or discarded,
readily use those with little human use and many accu- instead of being directly recycled into the soil. These
mulated objects. major characteristics combined mean that vertebrate
wildlife are remarkably scarce in flower gardens. Few
Flower and vegetable gardens birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles prefer for-
The main dichotomy in gardens seems to be flower aging, and very few nest or den, in flower gardens.
gardens versus vegetable gardens. Flower gardens may Often pollinators such as bees, butterflies, bats, and
include flower beds, ground covers, rock gardens, and so birds tend to be relatively few, though specific species
forth. Vegetable gardens also include low fruit-produc- and cultivars can be planted to attract such species.
ing plantings, herb gardens, even medicinal gardens. For example, butterfly and hummingbird gardens are
Flower gardens of course vary greatly but some mainly composed of masses of tubular flowers with
characteristics are widespread. Overwhelmingly flower ample nectar.
Vegetable gardens have many of the preceding
attributes of flower gardens, such as intensive main-
Figure 10.11.
Private back tenance, soil improvement activities, fertilizer appli-
space of a large cation, pesticide use, heavy repeated watering, change
house-plot flower over time, and so forth. However, the differences are
garden and lawn.
Hornbill at outdoor interesting. Production of edible plant material for
eating table. Ubud, humans is the goal, not showiness. Plants absorb many
Bali, Indonesia. R. chemicals from the soil, so toxic substances should
Forman photo.
be minimal. Pesticides remain attached to leaves and
stems or are absorbed by roots, so pesticide use should

299
 Human structures

be minimal. Adding soil organic matter in the form of First, consider the major characteristics of lawns.
humus usually enhances food production and greatly Normally the soil surface is smoothed, but little is done
decreases the need for additional fertilizer. With the to improve the soil organic matter and its important
elimination of pesticides and fertilizers, garden soil organisms. Genetically selected grass seed or grass
often improves. The density of soil animals increases, sod is planted on almost any type of soil. Three things
soil food webs become complex, and larger soil inver- are typically added repeatedly and usually in exces-
tebrates increase and perforate the soil, enhancing both sive quantity. Fertilizer, especially containing nitro-
drainage and aeration. gen, phosphorus, and potassium, is added. Pesticides,
Unlike the relatively unpalatable flower garden, including herbicides against weeds, fungicides against
vegetable gardens are planted with species delicious and molds, and insecticides against insects, are added.
nutritious for us, but also for many animals. Numerous Water is added in small lawns by hand, but usually
insects suck plant juices or chew holes in leaves. A typ- by sprinklers or inundation for larger lawns. Grass
ical response is to spray pesticides against the insects, rapidly grows and is mowed to about 2.5–5 cm (1–2
which also eliminates beneficial insects. in) height, mostly by rotating blades of a gasoline- or
Mammals also relish many of the vegetable plants, electric-powered vehicle. The grass cuttings are either
and diverse birds feed on seeds or invertebrates among dispersed over the lawn or removed as “yard waste,” for
the garden plants. In Zambia, gardens are sometimes instance, to a compost pile or to be discarded. These
protected from elephant (herbivore) consumption by processes together represent intensive and costly lawn
soaking pieces of cloth in engine motor oil, adding hot- care, and a closer look is instructive.
pepper juice, and hanging the cloths around the garden Pesticides, fertilizers, and water are major inputs to
perimeter. An alternative approach, widely familiar to lawns. One estimate indicates that 250 000 tons of pes-
vegetable gardeners, is to add plants that directly effuse ticides (including herbicides) and fertilizers are used
chemicals into the air that, in turn, annoy and chase on lawns each year in the USA (Uhl, 1998; Robbins
away animals. Zinnias, marigolds, and mints are com- and Sharp, 2003). Another source estimates that 370
mon herbivore dissuaders. 000 tons of pesticides alone are used on lawns annually
(Law et al., 2004). Some 70% of the lawns are regularly
Lawns fertilized. A typical ⅓-acre (0.13 ha) lawn in the USA
Lawns are estimated to cover perhaps 1% of the entire annually receives 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of pesticide, 20
USA. These include lawns in public spaces and in non- pounds of fertilizer, and 170 000 gallons (644 000 lit-
residential areas, as well as on private house proper- ers) of added water, that is, in addition to precipitation
ties. One percent of the state of Missouri (USA) is lawn, (Bogo et al., 2002).
including 135 000 acres of residential lawn (Robbins Interestingly, most lawn areas are inherently het-
and Sharp, 2003). An estimated 23% of urban cover in erogeneous, with variations in solar energy input,
the USA is lawn. shade, adjacent woody plants, soil conditions, slope,
Across the city of Sheffield (UK) an estimated 60% and water conditions (Bormann et al., 1993; Uhl, 1998;
of the house properties is lawn (Gaston et al., 2005b). Thompson et al., 2004). Thus, lawns can be somewhat
Flower gardens are predominant in these properties, species rich (Muller, 1990). But the rather homoge-
so only 41% of the properties, probably mostly the neous grass cover and extremely low biodiversity
larger ones, contain lawns. In fact lawns cover 75% of results from purposeful watering, fertilizing, pesticid-
these large properties. Since lawns are notoriously low ing, and mowing that together basically smother the
in species number, the bulk of the biodiversity present habitat heterogeneity.
is in the remaining quarter of these private outdoor Weed-free means biodiversity-impoverished.
spaces. Herbicides reduce or eliminate weeds from the pre-
Lawns have been called “productive vegeta- dominant grass cover of lawns, thus reducing plant
tion subject to frequent defoliation” (Gilbert, 1991). diversity below its already low level characteristic of a
Mowing is the defoliator. Of the many factors leading single layer of herbaceous plants. Fungicides kill molds
to high productivity, two seem most important (Falk, that may inhibit grass growth in wet spots or wet cli-
1980). The species have been genetically selected for mates, but molds are a minor problem in most lawns.
high productivity. And mowing stimulates vegetative Insecticides kill the insects that eat grass, though
growth of grasses, the dominants. such herbivory usually has little effect on the lawn as

300
 House plots, gardens, lawns

a whole. However, the negative ecological effect is the carried by water (again precipitation plus the human-
array of soil insects killed, greatly reducing soil animal added water) infiltrating into the groundwater, and
biodiversity and food webs. Loss of the larger soil-per- onward to a nearby water body.
forating insects is particularly important. They create Excess phosphorus reaching freshwater aquatic
channels in the soil that facilitate water infiltration ecosystems typically stimulates the microscopic float-
to roots, water drainage, and aeration of the soil with ing algae (phytoplankton) to greatly multiply (see
oxygen. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (Carson, 1962) Chapter 7). The result is eutrophication: a dense bloom
evolved in part from the loss of birds that fed on pesti- of algae turns the water body green. Algal cells are
cide-laden invertebrates of lawns and surroundings. short-lived and continually die in large numbers, grad-
Pesticides are mainly organic compounds that may ually filtering downward in the water where microbes
decompose rapidly in an organic-matter-rich soil with decompose them. Unfortunately, the active micro-
abundant microorganisms. However, some pesticides bial decomposition rapidly uses up the oxygen in the
persist for a long period, or may partially decompose to water, leading to extensive death of fish and reduction
release organic products that persist. Pesticides applied of aquatic biodiversity.
to lawns wash from plants into the soil, and are carried Excess nitrogen from fertilizers has a wider range
onward by infiltrating rainwater and human-added of negative ecological effects (Bormann et al., 1993;
water into the groundwater. From there they may be Hubbard Brook Research Foundation, 2003). The lawn
carried to nearby surface water bodies such as streams grass typically becomes less resistant to drought, less
and ponds. As long as the pesticide persists, it kills resistant to extreme temperatures, and more suscep-
organisms. Thus, pesticide runoff into aquatic ecosys- tible to disease. The soil may become more acid, thus
tems may significantly reduce macro-invertebrates, a reducing beneficial microbes and soil animals (see
major food of most freshwater fish species, and degrade Chapter 4). High levels of nitrate from fertilizer can
aquatic habitat quality (Overmyer et al., 2005). pollute groundwater wells.
Integrated pest management is an alternative to Some water bodies, including estuaries, are
heavy pesticide use on lawns. This approach empha- eutrophicated by nitrogen. Nitrogen fertilizers from
sizes natural pest-control measures, such as increasing suburban lawns of Baltimore County (Maryland,
biodiversity to reduce pest population sizes, facilitating USA) contribute more than half of the total nitrogen
ecological succession, and introducing herbivores or input to the watershed (Law et al., 2004). House plots
predators that feed on the pest. All approaches are usu- of mid-range value, especially with newly built houses,
ally supplemented by minimal pesticide application. contribute the most nitrogen. In marine areas near cit-
However, few species introductions are appropriate, ies, “dead zones” with few organisms may be present. A
because they require extensive preceding ecological massive dead zone exists in the Gulf of Mexico beyond
analysis to evaluate the negative effects on other non- New Orleans. However, this is mainly due to nitrogen
target species and the ecosystem, as well as the poten- from excess fertilizer use on agricultural land across
tial for an introduced species to become invasive. the Midwestern USA draining down the Mississippi
Many types of fertilizers are added to the soil to River to the Gulf.
enhance plant growth. These include animal manure, Available freshwater for human uses worldwide is
human manure, partially decomposed solid waste, increasingly scarce and costly, yet in many urban areas
ashes, and combinations of inorganic N, P, and K. Such watering lawns is a major consumer of water. In the
fertilizers add organic matter, inorganic matter, or USA a quarter of the non-agricultural water use is for
both. But too often heavy metals and organic toxins are irrigating lawns and gardens (McKinney, 2002). A typ-
included (see Figure 2.4) (Maconachie, 2007). ical ⅓-acre lawn is reported to receive annually 645 000
Nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilizer normally liters (170 000 gallons) of added water, as well as pre-
can be readily absorbed by the roots and increase cipitation (Bogo et al., 2002).
lawn-grass production. Without carefully measuring A major portion of the human-added water is usu-
the N and P levels in different portions of the lawn, ally wasted. Some of the water sprayed over a lawn dir-
the amount of nutrients absorbed by the plant roots ectly evaporates in the air to water vapor before hitting
remains unknown. Residents normally add more fer- the plants, while more of the water is intercepted and
tilizer, often much more, than can be absorbed by the evaporated from leaf and stem surfaces without ever
plants (Bormann et al., 1993). The excess then is readily reaching the roots. Evapo-transpiration loss is highest

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with high temperature and windy conditions. As soon repens, and clover Trifolium repens, produce attractive
as the soil zone containing roots is saturated, all sub- low flowers in a lawn, and may grow equally well in
sequent water added simply puddles, runs off over the cultivated gardens. Indeed, some garden plants (e.g.,
soil surface, or infiltrates down to the groundwater. Veronica filiformis, Chamaemelum nobile) have suc-
Infrequent heavier watering that soaks the soil cessfully invaded lawns.
deeply is better than frequent lighter watering that Yard waste is an odd name for mowed-grass cuttings/
only soaks a thin upper layer of soil. The deeper water clippings and dead leaves, which can be quite useful and
encourages development of a deeper root system. valuable in a house property. Secondary components of
Such a lawn is therefore more drought-resistant, more yard waste are branches, twigs, pulled weeds, and occa-
extreme-temperature-resistant, and more pest-resist- sionally cut logs. This organic matter may be recycled
ant. In addition, the lawn “requires” less watering, less into soil on the house plot. Alternatively, the resource
fertilizer, and less mowing. is often discarded as part of society’s solid waste. In the
Lawn mowing of the typical one-third-acre (0.13 ha) USA, yard waste is the second largest component of
USA lawn reportedly consumes 40 hours a year (Bogo solid waste disposal (Sloane, 1996).
et al., 2002). One hour of mowing with a small two- Branches may be valuable on a house property to
cycle engine may emit pollutants equivalent to driv- create temporary fences and to maintain brush piles
ing some 32 km (20 mi) in an average gasoline-engine for common wildlife species. Logs and branches may
car. Gasoline-powered lawn equipment causes almost be ground up for wood chips or sawdust to be used on
5% of the total air pollution each summer in the USA walkways, or as mulch on flower gardens and vegetable
(Woodier, 1998). A small amount of gasoline (and oil) gardens, or added to compost piles (heaps).
for mowers is spilled or poured by residents into the Mowed-grass clippings and pulled weeds are fre-
soil, where it may flow rapidly to groundwater or into a quently recycled on-site by using them as mulch.
water body, and be highly toxic to aquatic organisms. Mulching adds organic matter to the soil and reduces
The characteristic roar of a mower in a summer the tendency to add water. Grass clippings can also
neighborhood, which is associated with human hear- be added to a compost pile or heap where microbes
ing loss, doubtless inhibits wildlife, though this seems decompose plant material into humus (Brown et al.,
to be little studied. For example, baby birds in nests 2000). Ample oxygen is important for rapid decom-
or fledglings on the ground that cannot hear the par- position, so the pile of organic material is periodic-
ents’ alarm calls about an approaching cat or hawk ally turned over or mixed. Adjusting the pH by adding
are unlikely to survive. The parent birds’ next nest will lime or altering the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio by adding
probably be somewhere else. dead leaves or other material may be needed for rapid
Frequent mowing usually stimulates growth points decomposition. The humus produced is then added to
(meristems) at the base of most grasses (e.g., Agrostis gardens to enrich the soil and facilitate the activities of
capillaris, Festuca rubra) to produce a large number soil invertebrates and microbes, thus enhancing plant
of small tiller-stems that grow outward and upward growth.
(Gilbert, 1991). Some species (e.g., Lolium perenne) Back-yard outhouse toilets also may also use
exhibit a rapid vertical regrowth of the mower-dam- composting to convert human waste to humus (van
aged leaves. Bohemen, 2005; McGregor et al., 2006). Solar heat
Lawns cut with the mower blade set for 7.5–10 cm accelerates the process, and plant or synthetic chemi-
(3–4 in) height appear to have noticeably higher plant cals reduce smell. Food waste, especially of plant ori-
diversity than lawns cut at 2.5–5 cm (1–2 in) blade height gin, is also readily composted, often in bins to keep
(Broll and Keplin, 1995; Woodier, 1998). Without using wildlife from digging and spreading it.
herbicides, even cutting at a 2.5 cm height permits a fair Finally, I know a lawn that has not been seeded,
number of non-grasses to survive or thrive (Gilbert, fertilized, pesticided, or watered for 30 years. It is
1991). One set, so-called “lawn specialists” such as covered with grass species, and commonly used for
Achillea millefolium, Hypochoeris radicata, Leontodon badminton, bocce, ball-kicking, children’s play, and
autumnalis, and Senecio jacobaea in the UK, are virtu- parties. However, along with the predominant grass are
ally absent elsewhere in a house plot. Another set of numerous small and medium-size patches of flowers,
lawn species, including dandelion Taraxacum officina- which many people would call weeds. The patches have
lis, double daisy Bellis perennis, buttercup Ranunculus yellow, orange, white, violet, and purple flowers in a

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 House plots, gardens, lawns

changing sequence through the growing season. Moss (Figure 10.12) (Kress, 1985). Although evergreen
patches occur in partially shaded spots. Both native trees generally are less attractive to birds for
and non-native species enrich the lawn. Low flowers feeding, one species (western white pine) is highly
of some species are little-affected by mowing. Species attractive.
with somewhat higher flowers are often so pretty that, In the moist northeastern USA, small deciduous
when mowing, some patches are left unmowed to be trees are most attractive to birds for feeding,
enjoyed for a few weeks. Butterflies regularly flutter though each of the six woody-plant types present
among these flowers. contains at least one highly attractive species
The lawn is seemingly mowed at the same blade (Figure 10.13) (DeGraaf and Witman, 1979). In
height, but about half as often, as a neighbor’s almost contrast, evergreen trees (especially white pine,
golf-green-like yard. The lawn with little manage- Pinus strobus) are by far the most important in
ment has much higher plant diversity. Both the time attracting birds for both cover and for nesting.
and costs required for fertilizing, pesticiding, and Again each woody-plant group contains at least
watering are avoided. The gasoline used, the roar of one species that is fairly attractive for cover as well
the mower, and the mower pollutants emitted are as for nesting.
half as much. Patches of different ant species are evi- The roles of native versus non-native woody plants,
dent and some years patches of mushrooms appear. as well as city-tolerant versus other species, differ
Many more birds, e.g., pulling worms and catching in detail, but overall are rather similar. These
bugs, and more bird species use this less intensively patterns (Figures 10.12 and 10.13) highlight the
managed lawn. important roles that woody plant species of several
types play in a house plot. Species can be chosen to
Other house-plot features greatly increase, in this case, the wildlife diversity
In addition to gardens and lawns, numerous mostly and usage of a house plot.
smaller components are present in house plots. Key 2. Water-related structures. House plots may
ecological dimensions of these are briefly suggested include structures with still water, flowing water,
to illustrate the richness of ecological patterns and seeping water, dripping water, and/or splashing
processes that in turn are readily used in design by water. Wildlife respond differently to these, so a
residents. combination of water conditions may support the
greatest diversity of wildlife and plants. Ponds are
1. Woody plants. Trees, shrubs and vines appear perhaps most common and provide considerable
in small and medium-sized patches, separately ecological benefit (Gilbert, 1991). Mini-wetlands
or intermixed. A larger patch with at least trees may be associated with any of the water conditions.
and shrubs normally has the widest range of soil Amphibians such as frogs, toads, and salamanders
and microclimatic conditions, from warm dry to are especially drawn to water. However, if non-
cool moist, on the house plot. Woody plants also herbivore fish live in the water, amphibian eggs
form corridors along streets, side plot lines, and, and young may not survive. Many flying and other
especially important ecologically, back-corner insects are drawn to water. Birds and mammals
patches and backline strips. frequently drink and sometimes bathe in water
Some woody-plant species attract and are greatly structures.
used by wildlife, while others are not. If a planted Lots of ecological issues arise when artificial water
species retains its fruits and seeds for a long period, structures are introduced. Clay or an impervious
as often preferred by a resident, it means they are bottom is needed to hold the water. Some flow is
not very palatable or nutritious for wildlife. Fruits required to oxygenate the water and avoid smelly
with toxins are avoided, those rich in sugars are standing water. Water structures are often added
eaten fast, and those rich in lipids (high energy by people in a dry climate, ironically where water
per gram) are preferred by migrating birds (Stiles, is scarce. Flowing water is either recycled by
1980, 1982). pumping or flows elsewhere. A soil depression may
In the dry plains and mountains of the western temporarily hold surface runoff from heavy rains
USA, birds are particularly attracted to deciduous and snowmelt. The water-table may be high, so
trees and deciduous shrubs that provide food added water creates soggy soil. In effect, outlining

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 Human structures

Figure 10.12. Birds feeding on woody

plants in a dry region. Based on records
of bird species feeding on fruits, seeds,
buds, etc. on each of 69 woody plant
species in the mountains and deserts of
western North America. Species with the
most bird usage are listed in the upper
portion; oak, raspberry, and winterberry
are used where bird use of the different
component species is considered by the
author to be similar. Percentages at the
bottom are the proportion of woody
plants with no birds feeding thereon.
Based on Kress (1985).

(N=3)
(N=15) (N =14) (N =9) (N =25) (N =3)

a water budget (see Chapter 6), indicating the pipes are commonly present. Sewage from
distribution of water and the amounts of flows in an outhouse or cesspool is either periodically
and surrounding a house plot, is valuable before transported off-site or infiltrates and accumulates
adding a water structure to a house property. on-site, typically causing problems of pathogenic
Considerable incoming precipitation means that bacteria, smell from anaerobic bacterial
a drainage system must deal with water runoff decomposition, and eutrophication of a downslope
from roofs and driveway as well as the yard. water body. A septic system when working
Optimally the system channels water directly into well minimizes or eliminates all three of these
the ground or to small stormwater depressions, problems (Brown et al., 2000), though a surprising
rain gardens, and the like. These facilitate the proportion of septic systems function poorly.
infiltration of runoff into the soil, where it may be 3. Garden walls. Walls can be covered with ornament
evapo-transpired by plants on-site. If drainage runs and niches used by a wide variety of plant and
off-site, the effects downslope as well as in a nearby animal species. Garden walls in urban house plots
water body are important. are rather well known ecologically. A survey of 650
A well providing groundwater for drinking needs walls in Essex (UK) included 278 urban house-plot
unpolluted freshwater. Thus, the well is spatially walls, which had 150 plant species growing on
arranged relative to pollution sources, especially them (Payne, 1978). Common native garden weeds
the system for disposing of human sewage. In the are among the most abundant species. Some plant
absence of a sewer system, on-site human sewage species primarily live on walls (Cheiranthus cheiri,
is deposited in a hole in the ground covered by an Cymbalaria muralis, Antirrhinum majus, Parietaria
outhouse, or a cesspool, or a septic system (see diffusa, and in moister areas, ferns Asplenium
Chapter 6). Sewage is composed mainly of water, spp.). About 35% of the urban garden walls
organic matter, bacteria, and mineral nutrients contain species (e.g., Antirrhinum, Cheiranthus,
(especially N and P), though heavy metals from Cymbalaria) that are absent from the 372 walls

304
 (a)

(N=9)
(N =9) (N=40) (N =15) (N =103) (N =7) (N=77)
(N =23) (N=14) (N =33)
(b)

Figure 10.13. Woody plants and bird use in cool moist forest area. Based on records of bird usage on each of 110 woody plant species
(useful for attracting birds to residential areas) in the northeastern USA and southeastern Canada. Feeding is mainly on fruits, seeds, or buds;
nesting mostly in twigs, branches, cavities, or bark. Shrubs and vines are primarily sources of fruit. Cutoff between large and small deciduous
trees is typically 12.2 m (40 ft) height, and tall and low shrubs typically 1.5 m (5 ft). City-tolerant species described as able to withstand city
conditions. 1 ft = 0.3 m. Also see Figure 10.12 caption. Based on DeGraaf and Witman (1979).
 Human structures

not in urban house plots. These species appear to low-income peri-urban/exurban residents worldwide
be “garden escapees” that simply spread locally, or also surround their homes with trees, flowers, water,
escaped from garden to wall. and edible plants, often providing family stability dur-
4. Other components of house plots include buildings ing national economic ups and downs.
and surface cracks described above. Cats and We explore the ecology of buildings here in four
dogs are characteristic of house properties (see steps: (1) building designs and interiors; (2) plants and
Chapter 1). The array of structures added to animals; (3) green walls; and (4) green roofs.
attract wildlife to house plots, such as bird feeders,
brush piles, stone walls, and flower masses to
attract butterflies and hummingbirds can add to Building designs and interiors
biodiversity. However, each introduces interactions Urban buildings of course are exceedingly diverse –
and nuances. For instance, a study of bird feeders skyscrapers, high rises, low rises, factories, warehouses,
found that bird density increased with feeder commercial buildings, religious structures, houses,
density (Fuller et al., 2008). But bird diversity garages, sheds, and countless variations on these. The
increased with proximity to nearby greenspace, relative abundance and spatial arrangement of struc-
and not to feeder density. tures, varies widely, as for example, the several thou-
sand high rises in Sao Paulo (see book cover), 5000 in
In conclusion, house plots are intensively managed by New York, 2000 in Toronto, and <1000 in other North
residents in ways that normally create high habitat het- American cities (Wilcox et al., 2007). Furthermore,
erogeneity. Numerous plant species, poorly adapted building materials and surfaces vary widely. Apparently
to survive on their own either on the property or in buildings are responsible for nearly 40% of energy use,
nearby natural areas, are introduced and maintained nearly 40% of CO2 emissions, and more than 70% of
at low population sizes. Most important for these spe- electricity use in the USA. As highlighted in preced-
cies is weeding, which eliminates better competitors. ing chapters, the ecology of these structures differs
Suddenly stopping the management leads to rapid markedly.
extinction of most introduced populations. Since buildings are the prime linkage between
The area surrounding a property is a major con- people and natural systems in urban areas, environ-
trol on house-plot conditions. It provides a “rain of mental dimensions and people lie at the core of basic
seeds and animals” that enter according to wind dir- architectural building design (Woolley et al., 1997;
ection and slope, as well as the spatial arrangement of Jones, 1998; Pratt and Schaeffer, 1999; Spengler and
species sources, corridors, and stepping-stone rows. Chen, 2000; Matsunawa, 2000; Steele, 2004; Woodwell,
This rain tends to make nearby house properties simi- 2009). Highlights and foundations include the fol-
lar, and intense yard care is required to maintain dis- lowing. Solar angles and energy efficiency. Good
tinctiveness. Landscape ecology principles provide a indoor air quality. Natural-wind air ventilation. Solar
foundation for understanding, designing, and improv- hot water. Photo-voltaic or other solar energy cap-
ing patterns in house plots. Spatial arrangements and ture. Wind-generated electricity. Water conservation.
management can sustain the recycling of all or most Passive-solar/thermal-mass heating. Gray-water re-
organic matter, nutrients and water on-site. As Owen’s use. Natural lighting. Waste recycling. Minimal green-
(1991) garden suggests that biodiversity, especially of house-gas emission. Embodied life-cycle energy.
animal species, can be increased far above natural lev- In 1927, R. Buckminster Fuller (known for the geo-
els of biodiversity. desic dome) built a house using many of these princi-
ples, as have other designers (Vale and Vale, 2000; Roaf
Buildings et al., 2001). Such design foundations have become
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (600 BC), a group known as environmental design, green architecture,
of impressive buildings by the Euphrates River, were or green building (Yudelson, 2008; Mostafavi and
recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Doherty, 2010). Indeed, buildings with these founda-
Built by kings on terraces atop stone columns, the gar- tions missing or weak seem to almost ask “Why?”, espe-
dens apparently had trees rooted in the terraces, water cially over time. A rating certification-system (LEED)
gently flowing along sloping channels, a luxuriance of has emerged in the USA highlighting site develop-
flowers, and doubtless medicinal and edible plants. Yet ment, water use, energy efficiency, materials used,

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 Buildings

indoor air quality, and other environmental attributes with nature nearby. “Bringing buildings to life” indoors
(Yudelson, 2008).Overall, this certification system has is good for people, but also for nature.
served as a beneficial stimulus. So far, the ratings are
mainly used for commercial and government build-
ings. Extension of the approach to residences would Plants and animals
be a valuable step. Plants and animals on the exterior walls and roofs of
Yet the present certification system, focusing on buildings can be diverse and provide important human
physical environmental conditions, is only a first step. and ecological benefits. Wall plants can give urban resi-
The next big step is to address the equally import- dents a close experience with nature, watching growth,
ant biological dimensions of plants, animals, and flowering, pollinators, fruits, seeds, herbivores, and
microbes. Humans are deeply tied to the biological nesting animals (Figure 10.14). Cracks, crevices, holes,
world. Without adequate vegetation, buildings and cit- window boxes, balconies, open stairwells, and roofs are
ies feel sterilized. The array of opportunities and poten- familiar locations to view plants. Mortar decomposes
tial solutions beckons creative thinkers and designers. more rapidly than the adjoining bricks or stones, pro-
“Green architecture” has been characterized with viding roughness suitable for plant germination and
different emphases, such as “minimize environmen- growth (Laurie, 1979). The suitability (bioreceptivity)
tal impacts,” “integrate buildings with local natural of a material and surface in facilitating use by plants
ecosystems,” or “create positive benefits for the natural and animals varies widely (Guillitte, 1995; Miller et al.,
environment” (Yeang, 1999). Vernacular architecture 2010). Of course organisms also can degrade surfaces,
tailored to local physical and cultural places may be a extreme cases being a termite nest on a wooden build-
prime goal. Design with nature, or with a sense of place ing or a strangler fig (Ficus) root growing in a large hole
that includes nature, seems to best express the idea of (Robinson, 1996; Miller et al., 2010; Jim and Chen,
green architecture (McHarg, 1969; Kellert, 2005). 2011). Modern buildings with smooth surfaces and lit-
Indoor plants play a special role for biofiltration tle ornamentation tend to resist nature’s colonization
(cleaning of air) and for biophilia, as direct benefits processes. Usually spontaneous vegetation on build-
to people. Space exploration scientists have noted the ings is not a monoculture, but rather a simple natural
reduction of trace levels of air pollutants when using community, a few species coexisting.
plants and soil microbes in enclosed spaces (Wolverton Wall vegetation only 2–10 m above ground level
et al., 1984). Indoor plants are reported to reduce the has the greatest benefit in supporting urban wildlife
concentration of airborne particulate matter (PM) (Figure 10.14). The diversity of nesting birds, small
and toxic organic gases (toluene, ethyl-benzene and mammals, bees, butterflies, night insects, and other
xylene) (Lohr and Pearson-Mims, 1996; Darlington insects is greater at this approximately one- to two-
et al., 2000, 2001). Many environmental hazards, from story level than at higher levels.
cooking smoke to toxic gases from furnishings, exist A film of mainly green algae often thrives on flat
inside buildings (Bartuska and Young, 1994; Nielson or sloping surfaces, which receive ample rainwater, of
and Rogers, 2000; Hardoy et al., 2004; Kellert, 2005; certain construction materials and exposures (Miller
Yudelson, 2008). Nevertheless, biofiltration with more et al., 2010). Other microbes are typically mixed in.
plants, lower pollutant levels, and a low-to-medium Lichens tend to be less tolerant of air pollution includ-
ventilation rate can help clean the air. ing sulfur dioxide, and more tolerant of desiccation.
Biophilia, the inherent human affinity for nature, Though less predictable in distribution, lichens may
emphasizes that people evolved with, fundamentally be more frequent on vertical surfaces, high-pH mor-
depend on, and are inspired by nature (Wilson, 1984; tar between bricks, and (for certain species) surfaces
Ulrich, 1984; Lohr et al., 1996; Kahn and Kellert, 2002; affected by bird droppings. Mosses also may thrive on
Kellert, 2005; Kellert et al., 2008). Hospital patients somewhat rough moist surfaces, especially on shady
mend faster with a view of vegetation rather than a brick sides of buildings (Laurie, 1979).
wall. Worker attention and productivity are higher A study of walls on low-rise and high-rise build-
with indoor plants present. Prison inmates are more ings in old districts of Hong Kong recorded 692 woody
satisfied with a view of farmland or forest. Children’s plants of 11 species (Jim and Chen, 2010, 2011). Ten
mental development is greater around plants and ani- species were trees and one a shrub, 74% of which
mals. People have lower stress and more enjoyment were native species. The plant families represented

307
 Human structures

Figure 10.14. Heights of wall plants

and their wildlife values. Suitable wall
plants for London, a north-temperate
city. Highest growing plants = ivy (Hedera
helix; 30 m), Russian vine (Polygonum
bauldschianicum; 30 m), vine (Vitis spp.;
20 m), wisteria (Wisteria spp.; 18 m). Total
species = 5 self-clinging climbers, 14
twining climbers, 8 rambling shrubs.
Native plant species not in noticeably
higher proportion than non-natives for
north-versus-south sides, or for individual
wildlife values. 1 m = 3.28 ft. Adapted
from Johnston and Newton (1997).

were Moraceae [76%, composed of 7 fig (Ficus) spe- Worldwide, certain types of species seem frequent
cies], Apocynaceae, Bombacaceae, and Rutaceae. The or promising for growth on buildings. Planted plants
building-wall plants seem to have arrived when a fruit- in pots and window boxes often feature Geranium,
eating bird, bat or mammal fed on nearby fruits of the Impatiens, and Petunia, perhaps because of their desic-
species, and then defecated the undamaged seeds on cation- and pollution-tolerance. Edible, medicinal, and
the building. Rainwater probably then washed the spice plants are also commonly planted by people on
seeds into crevices with debris or soil, moist surfaces buildings. Perhaps the most frequent vines on build-
with cracks, and leaking drainpipes, the three primary ings are ivy (English ivy; Hedera helix), creeper (Boston
locations of the wall woody plants. Strangler fig spe- ivy or Virginia creeper; Parthenocissus tricuspidata);
cies such as Ficus macrocarpa also grow on buildings in certain fig species (Ficus); and wisteria (Wisteria),
Hawaii, India, Singapore, and Australia (Jim and Chen, though many vine species are present. “Epiphytes”
2011). Wall plants in tropical cities without frost can be (air plants frequently growing on other plants) such
especially diverse (Dos Reis et al., 2006). as ferns, orchids, and bromeliads, are especially con-
A summary of data from across Europe recognized spicuous on buildings in the tropics. Drought-adapted
>1200 vascular plants on walls, though many grew on species from deserts and Mediterranean-type climates
walls along gardens or property boundaries rather than may thrive on walls. Plants from rock cliffs are often
on buildings (Woodell, 1979; Showell, 1986). The base present. The relatively extreme conditions on building
of a wall commonly has an abundance of plants asso- walls may provide an opportunity for certain plants to
ciated with accumulated soil, mineral nutrients, and thrive in the near absence of competitors (Laurie, 1979).
organic matter (sometimes from wall plants above) Characteristics that tend to tie these diverse plant types
(Woodell, 1979). These species benefit from enhanced together are low maintenance, low water requirement,
moisture, lack of trampling, and minimal maintenance desiccation resistance, air pollution resistance, paucity
activity. of pollinators, and scarcity of herbivores.

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Animals, however, are also present on buildings, Creating these green streets is particularly useful where
sometimes in abundance (Bird et al., 1996; Cade et al., street trees are absent. Tropical green walls may have
1996; Adams et al., 2006). House sparrows and com- an abundance of epiphytes, and typically have a greater
mon pigeons (rock doves) are especially conspicuous on cover of moss (and hepatic) species.
buildings in most urban areas (see Chapter 9). Parakeets Green walls enhance urban plant diversity and pro-
may provide pleasure. Rodents, cockroaches, and even vide both habitats and stepping-stone connectivity for
monkeys may be pests. Termites and carpenter ants movement of animals. For instance, the evergreen ivy
cause structural damage to buildings. Spiders feed on (Hedera) provides nectar for pollinators, hibernation
insects. Lizards feed on insects and spiders. Bats roost in or overwintering sites for a diversity of insects, and
buildings, sleeping by day and foraging by night. Raptors shelter for the winter roosting of small birds. At cool
(some hawks and owls) nest on or in buildings. times butterflies absorb heat by spreading their wings
on walls or wall vegetation. In Uberlandia (Brazil),
Green walls 33 butterfly species, representing a quarter of the
Rock cliffs have been extensively studied for energy area’s species pool, were recorded on building walls
flux, wind, water, mineral nutrients, crevices, over- (Ruszczyk and Silva, 1997). Adults were found mainly
hangs, microhabitat heterogeneity, surface degradation, on exposed warm dry surfaces, while pupae were more
numerous plant types, and diverse animals (Gerrath often under protected shaded overhangs. Somewhat
et al., 1995; Ursic et al., 1997; Larson et al., 2000; Kuntz analogously, spiders were mainly on heat-retaining
and Larson, 2006). Abandoned or little-used rock locations, whereas their webs were mostly around
quarry faces have similar patterns (Wheater, 1999; cracks and crevices sheltered from direct sun and rain
Larson et al., 2000). Not surprisingly, cliff ecology has (Voss et al., 2007).
been used to understand urban buildings and walls. I have stood in awe, and with great curiosity, before
In urban areas, bricks-and-mortar, small wall cracks, two much-visited impressive green walls (living walls,
large crevices, window boxes, balconies, ornamented vertical gardens): in Paris at the Musée du Quai Branly
facades, outside stairwells, and many other structural (near the Eiffel Tower and the Musée des Égoutes de
features provide habitat heterogeneity supporting Paris); and in Madrid at the Paseo de Prado. Both are
diverse species (Dos Reis et al., 2006). However, overall walls of four- to five-level buildings, with water trick-
the present plant cover of walls is tiny, effectively appear- ling down through the plants from the top to a small
ing as scattered green spots. Walls represent the greatest trough at the bottom (Blanc, 2008). Nutrient fertilizer
potential for increasing vegetation in urban areas. is apparently added to the water.
The ecological functions or benefits for society seem Some 15 000 plants of 250 mostly native species were
impressive. Wall vegetation cools the air, humidifies the planted on the Madrid wall, which I relished watching
air, reduces stormwater runoff, reduces noise, filters air over two months during spring (Figure 10.15) (Box,
pollutants, and insulates, shades, and reduces UV radi- 2011). Sheets of mineral wool or felt are supported by
ation for buildings. Air cooling is related to wall area strong metal or plastic frames, and plants are com-
covered, not vegetation thickness, and one calculation monly inserted into small pockets in the sheet. Instead
suggests about a 5°C cooling of air just above street of producing a radial arrangement of foliage upward
level (Yeang, 1999; Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004). or outward, overall many plants tend to have a narrow
Wall plants are reported to reduce concentrations of downward form, presumably due to gravity and water.
airborne formaldehyde (especially by Philodendron), Thus, plants, as well as species, can be packed together.
benzene (especially by Hedera), and microbes, and Many cliff and waterfall species were planted. From the
decrease cadmium and lead levels. It seems prob- ground I could usually see about 15 species in flower –
able that airborne street dust would also be markedly reds, yellows, whites, and purples. Fruits were noticed
reduced by wall vegetation. The functions of wall vege- on one species. Habitat heterogeneity is present, as the
tation represent a significant research frontier. upper plants receive more wind and light, while lower
While overhangs, balconies and other structural plants are more shaded and moist.
features help cool street canyons, adding wall vege- Ecological succession of course occurs, so presum-
tation may be an important bonus (Johnston and ably numerous plants and species originally planted
Newton, 1997; Yeang, 1999; Beatley, 2000a; Shashua- were outcompeted and died quickly. The more aggres-
Bar and Hoffman, 2004; Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2007). sive or dominant species in these unusual conditions

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 Human structures

Extensive green walls may be a key component of such

an achievement. Creative designs are a delight to pon-
der (Yeang, 1999; Richards, 2001; Pacione, 2005; van
Bohemen, 2005; Newman and Jennings, 2008). Still,
four such built skyscrapers or high rises in Colombo
(Sri Lanka), Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, and Frankfurt
(Germany) stand as pioneers (Yeang, 1999; Gissen,
2003; Boeri and Insulza, 2009/10). Three are in tropical
Southeast Asia and one in Northern Europe.
The Colombo building has a long wind-facing
façade to reduce solar energy gain; limited height for
less elevator transport and energy usage; large over-
hangs; ground floor open; natural-light staircase; and
considerable local materials used, including wood
(Robson and Bawa, 2002; Ismail et al., 2011). The Kuala
Lumpur design has terraces and balconies; overhangs;
large windows; shading devices; double walls; wind
scoops and ducts; airflow slots; an open ground floor;
“cores” on the sunny hot side; courtyards on every
fifth level; and an open rooftop courtyard (Yeang and
Richards, 2007; Hart and Littlefield, 2011).
The Singapore structure has outside plants form-
ing a connected spiral or helix from street to sum-
mit, and almost all the species grow natively within
Figure 10.15. Green wall with dozens of plant species patches. 1.5 km (Yeang, 1999). Natural ventilation is incorpo-
Gravity and dripping water tend to make many patches extend rated, rainwater and recycled gray-water are used, and
downward; the bottoms of several patches have been cut away the considerable surface cover of vegetation cools by
leaving large holes for plants to grow in. Five-level building, Madrid.
R. Forman photo. evapo-transpiration.
The triangular Frankfurt structure also uses natural
ventilation, and has nine “sky gardens,” large partially
spread, a process accelerated by the added nutrients open levels with vegetation (Gissen, 2003). South-facing
(indeed recycled gray-water could be used). Doubtless gardens display Mediterranean plants including citrus,
the original planted biodiversity plummeted. So, to olive, thyme, and lavender. West-facing levels contain
keep a diverse appearance, maintenance personnel North American plants such as maple, rhododendron,
periodically cut back the dominants. Gardening on a and grass, while east-facing sides feature Asian plants,
wall resets nature’s process. especially magnolia, bamboo, and hydrangea.
In brief observations on ten days the paucity of ani- Of course, the hard test of future green-wall sky-
mals surprised me. I never saw a flying insect and only scraper success goes beyond plants and animals for dec-
observed three birds (house sparrows, Passer domesti- oration and human enjoyment. The vegetation must also
cus) in the watered vegetation. Even though many flow- provide benefits in cooling the air, humidifying the air,
ers were blooming in spring, animal diversity may well reducing stormwater runoff, reducing noise, filtering air
be higher in the summer. Green-wall plants could be pollutants, and insulating, shading, and reducing UV
selected, for instance, to have abundant nectar, pollen, radiation for buildings. Then the whole city benefits.
leaves for herbivorous insects, predatory invertebrates,
lizards, and birds.
Designing and building a skyscraper is the pinna- Green roofs
cle of many architects’ dreams. Using the solid envir- At first glance green roofs all look the same, a cover of
onmental foundations described at the outset of this plants. Quickly one sees dramatic differences mainly
section, along with a significant cover of plants for a based on two factors (Johnston and Newton, 1997;
>40-story (>150 m = 500 ft) building, is rare indeed. Beatley, 2000a; US Environmental Protection Agency,

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 Buildings

2000b; English Nature, 2003; Peck and Kuhn, 2003;

Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004). First, the basic goal or
function of the vegetated roof varies widely, from flower
and shrub garden for enjoyment, to growing vegetables
and fruits, maintaining a semi-natural meadow with
biodiversity, reducing heat loads, or reducing storm-
water runoff.
Two green roof types predominate based on soil
substrate thickness. An extensive green roof has a soil
substrate <10 cm (4 in) thick, whereas an intensive green
roof has deeper soil (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004; van
Bohemen, 2005; Hien et al., 2007). Soil thickness espe-
(a)
cially determines how much water, and hence weight,
may be present, and what plants will grow and survive.
Extensive green roofs with thin soil have low mainten-
ance requirements, are little-visited by people, support
relatively few animal species, and may be successful
on roof angles up to 25–30 degrees (Figure 10.16).
Normally very few plant species survive the desiccation
(or freezing) present. In contrast, intensive green roofs
with deeper soil hold considerable water and may be
irrigated. A relatively wide range of plants grows well,
though trees are usually avoided since extreme wind
velocity and turbulence occur periodically. People and
animals are often common on intensive green roofs.
Vegetated roofs provide several benefits for the
building, such as reducing fire hazard, prolonging the (b)
life of roof surfaces (by reducing extreme temperatures), Figure 10.16. Green roofs of different type. (a) Atop a five-level
insulating for warmth in winter, insulating for cooling hospital, a constructed meadow contains gravel areas, 10-cm-thick
soil areas with low plants, 20-cm soil areas with different taller
the building in summer, and reducing life-cycle cost plants, 30-cm-thick soil areas with still-different plant species
(Wong et al., 2002; Saiz et al., 2006; Oberndorfer et al., predominating, plus a few logs as perches for birds. High habitat
2007). However, just as for green walls, vegetated roofs heterogeneity supports considerable species diversity of beetles
and spiders. Basel, Switzerland; courtesy of Stephan Breinnesen. (b)
provide several outside urban air and water benefits. A Extensive sloping roof with mostly sedum (Sedum spp.) planted and
green roof contributes to cooling the air in warm peri- then colonized by taller flowers. Peri-urban Zurich, Switzerland. R.
ods, cleaning the air of varied pollutants, and reducing Forman photos.
stormwater runoff and potential flooding.
In summer the surface temperature of a green roof Air quality is also improved by vegetation (see
is almost as cool as a highly reflective white paint sur- Chapter 5). Various empirical studies suggest a
face, and is cooler than any other common roof surface decrease in airborne particulate matter (PM10) (Getter
(Takebayashi and Moriyama, 2007; Hien et al., 2007; and Rowe, 2006; Yang et al., 2008), such as 5 m2 of plant
Gartland, 2008). Rather than reflecting incoming cover annually removing 1 kg of particulates (van
energy, the plant cover cools by evapo-transpiration Bohemen, 2005). Decreases in SO2 and N2O gases are
(giving off latent heat; see Chapter 5). The cool vege- reported. Also most cadmium, copper, and lead (and
tation surface does not heat the air much, so air tem- some zinc) were removed from rainwater by roof vege-
perature is lower. Overall, in summer the vegetation tation (Velazquez, 2005; Getter and Rowe, 2006).
surface is cooler than the air, while in winter the surface Stormwater runoff is noticeably decreased by a green
is warmer than the air. If many urban buildings had roof (Beatley, 2000a; Scholz-Barth, 2001; Velazquez,
green roofs, estimates suggest that the urban air tem- 2005; Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004; Nicholaus et al.,
perature would be 0.5–2°C cooler (Velazquez, 2005; 2005; Gartland, 2008). In addition to reducing the
Saiz et al., 2006). amount of water running down drains, the peak flow is

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 Human structures

generally delayed a few hours. Even green roofs sloping rare or endangered. Pollinating insects are common on
at 25 degrees greatly reduce runoff (Getter et al., 2007). the flowers. House sparrows, common pigeons, and
Compared with a conventional black roof, a green roof wagtails (Moticilla) visit the meadow from time to
reduced water runoff from small rains by 90% and from time. Lapwings (Vanellus vanellus), a plover-like spe-
large rainfall events by 50%, in both cases also delaying cies, breed in the meadow. They have only successfully
peak flows (Carter and Rasmussen, 2006). An exten- raised one young in 4 years, perhaps due to limited
sive green roof with only 3 cm of soil (with a drainage food for the young. Heavy logs were added to attract
layer beneath) also markedly reduced runoff, but only black redstarts (Phoenicurus ochruros), so far with
until the soil was saturated, after which there was no limited success. Although not rare here, the birds use
stormwater benefit (Bengtsson et al., 2005). green roofs in London, where they are rare (Frith and
Rainwater may be captured and stored for the irri- Gedge, 2000). The 30 cm vegetated mounds are appar-
gation of intensive deep-soil green roofs, such as flower ently important for redstart breeding.
gardens and vegetable gardens (Roaf et al., 2001). The soil substrate for most green roofs poses a
Indeed, recycled gray-water may be particularly useful problem (Craul, 1992, 1999). Coarse-particle (sandy)
for roof irrigation. The filtration of rainwater chemi- soils readily absorb water, while fine-particle soils hold
cals by roof vegetation also helps clean the stormwater water and nutrients. High-nutrient fertilized soils
runoff (Velazquez, 2005). encourage rampant growth by a few species, whereas
Visiting a green roof atop an eight-level (story) low-to-medium fertility reduces weed dominance and
hospital in Basel (Switzerland), I unexpectedly expe- encourages rich plant diversity. Some vegetated roofs
rienced a remarkable “meadow in the sky” (Dunnett use irrigation, and some contain shaded and unshaded
and Kingsbury, 2004; Brenneisen and Haenggi, 2006). portions. Considerable clay, silt, or soil organic mater-
Indeed, normally meadows in a city are rare and ephem- ial may hold excessive water, creating weight problems,
eral, since they quickly become ball fields, lawn parks, frost heaving, and potential waterlogging of plant
or buildings. Dozens, even scores, of green roofs adorn roots. Sandy soils dry out too quickly. Considerable
buildings in Basel, as well as Zurich, and two vegetated lightweight “vermiculite” or similar horticultural-
roofs were close by the hospital meadow. rooting material in the soil holds water, but readily
A luxuriance of native plants and flowers, mostly blows away in the strong winds. Some specialists rec-
planted, surprised me. Normally the meadow absorbs all ommend a 5–8 cm (<10 cm) thick soil for growth of
water from rain of up to about 2.5 cm (1 in). One habitat sedum and grasses. Using soil from nearby natural
type, a large pebbly patch, had moss and few flowering land provides seeds of native species, though as noted
plants, and enhanced subsurface water runoff. in Chapter 8, some non-native species may be better
The other three habitats had sandy-silt soil (very lit- adapted than most native species to the severe environ-
tle clay) from nearby areas that contained local seeds. mental rooftop conditions (Kendle and Rose, 2000). As
Most common was a matrix of thin soil (about 10 cm in the meadow example, varying soil depth enhances
thick) covered by moss, sedum (a low succulent plant), biodiversity (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004; Gedge and
and seedlings of many species. Within this low vegeta- Kedas, 2005; Brenneisen and Haenggi, 2006).
tion was an abundance of small mounds or areas about A wide variety of plants grows on green roofs,
20 cm high, and some larger mounds 30 cm high. The even excluding the rich tropics (Kohler et al., 2002;
thicker soils supported grasses, aster, yellow-flowered Snodgrass and Snodgrass, 2006). Thus, 135 species of
composites, blue-flowered plants, and many other spe- vascular plant were recorded on 636 green roofs in the
cies. Still, the vegetation on 20 cm of soil looked quite UK (English Nature, 2003). The predominant species
different from that on 30 cm of soil. The four micro- are Sedum acre, 34% of the roofs; Saxifraga, 21%; Poa
habitats differed in water drainage. Habitat heterogen- (grass), 15%; Senecio, 13%; Stellaria, 5%; Cardamine,
eity had produced a meadow with relatively rich plant 5%; Acer pseudoplatanus (a maple), 4%; Oymbalaria,
species diversity. Naturally, the meadow changes as 4%; and Sedum reflexum, 4%. Deeper-soil inten-
ecological succession proceeds. About ten seedlings of sive green roofs support a much greater diversity of
woody plants appear each year, and grass species have plants, but are more idiosyncratic and different from
expanded in cover. one another, and ironically less studied ecologically
Ground beetles and spiders seem to thrive in the (Stevens and Harpur, 1997; Dunnett and Kingsbury,
meadow, the latter including 90 species, of which 20 are 2004).

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 Buildings

Extensive thin-soil roofs are mostly covered with function at a finer spatial scale (Stevens and Harpur,
sedum (Sedum species), though sempervivum, thyme, 1997). Although still a hypothesis, the abundance of
allium, phlox, and antenaria may also be common green roofs in an urban area, such as in many German
(Scholz-Barth, 2001). Sedum is especially suitable in and Swiss cities, potentially provides stepping stones
such dry situations because it produces organic com- for movement of certain species across an urban area
pounds for growth in a process (crassulacean acid (Schrader and Boning, 2006).
metabolism) analogous to photosynthesis during day- Migrating birds over an extensive urban area would
time, but without opening its stomates (pores) and los- potentially stop on a green roof for a day or so en route.
ing water molecules (Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004). However, migrants especially need food, as well as
Plants with wind-dispersed seeds, and growing atop cover for resting, neither of which is present in abun-
buildings with high winds, may readily colonize other dance on green roofs. Furthermore, most songbirds
green roofs. Little information is yet available on the migrate in flocks. A semi-natural greenspace at ground
species composition and abundance of algae, mosses, level is best for such migrants, and even ornamental
and lichens in green roofs (Oberndorfer et al., 2007). plantings provide cover.
Certain groups of animals are scarce or absent in Chicago’s ten-level City Hall is covered with a green
green roofs. Strong winds, and perhaps an abundance roof, much being the thin-soil extensive type. Yet a het-
of insect-eating bats, limit butterflies, moths, and most erogeneous mix of soil depths is also present, including
other flying insects (Velazquez, 2005). Frost, if present, mounds for trees and shrubs over underlying support
eliminates any earthworms, snails, and amphibians structures (Daley and City of Chicago, 2002; Dunnett
that arrive. Little cover is present for animals to escape and Kingsbury, 2004). Over 150 plants, mostly native
the eyes of predatory crows and gulls. Ants, bugs, species from the Chicago Region, were planted. The
flies, bees, and springtails (collembolans) are often vegetation contributes to reducing local ozone, nitro-
observed in green roofs. However, ground beetles and gen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide levels (Yang et al., 2008).
spiders seem to be common (Brenneisen and Haenggi, Bird houses added have been used by various species.
2006; Schrader and Boning, 2006; Oberndorfer et al., Many key people visiting the Mayor’s tenth-floor office
2007). Indeed, the number of rare spider species in have thus experienced an intriguing hybrid extensive-
Basel green roofs is equivalent to the number in nearby intensive green roof.
urban ground habitats (abandoned railroad locations) Urban agriculture on rooftops as yet seems to be
of high nature-conservation value. little-studied ecologically. Rabbits are raised on Havana
Seagulls, common pigeons, house sparrows, and rooftops (Premat, 2005). Various vegetables and fruits
other common birds often briefly visit green roofs. and spices are grown. The constraints on rooftop food
A few songbird species use vegetated roofs for feed- production, however, are many: need for irrigation; soil
ing and/or nesting (Yeang, 1999 Frith and Gedge, texture limitations; soil desiccation; soil freezing; soil
2000; Dunnett and Kingsbury, 2004). Some coastal blowing away; waterlogging; damage by high winds; air
birds find pebble or gravel areas, such as those on pollutants; and few pollinators. Still, advantages exist
green roofs, suitable for nesting (Duncan et al., for green-roof farming, including ample sun, relatively
2001). Peregrines (Falco peregrinus) use fine gravel few weeds, few herbivores, availability of both water
for nesting but also require cover from precipitation and gray-water; and a paucity of people problems.
and wind. Grassland birds might be attracted to roof Finally, the many uses and benefits of green roofs
meadows. Adding heavy logs to a green roof provides suggest a bright future and expansion. Environmental
perches for birds and habitat for some invertebrates. benefits to air temperature, air quality, and stormwater
Also, low berry-producing shrubs would attract cer- runoff are key challenges in cities. Benefits of cooling,
tain birds. warming, and prolonging roof life accrue to build-
At ground level, numerous courtyards or patios ings themselves. Urban agriculture, meadows for bio-
with trees projecting upward, as in cities of Latin diversity, flower gardens for enjoyment, and extensive
America and the Mediterranean Basin, probably func- greenspaces in the sky enrich the city. Extend green
tion as stepping stones for the movement of birds and roofs to a wider range of buildings in urban areas, and
other flying animals across an urban area (Beatley, multiply by the number of buildings present and to be
2000a; Shashua-Bar and Hoffman, 2004). Perhaps built. How large could the cumulative benefit be? “The
balconies with vegetation provide the stepping stone sky’s the limit.”

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 Part III Urban features

Residential, commercial, industrial areas

Chapter

11
A city that outdistances man’s walking powers is Mixed use, in this case where commercial and manu-
a trap. facturing sites are intermixed with residential land, is
Arnold Toynbee, quoted in The American an alternative to relatively large separate residential,
Land, 1979 commercial, and industrial areas. The large separate
types largely result from common human preferences
… features which permit a rich flora and fauna to sur- and shared resources, sometimes enhanced by zoning
vive—the squalor, rubbish, old buildings and machin- regulations that try to keep types separate. Mixed use
ery, derelict huts, rotting dumps, inefficient handling provides richness at a finer scale, such as urban land
… Bags burst, containers leak, … approved methods of combining residences, small fields for growing food,
waste disposal are not always followed and the result is small parks, shops, restaurants, local craft or manu-
a persistent scatter of alien plants … facturing shops, entertainment spots, grocery stores,
Oliver L. Gilbert, The Ecology of Urban cultural centers, government buildings, walkways, and
Habitats, 1991 common-area meeting places (Figure 11.1). A particu-
In describing your city to a friend on a distant con- lar value of mixed-use land is a reduction in transpor-
tinent, you send stunning photos of a favorite park, a tation costs, time, and environmental effects. People
museum, a historic site, the sports stadium, and the mainly work and shop closer to where they live. Mixed
skyscraper area. She warmly thanks you for glimpses use also maintains considerable habitat diversity, and
of these spots, but wonders if you could explain what therefore a relative richness of species.
your metro area is really like. Surprised but intrigued, I have an urban-sociologist friend who years ago,
you quickly get your camera and make a list of places to figuratively speaking, “radio-tracked” people to deter-
photograph. Where do we live, work, and shop? mine their daily “human home ranges” in the Boston
For residential areas, maybe single-family house area. For this, he had families from city center, inner
plots, low-rise apartments/condominiums, high rises, suburb, and outer suburb record where every family
courtyard/patio housing, and even informal squatter member went every day. Children went to schools, hus-
settlement are to be photographed. For commercial bands and wives to workplaces, and different people
areas, take photos of the city-center business district, went varied directions and distances to meetings,
an office center, town center, strip/ribbon develop- shops, restaurants, parks, entertainment sites, and so
ment, shopping mall, warehouse trucking center, and forth. The home ranges of daily movements of each per-
certainly neighborhood streets with small shops. For son and each family were then mapped. Preliminary
industrial areas, photos of both active manufacturing data suggested that all family home ranges were highly
sites and post-industrial brownfields are important. asymmetric (non-circular), quite large, and not very
These residential, commercial, and industrial types, different from city center to outer suburb. Such stud-
covering the bulk of your urban area, are introduced ies would be quite useful for planning, especially to
in this chapter in an ecological context. Each land-use reduce human home-range sizes, plus transportation
type listed above has both positive and negative eco- and environmental effects in urban areas. Mixed use is
logical dimensions. Mapping the positives and nega- a key way to shrink human home ranges.
tives over an urban area would be extremely interesting The topics in this chapter follow in five groups: (1)
and useful for ecological understanding, as well as for city residential areas; (2) suburban residential areas;
wise planning. (3) city-center commercial area; (4) commercial areas

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 City residential areas

© National Diet Library website. (Partially used and placed two images together)
Figure 11.1. Mixed-use suburban or peri-urban area. Clustered single-unit residential houses (lower right); shops, restaurants (serving
delicious fish), craftsman’s workshops (local manufacturing), and residential houses (center areas under clouds); food production (rice
paddies and vegetable gardens) (lower right); tiny public garden space (center of block above bridge); temple public garden and courtyard
community space (left center); tiny horticultural and semi-natural patches (upper right and left); at top, water in gaseous form evokes the
sense of liquid water. Walking and boat transportation (for commerce) predominate; few vehicles (not shown); horse (center right). Kamedo
in 1818, outer Edo area of today’s Tokyo; Tenjin Bridge (bottom); Kamedo Temple (beyond image to left).Courtesy and with permission of the
National Diet Library Website, Tokyo; and with appreciation to Taco Iwashima Matthews for assistance.

dispersed across the urban area; and (5) industrial Suppose we took seriously the value of a venerable
areas. Many of the subjects are introduced in other tree (older than the oldest of us). Or a vernal pool, or
chapters and other ecological contexts, including house an uncommon (but not rare) bird, or even a small patch
plots (Chapters 8, 9 and 10), suburban developments of native plants. Or at the broader scale, uninterrupted
(Chapters 2 and 8), city center (Chapter 5), and flows clear fish-rich streams, or connectivity for all wildlife
and changes (Chapter 3). Thus, the following sections across the land. If we did, no sidewalks and buildings
are designed to highlight the subjects, briefly outline would be built on soil around ancient trees. A street
key ecological dimensions, and provide entrees into would be closed when the scarce bird begins to nest.
the literature. Only bridges wider than a stream’s floodplain would
be built. Stepping on or walking a dog on the patch of
City residential areas plants would be off limits. And so forth.
For a society espousing ecological or environmental The present subject of residential areas in city and
sensitivity, should the goal be to reduce the rate of envir- inner suburb has yet to directly capture the attention
onmental degradation? Or to have no net degradation? of ecologists. Nevertheless, lots of principles and infor-
Or to improve existing environmental conditions? mation on residential air, water, plants, animals and

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 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

more in the preceding chapters are useful here. To outdoor-community space, and maybe office space are
supplement this foundation, spatial patterns from the common.
planning, design, engineering, and architecture fields Insights into high-rise and low-rise residential
are often useful (Jacobs, 1961; Watson et al., 2003; areas commonly highlight people and housing-unit
Sorensen, 2004; Urban Land Institute, 2008). Digging densities, dimensions of features, and changes over
through the extensive, normally anthropocentric, lit- time (Hartshorn, 1992; Lynch and Hack, 1996; Panerai
erature to discover bits of serious ecology probably et al., 1999; Watson et al., 2003; Berke et al., 2006;
would be a rewarding, as yet unexplored, enterprise. Bosselmann, 2008; Dunham-Jones and Williamson,
The few rigorous studies of ecological development, 2009). “Transit-oriented development,” whereby hous-
sustainability, smart growth, and the like should also ing and shops are concentrated near urban rail stations,
offer valuable insights to dovetail into urban ecology. usually emphasizes concentrated low-rise develop-
Residential areas of city and inner suburb are typic- ment (Cervero, 1998; Newman and Kenworthy, 1999;
ally covered by a small number of diverse housing types, Charles and Barton, 2003; Ryan and Throgmorton,
with lots of variations (Figure 11.2a to e): high-rise; 2003; Frumkin et al., 2004; Handy, 2005; Forman,
low-rise; stable low-income; informal squatter; court- 2008).
yard/patio; and linear attached single-unit. Detached High-rise and low-rise clusters or developments are
house plots (Figure 11.2f to h) are commonly present commonly built near existing or potential jobs, some-
but will be considered in the following section on sub- times responding to, sometimes stimulating, nearby
urban housing. Upper- and middle-income residential industry or business. The former is illustrated by a city
areas cut across several of the housing types. (Ordos, Inner Mongolia, China) recently built for 300
Eight contrasting forms or types of residential areas 000 people and covered with high rises and low rises. In
seem to characterize the range of types in urban regions the initial years it only attracted a tenth of that number,
worldwide (Figure 11.2). To compare these ecologically apparently due to limited employment opportunity.
I qualitatively evaluated each type for 22 ecologically Low rises are widespread (mostly seven levels, which
related variables (e.g., see Table 7.1). Negative func- there do not require costly elevators), while each clus-
tions or roles (relative to habitats, plants, animals, soil, ter of high rises is designed for several thousand or a
air, water) strongly outweigh positives in three residen- few tens of thousands of residents.
tial types (Figure 11.2, b, d). Positives also predominate Normally impervious surfaces with associated heat,
in three cases (c, g, h). For residential areas, the vari- pollutant, and water problems predominate in high-
ables with positive and negative roles are about equally rise and low-rise developments. Almost no semi-nat-
distributed between the habitat/plant/animal variables ural vegetation is present. Street trees and small lawn
and the soil/air/water variables. areas provide some greenery. Window-box plants, bird
feeders, and the like are usually scarce. Animals mainly
Multi-unit high-rise, low-rise dependent on human food and garbage, including
High-rise residential areas with, for instance, 8 (or 12) to mice, rats, raccoons, and cockroaches, dominate the
50 levels (stories, floors), concentrate a dense popu- fauna.
lation by stacking numerous housing units atop one
another (Figure 11.2a). Some 600 units/ha (240/acre) is Informal-squatter and low-income areas
characteristic, though the number varies widely. Many In one generation, from 2005 to 2030, the world’s low-
features are associated with this concentrated popula- income urban population is expected to double from
tion, including close-by food supermarket, shopping about 1 to 2 billion (UN Population Division, 2007).
department store, car parking, boulevard or highway, The ramifications of this seemingly inevitable trajec-
public transport, employment (e.g., light industry), tory are likely to affect almost all aspects of the human
small shops, and restaurants. The ecological dimen- and natural worlds. Nothing ecological will escape our
sions for many of these are explored in sections below. explosion of the world’s urban poor.
On the other hand, low-rise housing of 3–7 levels Low-income areas are remarkably diverse. In tidy
(for example with 150 units/ha) supports fewer but neighborhoods, stability and pride seem to overcome
still-dense people (Figure 11.2b). Most of the preced- inadequate funds. “Slums” are variously described
ing features are present, though perhaps less parking as squalid run-down areas to live in a city (Webster’s
and no department store or supermarket. More park, College Dictionary, 1991), or urban settlements where

316
 City residential areas

(a) (b) (c) Figure 11.2. Eight forms of urban/

suburban residential types. Buildings
mainly with (a) 8 (or 12) to 50 levels, (b)
3–7 levels, (c) 1–2 levels, (d) to (h) 1–3
levels. Forms are illustrated in (c) Rio de
Janeiro, (d) Fez (Morocco), (e) England,
(f) to (h) North America. 1 housing
unit/ha = 0.4 units/acre. Based on
Rowe (1991), Panerai et al. (1999), Bianca
(2000), Habraken (2000), Mendez (2005),
American Planning Association (2006),
Giusti de Perez and Perez (2008), and
other sources.

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h)

more than half the residents live with inadequate hous- The “Gini coefficient of inequality” has been used to
ing and lack basic services (UN-Habitat, 2007). Urban pinpoint the extent of low-income-area patterns in a
scholars and planners have described many spatial, city (see equations, Appendix B).
socioeconomic and environmental aspects of slums, A rapidly growing type of low-income area is the
from London and Chicago to many cities in developing informal squatter settlement (shantytown, favela,
nations (Hall, 2002; Pacione, 2005; UN-Habitat, 2006). asentimiento), particularly in developing nations

317
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

Forman, 2008; Giusti de Perez and Perez, 2008; Hooper

and Ortolano, 2012).
Three widespread urban situations, i.e., the pres-
ence of steep slopes, swampy or floodable land, and
industrial pollution, create severe environmental con-
ditions for housing (Figure 11.4). In addition, severe
disaster events (especially earthquake, landslide, and
flood) affect squatter housing markedly more than
they affect other housing areas. Daily living is a chal-
lenge in an informal squatter settlement.
Virtually all low-income communities have inad-
equate or a lack of basic government services, such
(a) as clean-water supply, stormwater drainage, human
wastewater system, erosion control, flood control,
solid-waste handling, public transport, and more.
In some communities, rainwater is captured by vari-
ous devices on or above roofs and temporarily stored
in tanks, so that pipes and gravity provide water for
household uses. However, breeding mosquitoes and
pollutants in the water tend to become a public health
problem. Alternatively, the provision of public water
sources in common spaces throughout the community
may be a relatively inexpensive and environmentally
safer way to provide water to everyone. Water is a daily
requirement for the human body.
Controlling stormwater, erosion, and some flood-
ing usually requires a widespread stormwater drainage
system of pipes and often basins. However, with the
(b)
impervious surfaces of roofs often exceeding 50% of the
Figure 11.3. Informal squatter settlements as a growing area (Figure 11.2c), the above-roof system of captur-
proportion of the world’s urban population. (a) Informal housing
as the matrix surrounding patches of multi-unit housing. Mumbai. ing and slowing runoff becomes a key part of a storm-
Courtesy and with permission of Niall Kirkwood. (b) Hillslope water drainage system. Human feces and wastewater
settlement of 1- to 3-level buildings, scattered trees, and access frequently accumulate in and seep out of the ground,
street on right. Sao Paulo. Courtesy and with permission of William
Laurance. and drain down roads and other channels. Wastewater
poses the greatest environmental challenge where
no, or an inadequate, sewage system exists. The pub-
(Figure 11.2c). This is a residential area of predomin- lic health risks are also considerable, particularly with
antly recent migrants to the city who arrived with little no sewage treatment facility. Water supply, water use,
or no funds and have not paid for the land or its occu- stormwater, and human wastewater can be integrated
pation (Figure 11.3). A burgeoning literature on infor- in various ways, including recycling (see Chapter 6).
mal squatter settlements worldwide highlights their In short, water-related issues are one major key to eco-
locations in the metro area, environmental “disasters,” logically suitable low-income communities. Chemical
economic and social dimensions, government and and particulate air pollutants from nearby industries,
NGO services, employment, and sometimes ingenious which sometimes provide jobs, may also be a huge per-
solutions for living in a difficult situation (Hartshorn, vasive problem (Auyero and Swistun, 2009).
1992; Main and Williams, 1994; El-Bushra and Hijazi, The other big key focuses on habitats, plants, and
1995; Gupta and Asher, 1998; Bakir, 2001; Baken, 2003; animals. In informal squatter settlements usually many
Hardoy et al., 2004; Pacione, 2005; Brillemburg et al., or most residents have recently come from rural areas.
2005; Neuwirth, 2006; Kramer, 2006; Swaminathan Often scattered trees and other vegetation are present
and Goyal, 2006; Benton-Short and Short, 2008; (Figure 11.3) and seemingly treasured by the residents

318
 City residential areas

ignore most material; some items are of interest (here

economically), and occasionally treasures appear.
Along the main muddy roads are numerous tiny shops
sorting things, cutting away useless parts, and com-
pressing or otherwise preparing materials to sell. A
mule pulling a wooden wagon waited by a large scale as
men weighed a load of material. The few women seen
walked the roads with head high, and scattered chil-
dren used the little-traffic roads for play.
Trees and bits of vegetation representing early suc-
cessional habitats were scattered at low density. No evi-
dence of plantings, whether fruit trees, vegetables or
spices, was noted, perhaps suggesting that most people
were new or considered their stay to be temporary.
Figure 11.4. Low-income housing areas relative to severe Wind eddies twirled dust particles in a dance, mir-
environmental conditions and events. Cities illustrated are mainly rored by blue sky at the edge of a metro area. The only
among those with the most “severities.” Adapted from Main and visible indication of water was a line of wet soil down
Williams (1994).
the center of a few roads, the telltale sign of wastewater
seepage. Small single-level household structures were
as a last thin link with their home area. Probably many built of wonderfully diverse materials, mainly from
of the trees and vegetation are spontaneously grown the dump.
native species (Rapoport, 1993), unlike most trees Piles of dusty pipes and a bulldozed basin down-
in formal neighborhoods and city parks. Thus, many slope of the squatter settlement suggested that either
native birds, insects, pollinators, and so forth are likely the community or the government was slowly planning
to survive, even thrive, along with the many species a combined stormwater and wastewater drainage sys-
dependent on people and their food resources. tem. I did not feel welcome, and the police in advance
The dispersed bits of nature across squatter settle- emphasized that we must always keep our car windows
ments provide stepping stones for movement of species. and doors shut. Nevertheless, as in Rio, this favela was a
Microhabitats are tiny but highly diverse, reflecting community of people daily interacting with conspicu-
environmental gradients across the settlement, power- ous natural processes.
ful recurring water and earth changes, and the inher-
ent heterogeneity of land and vegetation before the Courtyard/patio and attached
settlement. Then add the heterogeneous distribution
of structures, materials, pollutants, heat, stormwater, single-unit housing
and wastewater from humans. The movement of ani- Since housing types in a city basically fit within a street
mals and seeds, plus the successional processes, must network, it is useful to briefly consider the major forms
be exceedingly interesting in such a changing micro- or types of city blocks present worldwide (Figure 11.5).
mosaic. Overall biodiversity may be rather high in Eleven city block forms or types were recognized,
informal squatter settlements. A research frontier lies and compared by qualitatively evaluating each using
in wait. 13 ecologically related variables (related to habitats,
I encapsulated an ecologist’s impressions of an plants, animals, soil, air, water) (e.g., see Table 7.1).
informal squatter settlement in the mangrove swamp Variables with negative roles or functions strongly out-
of a Rio de Janeiro floodplain, especially the remark- weigh positives for five city block forms (Figure 11.5,
able solutions for living by apparently unrelated people b, c, d and e). Positives predominate in two cases (h, i).
without financial resources (Forman, 2008). Since then The total amount of vegetated area is the prime overall
I visited a “dump favela” in Brasilia, where residents predictor of negative and positive environmental con-
harvest and improve salable discarded resources from ditions for city block types.
a large city dump. Searching through the continuously The patio or courtyard residence – characteristic
enriched accumulation of material never ends. Like of Latin America, Middle East, North Africa, else-
archaeologists and all explorers, residents essentially where in the Mediterranean Basin, and the hutongs of

319
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

(a) (b) (c) Figure 11.5. Eleven alternative forms of

urban blocks. Examples from (e) Cairo, (f)
Barcelona, (g) Guatemala City, (h) Hohhot
(China), (i) Beijing, (j) Vienna, (k) Auckland,
Kansas City (USA). Based on Siksna (1997),
Dutton (2000), Habraken (2000), Bianca
(2000), De Watson et al. (2003), American
Planning Association (2006), Bosselman
(2008), and other sources.
(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h)
(i)

(j) (k)

China – has rooms opening inward to a tiny open space At a community scale, the trees and sometimes
surrounded by a narrow terrace-arcade against sun and vines protruding upward in patios create a rather
rain (Bianca, 2000) (see Figure 10.9a). Typically one or regularly distributed abundance of green spots
a few trees are present, along with a small central water (Figure 11.5g). Although apparently unstudied, this
source and a variety of plants. Basically the plants are pattern doubtless provides numerous stepping stones,
planted and cared for, and mainly provide flowers and and alternative routes, for the movement of birds, bats,
edible or other useful products. Colonizing plants (or and flying insects such as butterflies and other pollina-
weeds) are usually present in low numbers. In some tors (Figure 11.2d). Moreover, the idiosyncratic nature
less-dense areas, the rear portion of a property is open of plantings by residents creates a rich pattern of green
and used for growing vegetables and sometimes farm spots, effectively high habitat diversity across the court-
animals (see Figure 10.9b). yard/patio community.
Life in a patio residence highlights a quiet and An analogous pattern may occur with patios/court-
private space where residents closely relate to indi- yards in urban low-rise residential areas. For instance,
vidual plants and animals, and intensely feel nature’s the Eixample or “Cerda” area of Barcelona generally
overhead power of Sun, Moon, stars, clouds and rain. began with four- or five-level buildings facing streets
Family activities, from making things to eating, clothes around a block, and a central common space with
drying, and moving from room-to-room, are centered plants (Figure 11.5f) (Boada and Capdevila, 2000;
in the arcade and patio. As in the preceding case, how- Pallares-Barbera, 2005). Often, over time, the com-
ever, water drainage issues are often a problem. mon space was subdivided into individual gardens,

320
 Suburban and peri-urban/exurban residential areas

and progressively shrank as buildings expanded from the species using the wider, more diverse, and
inward. Central courtyards in low-rise urban buildings more natural back-space corridors. Thus in cities,
are often small, deep, covered mainly with impervious back-space and front-space house-plot corridors tie an
surface, embellished with some planted plants, and/or attached-single-unit-housing neighborhood together
covered overhead with glass. Consequently, their com- ecologically.
bined ecological value is less than that for one- or two-
level residential areas. Suburban and peri-urban/exurban
I briefly lived in a city-center five-level building
backed by a large central courtyard. The 30-m (100- residential areas
ft) diameter courtyard contained some small trees, Apparently “suburbs” originally were settlements that
shrubs, flowers, water, vines on certain walls, bits of appeared just outside and downslope of the city wall of
spontaneous successional habitat, and birds roosting medieval hilltop towns or cities (Stilgoe, 1988). Today
and feeding. This large courtyard was probably of par- in a general sense, suburbs are the predominately
ticular ecological importance for the neighborhood of residential areas adjoining cities (see Chapter 1). For
low rises. instance, several German cities today seem to be ringed
Lines of attached single-unit housing, as in the UK by a 10-km (6-mi) wide band of suburbs (Breuste,
and elsewhere, create distinctive but quite different spa- 2009).
tial and ecological patterns (Figure 11.2e) (UCD Urban Yet a researcher studying the outer built area of a
Institute Ireland, 2008). Each residence has a front Swiss city commented that she was studying peri-urban,
space (yard, garden) and a back space (see Chapters 2, not suburban, areas. By way of explanation, after dec-
8 and 9). A row of adjoining front spaces lines each side ades of watching American movies, Europeans clearly
of a street. This effectively produces two parallel green know that suburbs are covered by lines of detached
corridors or front-space strips separated by a street with houses surrounded by lawns in large lots, and inter-
traffic. Flower gardens of ornamental and horticultural spersed with commercial strip (ribbon) development
varieties tend to predominate in front spaces, some of and shopping malls. No such pattern existed by her
which may also contain a small lawn and/or spontan- city. Instead, the peri-urban area of European cities
eous vegetation. Planted street trees, if present, provide normally has compact housing developments appear-
shade and other ecological features to the front-space ing adjacent to the urban built area.
strips. Usually, overall habitat diversity is relatively Rapidly expanding cities in developing nations
high along a front-space strip of attached single-unit and elsewhere today usually spread in this European
housing. In addition, the green strips differ on opposite way, with compact development rolling outward from
sides of a street. the metro-area border. However, if development is
Yet the back spaces of attached housing are of prime low density (e.g., sprawl) and/or separated from the
ecological interest. The row of adjacent back spaces for metro-area border, as typical in North America, we
houses on one street adjoins the row of back spaces for use the term exurban. Compact peri-urban develop-
houses on the next parallel street. This creates a rather ment is mainly on farmland, whereas dispersed North
wide green back-space corridor down the middle of a American exurban development may occur on both
block, effectively protected from vehicle-traffic noise farmland and natural land beyond it. This also means
and people movement along streets. Furthermore, that in most of the world the expansion process is urban-
house-plot backlines (see Chapter 10), commonly with ization. The North American pattern, also present in
a concentration of spontaneous and native species, scattered areas worldwide, is effectively suburbaniza-
form the center of the green corridor. In short, usu- tion or suburban expansion. Urbanization patterns are
ally the double-strip back-space corridors exhibit quite much studied by urban scholars, planners, and others
high habitat diversity and biodiversity. (Hardoy et al., 2004; Tacoli, 2006; UN-Habitat, 2006;
The other important ecological characteristic of Torres et al., 2007; Biggs et al., 2010). Suburbanization
attached single-unit housing is the connectivity for is also well described (Audouin and Loubiere, 1996;
species movement provided by the back- and front- Berger, 2004; Stanilov and Scheer, 2004; Caldiron,
space corridors. Although apparently unstudied, pre- 2005; Forsyth, 2005; Phelps et al., 2006; Lukez, 2007).
sumably the species moving along the front street-side Nevertheless, we usually use the familiar term, urban-
(and sometimes tree-lined) strips differ somewhat ization, referring to both processes.

321
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

Neighborhood ecology, with its promising theoret-

ical and conceptual roots, has been explored in earl-
Changing patterns
ier literature (Forman, 1995, 2008), and touched on in … success in the future was surrendering space and
privacy. … solutions were minimalist: good but narrow
preceding Chapters 2, 8 and 10. Also urban studies and
roads, rooms designed for midgets, jammed subways,
planning literature has provided numerous insights tiny restaurants, the whole landscape miniaturized and
into neighborhood spatial patterns, housing, sociology, cemented over. … the likeliest solution to survival in an
movement patterns, differences, planning, design, overcrowded world …
changes, and other factors (Beatley, 2000a; Steiner, Paul Theroux, Ghost Train to the Eastern
2002; Ozawa, 2004; Hardoy et al., 2004; Pacione, 2005; Star, 2008
Klunder, 2005; Erickson, 2006; Newman and Jennings,
2008; Andrzejewski, 2009). Typically, outward urbanization occurs on farmland
In essence, neighborhood ecology has a func- (and former farmland) characterized by farmsteads,
tional foundation, similar to that of an urban region local roads, and scattered recent houses of people inter-
based on active linkages between city and ring- acting in the farm community. Wetlands mostly drained
around-the-city (see Chapter 2) (Forman, 2008). or filled, muddy streams, first-order streams transformed
Active flows and movements of water, air, species, to often-dry drainage ditches, narrow hedgerow/road-
and people tie a neighborhood together, and differen- side/streamside vegetation strips, and scattered patches
tiate it from adjoining neighborhoods. The strength of semi-natural vegetation (usually on poor agricultural
of these flows and movements helps determine the soil) are also characteristic. Often beyond the farmland
relative distinctness of ecological neighborhoods. Of is continuous natural vegetation (Forman, 2008).
course, similarities in spatial patterns also help delin- Changing the spatial pattern of an area over time
eate neighborhoods. Planning, based on these link- implies creating different conditions, altered flows and
ages, rather than simply spatial pattern, should lead movements, and changes in the way an area works.
to a more “sustainable” or ecological neighborhood. Perhaps the best way to understand the ecology of
In such a place, natural systems work much more nat- changing peri-urban or exurban areas is to highlight
urally, and ongoing maintenance, repair, and replace- three key sequential ecological phases of urbanization,
ment budgets are lower. and their common characteristics.
The distribution of greenspaces and green corridors 1. Altered wildlife pattern phase. With the onset of
relative to housing types, road network, and the cen- urbanization, the routes, movement patterns,
ter of a community is a key to neighborhood ecology. population sizes, and distribution patterns of
Ten contrasting forms or types of suburban develop- wildlife are significantly altered. This alteration
ment seem to encapsulate the patterns found in urban results from (Vail, 1987): the introduction of a
regions worldwide (Figure 11.6). I made a qualitative few housing developments; widened local roads;
comparison of these types based on 19 ecologically increased vehicle traffic; more traffic noise/
related variables (similar to that of Table 7.1). Overall, disturbance; busier town centers; more people and
negative roles or functions (relative to habitats, plants, dogs walking in natural areas and field margins;
animals, soil, air, water) strongly outweigh positives in and loss of some farmland hedgerows.
four cases (Figure 11.6, b, e and f). Positives predom- 2. Metapopulation and disrupted water phase. In the
inate in three cases (d, i and j). The presence of a large middle phase of outward urbanization, farmland
or medium-sized vegetation patch is the best predictor habitat is noticeably decreased and fragmented.
of overall positive environmental conditions in these Many semi-natural vegetation patches are
suburban development types. degraded, reducing species population sizes.
As in the preceding sections, most of the con- Wildlife movement patterns are blocked and
cepts needed to understand the ecology of suburban disrupted by housing developments and busy
areas have been outlined in earlier chapters, especially roads. “Metapopulations” proliferate, whereby
Chapters 2 and 8. Here we pinpoint a few concepts and usually small populations of a species are separated
provide some references as entrees into the literature. in different sites and only occasionally do
Since change produces patterns, we begin with change, individuals successfully move between the sites.
and then consider spatial patterns. Consequently, the small populations markedly

322
 Suburban and peri-urban/exurban residential areas

(a) (b) (c) Figure 11.6. Ten alternative forms

of suburban developments. Forms
integrate road network types, single-unit
housing types, patterns for protecting
nature, and walking trail networks. To
illustrate road networks, a relatively large
number of housing units is included.
Medium-size houses cover all ten forms
except (e) and (f), which also have large
houses and small houses. Currently such
suburban development is particularly
characteristic in North America. Based
on Kendig (1980), Sanders (1981), Rowe
(1991), Easterling (1993), Girling and
(d) (e) (f) Helphand (1994), Bohl (2002), Stanilov
and Scheer (2004), Forsyth (2005), Lukez
(2007), and other sources.

(h) (i)
(g)

(j)

fluctuate in size, and genetic inbreeding occurs. species biodiversity begins to decrease, and non-
Both effects increase the probability of a small native species increase and begin to spread.
population disappearing (local extinction). Also, Water-related characteristics also change in
human-related animals [e.g., raccoons (Procyon), this phase: impervious surface area increases;
house mice, domestic pets] spread with the local flooding often increases; septic systems (if
abundance of food sources around houses. Native abundant) degrade groundwater quality; many

323
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

ponds and streams are polluted; stream habitat Five simple spatial models represent the basic pat-
diversity is degraded and some streams are terns of outward urbanization into the ring-around-
straightened; scarce wetlands are further reduced; the-city (see Chapter 3): bulges model; concentric-rings
lawns and gardens are irrigated; residential-area model; satellite-cities model; transportation-corridors
chemicals are added to the residual agricultural model; and dispersed-sites model. The first three are
chemicals in soil; and towns increase their water much better ecologically than the last two, based on
supplies and associated land protection. analyzing their relative effects on natural systems and
Human changes are conspicuous in this key middle human uses of natural systems (Forman, 2008).
phase: farming noticeably decreases; housing The ecological and other dimensions of low-density
developments begin to coalesce; a shopping center sprawl (Figure 11.7cb), represented by the dispersed-
(s) is built outside the town or village center; new sites model, have been of particular interest (Gillham,
local roads are built; and commuter routes to and 2002; Squires, 2002; Frumkin et al., 2004; Godschalk,
from the city are widened with more traffic. These 2004; Gutfreund, 2004; Hayden, 2004). Low-density
concurrent urbanization changes in the exurban/ housing especially characterizes North American
peri-urban area catalyze both an acceleration and a suburbanization, but increasingly appears in Europe,
proliferation of ecological changes. China, Latin America, and elsewhere (Figure 11.7b).
3. Scattered habitat phase. With further urbanization, In some low-density housing, people surround their
most semi-natural patches shrink and/or houses with useful activities such as food production
disappear; connectivity for species movement or work space.
among fragmented habitats is limited;
metapopulations persist with fewer patches and Spatial patterns of peri-urbs,
less movement among them; many small species
populations are at risk of extinction in the area;
exurbs, suburbs
native species biodiversity has dropped; non- House plot sizes are an easy way to evaluate the general
native species are abundant and invasive species effects of urbanization (Jennings and Jarmagin, 2002;
widespread; and animals attracted to humans and Stanilov and Scheer, 2004; Perlman and Milder, 2004).
garbage are widespread. Attached single-unit housing on house plots (lots,
properties) (Figure 11.7a) was introduced above in
Most stream lengths are typically straightened
the urban residential section. Here we consider three
with loss of stream habitat, and some water courses
detached-house plot types (i.e., for separated houses)
disappear into pipes; local floods may be common;
(Figure 11.2f to h): “normal” (or small) plots with 10
all water bodies are polluted; some septic systems
units/ha (1/4-acre plots); large house plots with 2.5
(if present) are typically eliminated by wastewater
units/ha (1-acre plots); and huge estate house plots
pipe-and-sewage-treatment systems; and town
with 0.5 units/ha (5-acre plots). The large and huge
water systems commonly have water shortages
plots would usually be considered as sprawl, as would
and/or pollution risks.
the normal plots in many regions. Note that some of
Remnant farm fields remain as generally small
people’s needs, including food, shopping, workspace,
open patches; semi-natural patches are further
and leisure space, are provided in the high-rise and
shrunk and eliminated by development; built area
low-rise illustrations (Figure 11.2a and b), whereas
predominates; extensive impervious surface means
low-density residential residents (Figure 11.2g and h)
increased summer heat and more stormwater
require additional areas to satisfy those needs.
runoff and local flooding; municipality/town
These “normal” plots with detached houses provide
centers and local roads are often traffic-congested;
private and garden spaces in the back, and combine
public transport typically appears; a major highway
to form narrow front green corridors and wider back
(s) is usually present, both for commuters and for
green corridors (Figure 11.2f), as described above. The
through inter-city travel.
large plots form wider green corridors, and often con-
The three ecological phases of urbanization seem to tain a backline strip of somewhat diverse spontaneous
characterize peri-urban/exurban areas worldwide, vegetation (Figure 11.2g). Huge estate house-plots
though of course variations exist and one can always when combined have still wider corridors, and typ-
subdivide the major phases. ically have a back strip of semi-natural vegetation. In

324
 Suburban and peri-urban/exurban residential areas

(b)
(a)

(c)
Figure 11.7. Different arrangements of houses on properties. (a) Attached houses with front and back spaces along a block (and some
low-rise housing). London Region. (b) Small houses in different locations within mostly fenced plots. Maun, Botswana. (c) Houses in center of
lawn-dominated plots. City of Lake Placid, Florida. R. Forman photos.

addition, the estate plots are sometimes separated by a riverside types (see Table 7.1), revealed major differ-
semi-natural strip of vegetation along the side bound- ences. The residential types (Figure 11.2a to h) were
aries (Figure 11.2h). Side-boundary vegetation strips qualitatively compared for 22 variables, 11 related to
help form an extensive fine-scale green network for the air, water and soil, and 11 related to habitats and spe-
neighborhood. In essence, these corridors with spon- cies. Overall the results suggest that the high-rise (a),
taneous and semi-natural vegetation provide wildlife low-rise (b), and clustered courtyard housing (d) have
habitat, but may be especially important for species the most negative environmental effects. The huge
movement. estate (h) and large house plot (g) residential types
An environmental comparison of the eight urban (and perhaps informal squatter settlement (c)] seem
and suburban residential types, analogous to that for to be best environmentally per unit area. However, a

325
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

quite different conclusion results from dividing the (Virginia), The Woodlands (Texas), and “new urban-
environmental positives and negatives by the dens- ist” examples (Morgan and King, 1987; Watson et al.,
ity of housing units (Figure 11.2). This provides an 2003; Duany et al., 2000; Bohl, 2002; Hough, 2004;
estimate of environmental effect per unit or per per- Berke et al., 2006; Forsyth and Crewe, 2009). Overall,
son. Per capita, the huge-estate and large-house-plot except perhaps for The Woodlands, the environmental
residential types emerge as the most environmentally dimensions of such communities have been conspicu-
negative residential types. Interestingly, informal ously limited or missing (Forman, 2008).
squatter settlement may produce the best environ- Based on 26 examples of such planned commu-
mental result per capita. nities worldwide, seven types have been recognized
Many studies have related biodiversity to sub- (Forsyth and Crewe, 2009): social neighborhoods;
urban residential development (Friesen et al., 1995; architectural villages; diverse communities; designed
Theobold et al., 1997; Romme, 1997; Cohn and Lerner, enclaves; ecoburbs; ecocities; and technovilles. Each
2003; Pidgeon et al., 2007). Heterogeneity is especially type is illustrated by three to nine examples. Also,
important ecologically within a residential area where relatively massive developments of about 400–5200
house plots are similar. For instance, cluster housing ha (1000 to 13 000 acres), such as Scottsdale Ranch
may be present (Bartuska and Young, 1994; Vince et al., (Arizona) and Pelican Bay (Florida), have been built
2005). Also, low-impact development, particularly as “master-planned communities” (Moudon, 1989).
focused on handling stormwater runoff, creates spatial These developments seem to first bulldoze almost the
heterogeneity (see Chapters 6 and 10) (Dietz, 2007). entire surface flat, thus effectively obliterating its eco-
Planned built communities, resulting from cen- logical values and replacing them with the designers’
tralized planning and design, also have distinct and and developers’ residential pattern.
widely differing residential patterns. Planned cities, This section has highlighted residential areas and the
such as Canberra, Brasilia, and Washington D.C., following sections explore commercial and then indus-
were designed and built on farmland or natural land trial areas. However, mixed-use development includes
(Reps, 1997; Forman, 2008). Singapore, in essence, jobs and shopping in addition to housing (Urban
grew naturally into a city and then became intensively Land Institute, 2003). Such areas may have reasonable
planned (Gupta and Pitts, 1992). Various planned constraints against inappropriate adjacent land uses,
towns in the USA and elsewhere have been designed such as a fireworks factory next to a home or school.
and built mainly on agricultural land, including Reston In the broad perspective, mixed use areas require less

Figure 11.8. City center high-rise area

and surrounding land uses. Residential
neighborhoods and commercial areas
close to city center and airport (top right),
which were built on added earthen fill.
Wooded hill-slope surroundings provide
recreation, biodiversity, flood control,
erosion control, and cool air drainage that
ventilates the city. Gibraltar. R. Forman
photo.

326
 City center

transportation and offer significant environmental and With impervious surface covering the bulk of the
social advantages (Urban Land Institute, 2003). area (often >90%), soil surface, water infiltration, and
plant evapo-transpiration are minimal (Figure 11.8).
City center Yet underground is a complex concentration of pipe
systems, present and former structures, and typically
Commercial areas feature office buildings, goods stor-
transport systems (see Chapter 4). Water use and sew-
age, and retail shopping. City center, as the core of both
age production by the concentrated human population
the city and the metro area, is the prime location, often
is intensive, and almost all stormwater rapidly runs off
representing over half of the total metro-area commer-
in a drainage pipe system. Center city air is character-
cial activity. However, several important and relatively
ized by strong winds related to tall buildings and street
distinct types of commercial areas are spread across
“canyons,” a concentration of air pollutants, and warm
the metro area, from neighborhood streets with retail
air, especially in the winter, at night, and on summer
shopping to office center, commercial strip, and ware-
days (see Chapter 5).
house distribution center.
Vegetation is scarce and mainly limited to bits in
City center is the heart and heartbeat of a metro
window boxes, tubs/planters, trees along some streets,
area (see Figure 2.8). Sometimes called downtown,
and greenspace in scarce small parks, historic struc-
high-rise core, or central business district, these cent-
tures, and cemeteries (Rapoport, 1993). Animal diver-
ers may be remarkably similar in different geographic
sity is normally quite low, though the density of a few
regions. (1) We first outline the relatively distinct and
species such as pigeons, rats, and cockroaches is very
unusual characteristics of ecological importance dis-
high, mainly due to abundant food associated with
played by a city center. (2) Next, key spatial patterns,
humans.
flows, and changes are pinpointed. Then an array of
downtown characteristics is introduced in two cat-
egories: (3) buildings, people, and transport; and (4)
Spatial patterns, flows, and changes
soil, water, vegetation, animals, and air. The spatial patterns and functioning of city center are
quite distinctive as well (Franck and Schneekloth, 1994;
Kayden, 2000; Watson et al., 2003). Spatially, a dense
Distinctive and unusual characteristics street network for movements and flows encloses a
Most distinctive and memorable are the high-rise build- dense small-patch pattern with low variability in size
ings and skyscrapers with elevated lights that contain and shape (Figure 10.4). Generalist species such as
the city’s primary commercial office space and activ- starlings and house sparrows move readily across the
ity (Figure 3.1). Normally concentrated in an area less city center, as do migrating birds and large-home-
than 2.6 km2 (1 mi2), the vertical surface greatly exceeds range species such as gulls and falcons. But non-city-
the horizontal surface, for instance it is about 10 times center species are largely excluded from colonization
more in both Chicago and New York (Hartshorn, 1992; and even movement in the area.
Ursic et al., 1997; Larson et al., 2000). Scattered among City-center pattern normally changes very slowly
these tall buildings normally are older buildings with due to inertia associated with large buildings and
external ornament, as well as major museums, concert intensively used streets, though economic boom and
halls, and other cultural buildings. A concentration bust times often produce some change. Floods and
of government buildings, hotels, and restaurants also earthquakes cause overnight change. Observing an
characterizes city centers. abundance of giant construction cranes on the skyline
In perhaps most cities, commuters pour in and out indicates rather rapid change, while the persistence of
on weekdays, so evenings and weekends are less con- vacant lots points to little change.
gested. Essentially all modes of transportation – train, Also the “border areas” of a city center are frequently
subway, bus and/or streetcar, car, motorcycle and/or a fairly distinct mix, for example, including a major
scooter, sometimes bicycle, and walking – are concen- sports stadium, large market with stalls, tourist area,
trated, providing high accessibility for people. Far more low-income neighborhood (either long-term or squat-
daily trips are accomplished by walking than in other ter settlement), and demolished former-industrial site.
urban areas, and the occasional presence of pedestri- In some European cities, a 50–100 m wide greenbelt
anized streets with no vehicles facilitates this efficient or greenway, including remnant portions of the city’s
mode of movement. medieval wall, now partially surrounds the city center.

327
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

crevices that serve as elevated microhabitats for a lim-

Buildings, people, and transport ited diversity of species such as algae, mosses, lichens,
New York has by far the most skyscrapers (>40 stories flowering plants, insects, lizards, and roosting or nest-
or 500 ft high) in North America (Hartshorn 1992). ing birds (Rapoport, 1993). Government buildings,
Except in earthquake-prone zones, high-rise build- museums, concert halls, and so forth typically function
ings (>8 or 12 stories high) are generally abundant in ecologically much like commercial office buildings.
all medium to large cities. The megacity Sao Paulo has Most city centers have spread onto marginal sites
>5000 high rises (see book cover). Although tight clus- such as former floodplains, unstable slopes, filled wet-
ters exist there, many high rises are dispersed one or lands, tsunami-risk zones, and earthquake-prone fault
more blocks apart, so that surrounding ground surface lines. Dramatic results, such as the tsunami-devastated
exists for playgrounds, tiny park space, and carparks. ancient Alexandria (Egypt), earthquake-toppled sky-
Skyscrapers overwhelmingly contain commercial scrapers in Kobe (Japan), and volcanic lava-flow-
office space, a major portion of a city’s office space, as covered Pompeii (Italy), can be expected periodically.
for example 30% for Manchester (UK) (Ravetz, 2000). Yet the nearly unending gradual changes of sinking
In contrast, high rises often contain both office space substrate, rotting foundations and sea-level rise, as in
and residential space, or only residential space. Tall Venice, Dakha, and other cities, are equally devastating
buildings usually have smooth surfaces and internal to city centers.
air cooling, heating, and circulation systems. However, Residents overwhelmingly walk to work in cities
residential high rises may have penthouse-roof gardens, of some developing nations (e.g., Mumbai, Lagos, and
green roofs, balconies, and window boxes, all contain- Manila) where highways, buses, and trains between
ing plants and providing perches used by birds. city and surroundings are limited. In essence, if I work
High rises and some skyscrapers typically have in the city I live in the city. The proportion of people
shops at least at ground level. Although fairly expen- walking to work is highest in city centers.
sive dry goods are the primary merchandise, a range of In cities with considerable radial transport move-
shop types is present, including specialized goods and ment between surroundings and city as in North
tourist shops. Especially important ecologically is the America, a crush of commuter traffic arriving and
abundance of eateries present, from expensive to eth- leaving city center each weekday is characteristic.
nic to fast-food restaurants. Food waste is considerable. Congestion on workdays is rampant for residents
Large restaurants may have food waste transported to within the city, as in the subways of Tokyo, streets of
pig farms outside the city. Irrespective, pests, from rats Shanghai, and sidewalks of New York. However, in
and mice to cockroaches and ants, are permanently city center, non-city residents commuting into the
abundant and widespread at both ground and under- city jam the commuter trains, plus the highways and
ground levels. streets with cars. In the USA the percent of commut-
Hotels and the occasional convention center for ers arriving for work is highest in large cities, and the
tourists and business people also have food waste and percent arriving for shopping is highest in small cit-
pests. Most of the area not covered by streets and tall ies (Hartshorn, 1992). Also, in large cities, commuters’
buildings supports low-rise residential buildings (3–8 cars are overwhelmingly parked in outdoor carparks
levels), commonly with small central courtyards. Some and inside garages, whereas in small cities most cars are
streets lined with low rises also have small shops and parked street-side.
eateries at ground level. A high density of people liv- Pedestrianized streets, “sky-bridges” for walk-
ing in center city means numerous kitchens and bags ers, underground walkways for shopping and subway
of garbage widely spread across the limited horizontal access, separated bike lanes, bus lanes, multi-passenger
space. It also means that small grocery stores are abun- car lanes, raised monorails (e.g., Sydney, Seattle), and
dant, and supermarkets at ground or below-ground other approaches each slightly reduce congestion (Platt,
levels are present. Food waste and pests are unending 2004). A novel intense efficient multi-modal transport
challenges throughout most of a city center. system would be needed to significantly reduce con-
Protected historic buildings, seemingly out of place, gestion and to provide ample greenspace and common
are typically scattered over city centers (see Figure 2.8). space for the high concentration of people calling city
Most such buildings have ample ornament, ledges and center home.

328
 City center

These and other analyses suggest that five city- Otherwise, exposed soil is mainly limited to tiny spots,
center characteristics have the widest range of envir- such as at the base of street trees, in planters and win-
onmental effects on the physical environment and on dow boxes, trampled corners and edges of walkways,
organisms/habitats (Figure 11.9 left): (1) medical facil- and so forth. Virtually all of these exposed sites have
ities and university areas; (2) ethnic neighborhoods and little soil organic matter, few soil animals, and lots of
low-income areas; (3) hotels and restaurants; (4) low- heavy metals and hydrocarbons deposited from the air.
and high-rise wealthy residential areas; and (5) parks Normally the soil is compacted, particularly at con-
and plazas. Several attributes of the physical environ- struction sites, and subject to drought (Gilbert, 1991;
ment in city center are significantly affected, especially McDonnell et al., 1997). Hydrocarbons from air pol-
(Figure 11.9 upper right): (a) a polluted nearby water lution make the soil surface “hydrophobic,” such that
body (s); (b) surface water and pollutant runoff; and water from light rains barely penetrates the soil but
(c) paper and plastic packaging waste. These diverse instead evaporates directly to the air.
attributes produce both positive and negative effects An extensive underground network of pipe and
which permeate the cores of our cities. tube systems supports the dense population and build-
ing space aboveground. These commonly include
Soil, water, vegetation, animals, air water supply, stormwater drainage, sewage wastewater,
Construction and demolition sites may be the only electrical conduits, telephone conduits, large hot-water
somewhat large areas of bare soil in city centers. heating ducts, and more (see Figure 4.11). Probably all
Figure 11.9. Effects on the physical
environment and on habitats/organisms
in city center. Letters next to city-center
characteristics (built environment and
people) refer to effects on specific
dependent variables on right. Numbers
on right indicate the number of
city-center characteristics positively
or negatively affecting the physical
environment or organism/habitat
variables. See Gilbert (1991), Hartshorn
(1992), Craul (1992), Niemela (1999),
Pickett et al. (2001), Luck et al. (2001),
Abbott (2004), Platt (2004), Pacione
(2005).

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 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

pipe systems leak in different places from time to time. and elsewhere. Tree of heaven (Ailanthus), Norway
The city center also commonly has an underground maple (Acer), silver maple (Acer), and white mulberry
inter-city train station and associated railway tubes. (Morus) dominate the center of a small city (Akron,
Often a subway system winds about with rail tubes Ohio) in the USA (Whitney and Adams, 1980). Vines
crossing over one another, and generally a number of and lichens are scarce, and shrubs are normally limited
relatively short walkway systems facilitate movement to spots not posing a security risk to residents. Bombed
underground. Maintenance workers perforate and sites provide habitat for an influx of somewhat distinct-
maintain the underground labyrinth. ive species (Salisbury, 1943; Gilbert, 1991). City cent-
These diverse intermixed pipes and tubes carry and ers, like everywhere else, are subject to an eternal “rain”
widely disperse many microbes including pathogenic of species ready to colonize and rejuvenate nature in
bacteria. Of course sewage pipes and tunnels are the the city.
prime routes for disease microbes. People carry microbes What types of plants predominate in city centers?
up into residential and commercial areas, while pipes In Bariloche (Argentina) non-native (exotic) species
carry bacteria to better-or-worse functioning sewage- predominate (Niemela, 1999). Presumably seed banks
treatment facilities, as well as into nearby water bodies. in the soil of city centers are dominated by exotics as
Mice, rats, bats, beetles, spiders, flies, cockroaches, and well. Many of the plants in urban flower beds, tubs,
sometimes homeless people live below ground, and may and window boxes in the UK are annuals derived
move aboveground. With concentrated groceries, kitch- from rocky arid habitats of South Africa and Mexico
ens, and eateries in city centers, garbage bags quickly (Gilbert, 1991). These plants provide food or habitat
and endlessly accumulate, as the occasional rubbish- for hardly any animals, though moth larvae are occa-
removal workers’ strikes dramatically reveal. Ground sionally found on the plants. Sidewalk-crack plants
level always crawls with pests and microbes. are both pollution-resistant and trampling-resistant.
Given the prevalence of hard surface and so many Probably all city-center plants can live in surrounding
other characteristics of city centers, it is not surpris- areas, but few surrounding-area plants thrive in a city
ing that plant diversity is depauperate. A study of a <4 center. Finally, the relatively few plants growing in city
km2 area (1.5 mi2) in Central London, a city known for centers survive because of, or in spite of, an intensive
the abundance of its flower gardens, recorded 157 plant human maintenance regime.
species. This is perhaps but a quarter or a third of the Certain wildlife thrive in city centers, perhaps largely
biodiversity in an outer part of the metro area (cited because of warm winter and night temperatures present
by Gilbert, 1991). Three habitat types were recog- and the abundance of food. As mentioned above, gro-
nized: (1) cultivated sites, including gardens, window cery stores, restaurants, and home kitchens provide lots
boxes, tubs, raised planters, and soil at the base of some of food for wildlife to scavenge (Figure 11.10). People
trees; (2) uncultivated sites, including building sites, who enjoy seeing wildlife in these “sterile street can-
carparks, and vacant lots; and (3) “stonework,” refer- yons” put out pet food, or feed feral pigeons and house
ring to road/street, sidewalk, and wall surfaces. While sparrows from a bench. Compared to wildlife in other
seven of the mostly wind-dispersed species were in all urban areas, the relatively few species that thrive in city
three habitat types, half of the species (77) were only centers tend to have a higher density, longer breeding
present at one site. Twenty percent of the species (31) season, smaller defended territory, shift in diet, a nest or
were represented by a single individual. The disappear- den in a building, reduced dispersal to elsewhere, lower
ance (local extinction) and colonization (appearance) tendency to migrate, and reduced avoidance of humans
of plant species must be considerable in a city center. (Pickett et al., 2001) (see Chapter 9). The outdoor cat
Other habitat types in city centers include plazas/ population in city centers is relatively low, whereas
squares, courtyards/patios, around outdoor restau- indoor dogs are often seen on leash, walking with
rants, and frost-free sunken spaces around basement owners. Rats and other mammals may carry rabies, and
windows (Gilbert, 1991). In Tokyo the fronts of some pigeons and starlings carry and defecate fungi patho-
residential buildings have plants in small pots, by tiny genic onto humans (Gilbert, 1991).
statuary, or among clusters of beautiful stones. City In the early 20th century when motor vehicles
centers have relatively few, and few types, of street basically replaced horsepower in cities, the population
trees, many of which die within a decade after plant- of house sparrows, which extensively fed on seeds in
ing. The plane tree (Platanus) is widespread in Europe horse droppings, plummeted (Gilbert, 1991). Yet still

330
 City center

Figure 11.10. Street level and rooftop

restaurants on low rises in city center.
Rooftops also have scattered swimming
pools, small gardens, water tanks, solar-
energy collectors, and clothes drying.
Sevilla, Spain. R. Forman photo.

the species is a dominant in city centers. Starlings and (Cade et al., 1996). Today 31% of the Eastern USA
other birds may form significant roosts in autumn and peregrines live in cities, and 58% of the Midwestern
winter. Breeding bird density may be high, especially peregrines do. Of these, 61% of the nests are now
for house sparrows and feral pigeons. Bird nests con- on buildings, 30% on bridges and overpasses, and
tain a range of invertebrate species, particularly bee- 9% on other tall structures. Pigeons, northern flick-
tles, mites and flies (Gilbert, 1991; Parsons, 1995). The ers, and blue jays are the main food items along with
city-center sparrows, starlings, and pigeons may be many other species. The kestrel, a smaller falcon, in
80% of the avian population in summer, and 95% in Manchester (UK) has a diet of 76% birds, 22% small
winter (Niemela, 1999; Pickett et al., 2001). City cent- mammals, 1% insects and 1% earthworms (cited by
ers in different regions have other birds present at rela- Gilbert, 1991). Food is far more abundant than these
tively low densities, including magpie, Indian mynah, predators can eat.
parakeet, crow/rook, gull, and wood pigeon. City center and some industrial sites usually have
The analogy of tall buildings and rock cliffs, and the worst air pollution (see Chapter 5). The concentra-
their characteristic species, has given rise to the urban tion of buildings and transportation, plus poor ground-
cliff hypothesis (Gilbert, 1991; Larson et al., 2000). In level air circulation, is supplemented by incoming
effect, many, perhaps half, of the vertebrates associ- pollutants from other urban sources and periodic tem-
ated with the city center originated in caves, cliffs, or perature inversions. Together these factors often lead
talus rock slopes, and thus may thrive among tall build- to a pall of pollutants. Between tall buildings are deep
ings. Black rat, house mouse, house cat, pigeon (rock street canyons where plants, animals, and people are
dove), house sparrow, starling, swift, gull, nighthawk, present (Figure 11.10). Poor air circulation results in
barn owl, kestrel, and peregrine falcon are cited. Also pollutant buildup, though moving air in cross streets
some of the highly urban plants, including species of helps disperse the accumulation. Constantly moving
Solanum, Allium, Lactuca, Brassicca, and Centaurea, vehicles and people lift particles off streets and side-
have origins in cliffs and rock slopes. walks, accentuating the problem. High winds, includ-
Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), apparently ing streamlines, turbulence, and vortices occur in spots
the fastest flying birds known, have been successfully at street level, but are common well above the ground.
introduced into city centers for over 40 years. Native From ground level, tall buildings block distant
peregrines mainly nest on ledges of remote rock cliffs, views and produce considerable shade. North–south
so nest sites in cities are provided high up on buildings streets receive more total solar radiation than east–west

331
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

streets. The traditional single-level hutong neighbor- stores, restaurants, bars/taverns/cantinas/pubs, phar-
hoods of urban China commonly have wider north– macies, clothing cleaners, gasoline/petrol stations, and
south ways for vehicle movement, while the narrower so forth on ground level along a few intersecting streets
east–west ways (≥2 m wide, with ≥2 m high walls) with tree-lined sidewalks are most characteristic. With
receive little direct sunlight. Some spots in city cent- strong linkages between shop owner and neighbors,
ers are never in direct sun, and most plants there grow shops tend to remain for long periods. A significant
poorly in permanent shade. increase in neighborhood median income usually pro-
Finally, the urban-heat-island effect (see Chapter 5) duces a gradual change in goods sold or shops present,
is typically most acute in city centers due to the exten- while a drop in median income may lead to shops clos-
sive hard surface area, both horizontal and vertical. By ing and even vacant-lot vegetation in a retail center.
day, incoming solar and diffuse radiation is absorbed by An average time distance (travel-distance time) of up
these surfaces, which at night radiate heat energy, thus to 15 minutes from home to neighborhood retail center
heating the air. But city centers are nearly the only place is typical (Hartshorn, 1992). Thus, neighborhood retail
where “anthropogenic heat” from heating buildings centers are often located at intervals of about 2–5 km
during the cool season may be a significant component (1.2–3 mi) apart. Neighbors mainly walk, bike, or drive
of the urban heat buildup. Increased warmth at night short distances to obtain daily needs and services, though
and in winter benefits some species, but inhibits others. public transport is often present. Car parking is usually
Furthermore, with the scarcity of vegetation and plant street-side, while a truck-delivery area behind the shops
evapo-transpiration, city centers tend to have dry air. may also serve as a carpark. Such retail centers addition-
Several characteristics of the city-center built environ- ally serve as meeting places for the neighborhood.
ment with widespread ecological effects were pinpointed Walkable neighborhood retail centers greatly
above (Figure 11.9). The six most-affected organism-and- reduce the levels of hydrocarbon, heavy metal, par-
habitat attributes, whether positive or negative, appear to ticulate, and greenhouse-gas pollutants from vehicles.
be: (1) starlings, pigeons, and house sparrows; (2) diver- Long-term gasoline/petrol stations, however, may
sity of microhabitats and species; (3) rats, mice, squirrels, have leaky tanks and pipes causing serious hydrocar-
possums, etc.; (4) cats and dogs; (5) night birds, bats, and bon pollution of the soil and groundwater. Most of the
lizards; and (6) non-native species. non-gaseous pollutants on surfaces are washed by pre-
In short, a city’s core displays an array of rather dis- cipitation water into the stormwater drainage system
tinctive built and human characteristics of ecological and on to local water bodies. However, sites suitable
importance. These have significant effects on both the for stormwater basins to reduce flood hazard and treat
physical and biological environments, thus creating a pollutants typically exist in adjacent residential neigh-
distinctive ecology of city center. borhoods. Also the presence of small groceries and
restaurants indicates a daily production of food waste,
Commercial sites dispersed and the consequent abundance of pests such as cock-
roaches, ants, mice, and rats. Pesticides used to control
across the urban area pests wash into the stormwater system.
While city centers represent the commercial core, other The overall ecological significance of neighborhood
commercial activity and associated ecological char- streets with retail shops is that pollutants and pests are
acteristics are widely dispersed over the metro area. widely distributed over the metro area. The pollut-
Seven types of commercial areas are generally quite ants produced are normally at modest levels, but they
distinct and readily recognized. These are introduced reach and tend to degrade all metro-area water bod-
in five groups: (1) neighborhood streets with small ies, such as streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and estuar-
shops; (2) marketplace; (3) office center and town cen- ies. Analogously, the pest species associated with these
ter; (4) commercial strip and shopping mall; and (5) retail centers are spread throughout the metro area. It is
warehouse truck-distribution center. nearly impossible to escape these pests in urban areas.

Neighborhood streets with small shops

Numerous small centers of retail shopping serving Marketplace
residential neighborhoods are spread rather evenly Marketplaces come in many forms, including food
across the metro area. “Mom and pop” shops, grocery markets, fish markets, flower markets, farmers’

332
 Commercial sites dispersed across the urban area

markets, and flea markets. Some are outdoors, includ- rail and major highway, one by subway and commuter
ing many flea markets mainly selling cheap goods, and rail, and two are not by a major transportation route.
others are in buildings such as the Covered Bazaar in These office centers have half of the total large-building
Istanbul. Markets are often near tourist centers, squat- office space of the metro area, with the other half in the
ter settlements, and other concentrated sources of city center (central business district) served by all three
shoppers. Most marketplaces are reached by walking, major transportation modes.
supplemented by public transit, though some are on Office centers mainly serve as financial centers,
commercial strips reached by car. Often many booths regional service centers, government centers, and cor-
or stalls are present for sellers, and crowds of people porate headquarters (Hartshorn, 1992). Information
are channeled between rows of booths. Most markets flow usually is the major function or activity. On-site
exhibit an intense daily regime: early morning delivery facilities are relatively similar for the various users.
of goods to sell; a sometimes slow, sometimes frenetic Large parking lots or garages provide for suburban
selling period; removal of some or all unsold goods; employees commuting by car. Luncheon facilities
and finally cleanup of considerable packaging mater- and sometimes shops are provided for employees.
ial, food waste, and other wastes. Considerable paper and packaging materials, as well as
The short-time concentrations of people attracted to human wastewater, are produced.
marketplaces produce diverse environmental impacts, Large lawn areas, with dispersed trees, clumps of
from huge parking areas of hard surface, ample food trees, and mini flower gardens, are especially common
eaten while standing and walking, and considerable in the space surrounding office-center buildings. A
human wastewater produced. Ecological impacts also pond is sometimes constructed and benches and paths
result from the goods sold and the wastes from the sell- for lunchtime walks may be present. Consistent with
ing process. Most of the markets have a diversity of the look favored by managers for most office-center
plant and animal products for sale. users, the space may appear relatively lavish and highly
Numerous insects and microbes from rural areas manicured, also with an eye to maintaining security for
are carried into the city with the biological products employees.
to be sold. Some species simply fly or crawl away from Yet some office centers are also designed and man-
the marketplace. Others get free rides from buyers and aged for ecological goals. Stormwater basins minimize
are thus dispersed to homes and kitchens in residen- downslope flood hazard and reduce pollution of nearby
tial areas across the metro area. Often quite a mountain water bodies. Sewage is treated and gray-water recy-
of packaging, food waste, and other plant and animal cled on site, in part using marshes. Green roofs cover
wastes is accumulated for disposal at the end of each the flat-topped buildings. Meadows with a changing
day. Such unending piles are also concentrations of array of wildflowers replace most lawns (Joan Nassauer
the familiar urban pests and microbes, as well as less and Olive Thompson, personal communications,
familiar ones from the countryside, that disperse into 2013). Semi-natural woods, wetlands, or meadows are
areas around a marketplace. The evening cleanup and arranged to fit with similar habitats in surrounding
disposal process doubtless spreads the diverse organ- areas, forming large habitat patches or important cor-
isms further. ridors for wildlife movement across the surrounding
land. Essentially all of these approaches not only eco-
Office center and town center logically enhance the office center space but also pro-
vide benefits to the surrounding community.
A cluster of office buildings, often surrounded by some
The town center, whether suburban within the metro
greenspace, forms the archetypal office center (Urban
area or further out in the urban-region ring, is the com-
Land Institute, 1998, 2001). Low-rise buildings pre-
mercial hub of its surrounding area (Figure 11.11a)
dominate, though high rises may be present. Sometimes
(Urban Land Institute, 2008). Traditionally combined
called an office park or office campus, the center is com-
with civic and cultural activities, town centers are
monly located along a major transportation route in a
mostly walkable for surrounding residents, though car,
suburb (Figure 11.11a). Toronto has at least 20 office
bus, and sometimes commuter train may also transport
centers, excluding city center, well dispersed across the
many users. Town centers tend to be good examples
metropolitan area (Hartshorn, 1992). One is by a com-
of mixed-use land patterns, where office employment
muter train line, six are by a multi-lane highway, four by
and services, retail shopping, and restaurants are close
both subway and major highway, six by both commuter
333
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

to or intermixed with residential areas. This pattern into separate areas. A row of stores, parking lots, lights,
limits fossil-fuel driven transportation. Commonly a traffic and concentrated people forms an impassable
town center has buildings a few levels high with, for barrier for most wildlife. For instance, a 50-km (30-
example, retail shopping on ground level, offices on mi) highway extending northwestward from Madrid
the second level, and residential apartments on upper has only two or three locations remaining where
levels. Buildings with only offices and only residential natural land is close enough on both sides for most
units are also usually present. native wildlife to potentially cross. Many animals try,
From a commercial perspective, town centers resem- including a wild boar (Sus scrofa) smashed by a car
ble the neighborhood streets with small shops, supple- following mine.
mented by an office center with little or no greenspace Years ago in the Taos area (New Mexico, USA) we
around the buildings. Of 27 large enclosed office centers measured animal tracks crossing commercial corri-
planned and constructed during 1976–2000 in the UK, dors extending outward from the small city, and found
33% were built in existing towns and 26% in rapidly grow- that most tracks were of domestic dogs and cats. A gen-
ing “new towns” (41% were located out of town) (Pacione, eralized predator, coyote (Canis latrans), also crossed
2005). These in-town office centers helped channel office the strip, frequently in culverts, which are usually dry
and retail activity to the center of residential areas, thus there. Mule deer tracks (Odocoileus) crossing were only
minimizing sprawl and commuter traffic. present in the two largest breaks (>approx. 1 km, or 0.6
Some of the above-mentioned ecological benefits mi wide) in the continuous strip development. Breaks
also apply to in-town office centers, including green and narrows in commercial corridors where large nat-
roofs and fitting with walkways and greenspaces of the ural areas are present on both sides are prime sites for
town. Sewage is incorporated and treated in the town’s wildlife underpasses and overpasses to maintain con-
sewage system. The town’s retail shops greatly benefit nectivity of the land for nature and people (Forman
economically from shopping by the added office-center et al., 2003; Iuell et al., 2003; Trocme et al., 2003).
personnel, though added restaurant use increases food The extensive hard surface area of parking lots and
wastes and pests in the town center. buildings in connected strips outside the city results
in considerable water runoff into local streams, and
therefore flood hazard. Chemical pollutants from the
Commercial strip and shopping mall store operations, vehicular traffic, road salt, and other
Variously called ribbon development, strip develop- sources are also considerable, and pollute the nearby
ment, or commercial corridor, this distinctive pat- groundwater and streams. Transportation-related leaky
tern depends on convenient car access for shopping. tanks and hazardous wastes, if present, are particularly
Commercial strips are mainly on busy highways of two degrading to the area adjoining and downslope of com-
to six lanes, and located on a radial highway outside mercial strips. Green roofs on the flat-topped buildings
a city or between two cities (Figure 11.11b). A row of reduce flood hazard. Abundant trees in parking lots
fast-food and other restaurants, gasoline/petrol sta- reduce temperatures, air pollution, water runoff, and
tions, auto or tire dealers, furniture stores, and home- water pollution. Stormwater basins reduce flood haz-
supply stores typically anchor a commercial strip. ard and water pollution. A strip of restaurants means a
A row of parking lots for shoppers is by the highway strip of food waste and a sustained abundance of pests.
in front of stores, and parking lots behind the stores The shopping mall or shopping center is typically
mainly serve for truck deliveries and employee park- suburban, though shopping centers are also present
ing. Trucks daily deliver retail goods and remove pack- within and under buildings in the center of large cities
aging and food wastes. Nearby residential areas may be (Figure 11.11) (Urban Land Institute, 1999). Like the
adjacent to, or separated from, the noise and lights of commercial strip above, access to the mall is mainly by
a commercial strip by a corridor of tree vegetation. A car. Trucks daily deliver goods and remove some wastes,
highway constructed to bypass the typical traffic con- and extensive parking lots serve shoppers, employees,
gestion of a commercial strip may turn the strip into a and truck traffic.
row of cheaper stores and vacant lots, with little man- The shopping mall is commonly a large long
agement of wastes, water, and pollutants. building surrounded by an impervious-surface park-
From the big-picture perspective, a commercial ing area 3–4 or more times the building area (Rowe,
strip or strip development slices the land and nature 1991). Typically large retail stores at the ends are

334
 Commercial sites dispersed across the urban area

(a) (c) Figure 11.11. Distribution of

commercial and shopping areas
around city. (a) Major commercial and
business centers in city, inner suburbs,
and outer suburbs. (b) Strip or ribbon
retail-shopping along streets and
transportation corridors. (c) Shopping
centers hierarchically distributed; lengths
of arrows indicate typical distances
in providing goods and services; also
numerous small grocery, convenience,
etc. stores serve local residents
throughout the urban area. (d) Prevalent
shops and their ecological dimensions
in different types of shopping centers. 1
km = 1000 m = 0.62 mile. USA. Based on
Hartshorn (1992).

(d)

(b)

connected by many small shops (Pacione, 2005). In Neighborhood, community, and regional (includ-
large malls, small shops are aligned along a central ing supra-regional) shopping malls are traditionally
indoor hallway, sometimes with similar types, such differentiated, based on size, types of stores predomin-
as restaurants or clothing shops, clustered. Landscape ating, and radius of area served (Figure 11.11c and d).
ecology patch-corridor principles can be used to Neighborhood shopping malls mainly serve a radius of 1
understand the pattern, movements, and changes of to 4 km (0.6–2.5 mi), or a driving time-distance of about
a shopping center. 5 minutes (Lynch and Hack, 1996; Pacione, 2005). A

335
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

significant portion of shoppers may walk to a neigh- for countless species introduced into the urban area
borhood mall. Generally the community shopping cen- (see Figure 3.2). Thus, exotic species, invasive species,
ter serves a 4–12 km radius (10-minute time-distance), pests, and pathogenic microbes are carried and spread
and the regional mall a 12–30+ km radius (30-minute locally, as well as to distant cities.
time-distance). The types of shops and stores also differ
in this hierarchy of shopping centers (Figure 11.11d). Industrial areas
A shopping mall has many of the ecological issues
In contrast to residential and commercial areas, indus-
faced by commercial strips, though impacts are mainly
trial areas are sites or districts primarily for manufac-
concentrated in a location rather than spread linearly.
turing goods. Sometimes called industrial parks, or
When income levels of surrounding residents drop,
industrial centers, these sites commonly contain spe-
shopping malls are blighted with cheaper and empty
cific industries or companies, sometimes together with
stores, and may be recycled to government or cor-
public or private power facilities or energy-transport
porate use. Occasionally the mall area is converted to
facilities (Urban Land Institute, 1975, 2001; Yang and
greenspace to enhance natural resources and serve sur-
Lay, 2004). Traditionally, industries in most regions
rounding residential areas (Joan I. Nassauer, personal
were along waterways – heavy industry on rivers and
communication, 2003).
light industry on streams (Castells, 2000; Acebillo and
Folch, 2000; Foster and Aber, 2004; Frumkin et al.,
Warehouse truck-distribution center 2004). The flowing water provided power, cooling,
The warehouse truck-distribution center or trucking ter- and waste disposal. Today power is transported widely
minal is normally an area of long single-level, relatively across the land, so clusters of industries with, for
flat-topped buildings separated by tarmac/asphalt sur- example, common roadways, power sources, water for
faces for the access, parking, and turning around of cooling, and waste treatment usually form patches in
large trucks (lorries). Railway access may also be pre- the metro area. For example, in the Boston region three
sent. One or a few such terminals are normally present to ten industries in a cluster is typical (Berger, 2006).
in suburbs by an entrance/exit to a large city’s radial
highway. Near the intersection of a radial highway and Industrial production and post-production
a ring highway is a prime location. Warehouse distri-
bution centers are also located next to a major airport at a site
or shipping port (Figure 11.12). Industrial areas of course vary widely in size. For
Extremely diverse, generally non-perishable goods instance, the average is 120 ha (300 acres) and the min-
are stored in the warehouses. But the other main pur- imum about 15 ha in the USA (Lynch and Hack, 1996).
pose of the center is to redistribute goods for transport One or a few large industries, several medium, or sev-
to different destinations. Thus, goods arriving in ships, eral medium and small companies is typical.
aircraft and large trucks from afar are redistributed into “Boom and bust” production describes the individ-
small trucks for delivery to retail shops on congested ual industries, as characteristic of market economies.
streets in the city and suburb. Also, local manufactur- However, some industries have a long boom period,
ers transport goods in small trucks to the centers for providing some stability to the surrounding urban
redistribution into large carriers for distant markets. residential and commercial areas. Even in govern-
Warehouse truck-distribution centers are large ment-dominated economies, specific companies at an
areas of impervious surface with considerable heat industrial site grow and shrink.
buildup, transportation-related air pollution, water
runoff and flood hazard, and water pollution carried Production inputs, industrial-site features,
to nearby water bodies. Green roofs on the buildings, and outputs
as well as significantly increasing the extremely sparse During the industrial production period at an indus-
tree cover, would provide significant ecological ben- trial site, major inputs and major outputs, in addition
efits. The diversity of goods, from afar as well as from to on-site features, determine the ecological condi-
surrounding areas, and the trucks carrying them, trans- tions present (Figure 11.13). The site itself typically
port numerous seeds, spores, and animals. Warehouse contains a building for management; large outdoor
distribution centers are doubtless significant hot spots parking lot for employees (e.g., 0.8 to 1.0 parking spots

336
 Industrial areas

Figure 11.12. Warehouse and truck

distribution center for air cargo. Large
flat-topped buildings for storage and
redistribution of goods, and with
convenient truck access. Eight-lane
highway by airport; high water-table
indicated by wide water-filled ditch and
by pond (upper left). Orlando, Florida. R.
Forman photo.

per employee in the USA; Lynch and Hack,1996); tar- also include precipitation, many species from nearby,
mac/asphalt space for truck access, parking, and turn- and some species from afar. Wind-blown species arrive
ing around; buildings for production processes; a waste in the air or in precipitation, while many types of spe-
accumulation area; storage areas for raw materials and/ cies arrive in diverse raw materials and on the trans-
or products; and a vegetated area for potential future port vehicles and trains. Incoming organic materials,
expansion. Railway access and a pond for waste treat- such as wood, wool, and skins, typically bring in a rich
ment may also be present. Iron, steel, and concrete fauna and microbial population. Such materials may
structures, specialized for an industry’s production also attract insect and other pests. Some industrial
process, are often conspicuous. processes use many quite-different raw materials that
On-site waste accumulation of course is a central come from diverse regions with their own faunas and
problem (Berger, 2006). Slag heaps, toxic organics, floras.
acid drainage, heavy metals, cinders, demolition rub- Outputs from the industrial site are rather differ-
ble, and so forth each pose a different challenge for ent and equally important. Employees, transport, and
containment, recycling, and cleanup. The toxicity of economic products leave the site. Airflow carries heat
heavy metal and chromate waste is severe, whereas that and air pollutants, such as particulates and gases, out.
of concrete and cinders is slight. Ponds may become Surface stormwater runs off the site and carries water
toxic. Dumping smothers a soil, typically eliminat- pollutants. Water also infiltrates into the ground, car-
ing the soil’s inherent pollutant-decomposition value. rying chemical pollutants to the groundwater, which
Wind blows particles from a heap or mound of waste flows horizontally offsite. Air pollutants bathe the sur-
(Wheater, 1999). Over time an industrial site nor- rounding neighborhoods, food-production areas, and
mally changes markedly, both as accidents and spills natural areas, especially downwind. The stormwater
occur, and as waste technology and economics evolve from extensive hard surfaces races offsite, tending to
(Belanger, 2009). cause flooding in a downslope built area and a water
Some industries offer a ray of hope, as toxic materi- body. Chemical pollutants contaminate the same water
als are eliminated in manufacturing, and by-products body, as well as the groundwater.
are treated on-site mainly using natural systems (Peter
Rogers, personal communication, 2011). Such facil- Ecology of the production site
ities could become close to self-contained systems. Five distinctive characteristics of industrial sites explain
Inputs to an industrial site feature employees from much of the ecological pattern and process (Gilbert,
nearby, raw materials usually from afar, trucks (lorries) 1991): (1) raw materials; (2) “inhospitable” production
or other transport, and power (Figure 11.13). Inputs processes; (3) waste heat; (4) waste materials; and (5)

337
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

Figure 11.13. Ecological conditions for

an industrial site during production and
post-production periods. Major inputs
to the site indicated at top, outputs at
bottom. See Gilbert (1991), Weiss et al.
(2005).

storage. Numerous species arrive with the raw mate- present, whereas at a high pH of 7.0–8.0 a relatively
rials and transport from afar. Production processes large number of species may survive. Examples
usually involve extremely high temperatures or highly are maritime species on salt accumulation
toxic chemicals that effectively kill the organisms pre- waste, mine-site species on specific mineral
sent. Heat from the production processes disperses to accumulations, calcareous/limestone species on
the air, water, soil, and accumulated wastes, which in alkaline wastes, and pest insects and rodents on
turn eliminates some species. Yet this heat also favors organic material such as paper and wool.
a set of species from warmer regions. Waste materials Some industrial site species survive with frequent
from production are mainly unsuitable for most local trampling and weeding, some with infrequent
species, but favor locally uncommon species with spe- trampling and frequent weeding, and some with
cialized requirements, such as maritime species on little of both (Ohsawa et al., 1988). Lichens are
salty deposits and limestone species on alkaline wastes. scarce. Plant and animal species are a mix of
The storage of raw materials and of products produced native species from the surroundings, introduced
often provides conditions for a few unusual species to species essentially limited to human-created
thrive. habitats, and species naturalized in semi-natural
A simple way to grasp the ecology of an industrial habitats (Gilbert, 1991; Attwell, 2000). In the
site in active production is to consider the (1) species UK, many yellow-flowered members of the
types, (2) ecological patterns, and (3) ecological proc- mustard family, warm temperate grasses, and
esses present (Figure 11.13). feral pigeons, starlings, and house sparrows may
1. Species types. Industrial site species are relatively be abundant. A rather uncommon bird, black
distinctive for being soil-pollution tolerant, redstart (Phoenicurus ochruros), is often present in
air-pollution tolerant, water-pollution tolerant, industrial sites.
desiccation-resistant, and successful on soil with 2. Ecological patterns. Normally, habitat heterogeneity
little nitrogen and phosphorus. Some species is rather high. Biodiversity is low, while the
are especially acid-tolerant and others alkaline- number of species unusual for the surrounding
tolerant. At a low pH of 4.0–4.5 few species are area is high (Hough, 2004). Vegetation cover and

338
 Industrial areas

the number of vegetation layers may be high or small trees, and finally by large trees. The last stage has
low. Although one or two species of a group may several layers present, and eventually large trees die,
be rather abundant, most species are present opening up holes in the canopy, such that the forest
at a low population density (Weiss et al., 2005). is a heterogeneous mix of tree sizes and other plants.
Heavy metals tend to be widespread, and the seed Reaching the last successional stage is rare in an urban
bank in the soil is sparse. Soil pH is commonly area, because the rate of land-use change is faster.
considerably higher or lower than in surrounding
areas. Soil animal density and microbial biomass Alternative approaches for industrial sites
are low. While the preceding insights seem to represent rela-
3. Ecological processes. Plant productivity and the tively typical conditions for industrial sites, numerous
production of litter and humus are normally low. alternative approaches, technologies, and modifica-
Soil decomposition and nutrient cycling rates tions of course exist. Since economic production is
are typically low. Water infiltration into the soil involved, all alternatives represent significant trends
is relatively low and evapo-transpiration is low. and have important ecological dimensions.
Surface water runoff is high and soil erosion often “Biomimicry” or “biomimetics” represents an
high. Both herbivory and predation rates are low. especially intriguing long-term approach (Benyus,
2002, 2008; Aizenberg, 2010). In essence, the idea is to
Post-production inputs, outputs, and ecology manufacture goods and products similarly to the way
The industrial site and its ecology change dramat- nature makes natural products, and to create products
ically when industries end production. During the that mimic the way natural products work or function
post-production period, inputs of precipitation and in nature. Thus, for example, manufacturing processes
nearby species continue (Figure 11.13). But inputs of would avoid the use of high temperatures, and products
raw materials, power, transport, employees, and spe- would be flexible and adaptable. Steel and concrete,
cies from afar essentially stop. Outputs also change. for instance, are incompatible with both biomimicry
Employees, transport, waste heat, and economic prod- dimensions.
ucts no longer flow outward from the site.
Continuous change over different time scales is the Interdependent industries
post-production story. Air pollutants drop quickly, Considering that an industrial site or area often contains
and then gradually decline. Stormwater runoff initially several unrelated industries, the amount of raw materials
changes little, but later as plants colonize and hard sur- and transport, and the total air, soil, and water pollution,
faces degrade, runoff drops and eventually levels off. are usually huge. The idea of interdependent industries
Stormwater pollutants follow essentially the same pat- (sometimes called industrial ecology, industrial sym-
tern, except that they continue to spread outward for a biosis, or eco-industrial development) together in an
much longer period. Soil pollution changes little until industrial site represents an intriguing idea (Allenby,
decreasing when considerable vegetation cover and 2006). In essence, the output of one industry is used as
soil organic matter accumulate. raw material for a second industry, and the output of
Some species types, ecological patterns, and eco- the second is used as input for the first (or a third) com-
logical processes described above persist with little pany (Nielsen, 2007; Suh, 2008). This is somewhat like
change. But species characteristic of “spontaneous” a positive feedback system, though the amounts may or
urban vegetation slowly colonize. Species of greenspace may not control success or failure for a company and the
semi-natural vegetation colonize very slowly. Plant entire system. Interdependent industries not only help
cover increases more rapidly and later is nearly com- one another, but they have smaller external inputs and
plete. Soil organic matter and soil structure increase smaller waste outputs. That means less environmental
more slowly. impact, especially on the surroundings.
Ecological succession consisting of a series of patchy The best known several-decade example is
or mosaic-like stages becomes conspicuous, and the- Kalundborg (Denmark) with three interdependent
oretically could continue for a century or two. Thus, a industries (Frosch and Gallopoulos, 1989; Cohen-
stage of colonizing low plants may be followed by a per- Rosenthal and Musnikow, 2003; Beatley, 2000a). An
ennial herbaceous-plants stage, followed by a cover of oil refinery provides surplus gas and cooling water for
shrubs and tree seedlings, followed by relatively dense use by a power station, and the power station provides

339
 Residential, commercial, industrial areas

steam used by the oil refinery. Those two industries The number, sizes, shapes, types, and arrangement of
are directly interdependent. A third industry, a plas- such features significantly alter outputs of pollutants.
terboard factory, uses surplus gas from the oil refinery, To illustrate with a simple conceptual example, the
provides condensate used by the power station, which characteristics of two industries on a site are varied in
provides steam used by the oil company. This feedback realistic ways (Figure 11.14a to f). The first image has
links all three industries. (a) extensive hard surface; the second (b) stormwater
Other interdependent industry sites include Santa detention ponds; third (c) chemical wastes channeled
Cruz in Rio de Janeiro, which includes chemical, petro- to the ponds; fourth (d) added wind and solar energy
chemical, steel, food producer, paints, and nuclear-elec- collectors as renewable energy sources; fifth (e) green
tric equipment industries (Veiga and Magrini, 2008). In roofs; and sixth (f) woody vegetation along fencing.
Kawasaki (Japan), 14 industries, including steel, chem- Comparing these six options ecologically, based on
ical, cement, and paper companies, exchange seven 17 variables related to air, soil, water, habitat, plants,
materials (Van Berkel et al., 2009). A small 15 ha (38 and animals, reveals important differences. Very few
acre) site in Hartberg, Austria accomplishes the goal of positives and many negatives appear for the first four
interdependence (Liwarska-Bizukojc, 2008). options, (a) to (d). In contrast, many positive environ-
Stability here is also a key to success (Nielsen, mental variables and few negatives appear for the vege-
2007). If one industry chooses short-term profit over tation-added options, (e) and especially (f), i.e., woody
long-term stability, the system could fall apart. In mar- vegetation along the fencing. Positives and negatives
ket economies, industries typically produce for a while here of course are relative to industrial site types, not
and eventually end their production and disappear. other urban land uses.
Even when government helps provide stability, at some An additional three alternatives vary character-
point government no longer does so. The Kalundborg istics of the power used (coal or hydro) and location
system has doubtless persisted in part because a central (river and coast) relative to the railway (Figure 11.14g
component, the power facility station, has been essen- to i). Adding rail access and using coal in option (g) has
tially a public utility or necessity, and appropriately no positive and many negative ecological dimensions.
supported by government. On the other hand, the two options next to water, (h)
Lichens are classic cases of interdependence or sym- and (i), have many positives and few negatives.
biosis. If either the alga or the fungus dies, the lichen, These sites along railroad, river, and coast are of
i.e., the entire system, dies. particular interest because of being located on linear
In short, interdependent industries are a great idea features of the land. Such features are corridors for
while they are working (Frosch and Gallopoulos, 1989; wildlife movement and can be also for people move-
Lambert and Boons, 2002; Koenig, 2005; Ashton, 2008). ment. Adding one or more medium-to-large green-
The Kalundborg interdependence results in much less space in the industrial site would likely make a quite
input of water, oil, coal, and raw materials, and much efficient movement route for wildlife through the
less output of waste, sulfur dioxide, and other pollutants. urban area.
Furthermore, the varied outputs from the three indus- Finally, the industrial-site approach, whereby indus-
tries are inputs to a surrounding set of users, includ- tries are aggregated at designated sites, stands in con-
ing a municipality, fish farm, greenhouses, local farms, trast to the “industrial city” concept, where industries
cement factory, sulfuric-acid maker, and pharmaceutical are dispersed over much of the urban area and hence
plant. The interdependent approach could be improved pollutants bathe the whole metro area. Manchester
or expanded using ecosystem and landscape ecology (UK) in the 19th century, Pittsburgh (USA) in the early
principles (Forman, 1995; Nielsen, 2007). Nevertheless, 20th century, and Baotou (Inner Mongolia, China)
the inherent instability in such a system, which depends today are poster cases of industrial cities with severe
on its weakest link, probably limits the proliferation of environmental conditions. Nevertheless, numerous
interdependent-industries sites. other cities today in India, China, and elsewhere are
covered in pollutants from dispersed industries in and
Stormwater, chemicals, vegetation, ponds, beyond the metro area (Benton-Short and Short, 2008).
power, location For example, in China, aerial particulates are report-
This set of attributes appears in almost all industrial edly extremely dense in Chongqing, Beijing, Shanghai,
sites and offers great opportunity for improvement. and Shenyang, while nitrogen oxide levels in Beijing

340
 Industrial areas

(a) (b) (c) Figure 11.14. Nine alternative forms

of industrial sites. All sites have two
medium-size industries, a shared office
building and parking (entrance on
right), paved area for trucks (entrance
on left), large manufacturing buildings,
warehouses, tall smokestacks, temporary
waste-storage locations, areas for
future expansion, and highway along
boundary at top. Based on Urban Land
Institute (1975), Hartshorn (1992), Cohen-
Rosenthal and Musnikow (2003), Wein
(2006), American Planning Association
(2006), and other sources.

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

and Northeastern China are considered extreme. resource consumption and pollution production are
Improvement steps have begun, however. much higher than the rate of decomposition and other
Despite all the designs, planning, management, cleaning mechanisms by natural processes. For a good
maintenance, and attempts at human control of nat- livable urban future, the rate of nature’s recovery proc-
ural processes in urban areas, nature endlessly reap- esses should exceed the rate of resource use and waste
pears and grows. Unfortunately, too often the rates of output.

341
 Part III Urban features

Green spaces, corridors, systems

Chapter

12
One might consider an ideal series of parks as you might ornamentals, shrubs, dispersed trees, and flower
a great water system, using the metaphor of green water gardens
… a weaving, interconnected green mass that changes 3. Urban agriculture: crops/cultivation, paddy,
in size and purpose, but always inter-penetrates for- pasture, orchard/vineyard, and community garden
cibly but gently the urban, suburban, and rural scene. 4. Wetland: freshwater or saltwater mudflat,
William M. Roth, Conservation Foundation marsh, swamp
symposium, Washington, D.C., 1971 5. Successional habitat: meadow, edge of dump,
former farm field, former quarry, vacant plot,
Rio has edged in between the hills and the sea … But
brownfield
the jungle is still there. You can reach it easily by tram,
6. Combination of the preceding types: considerable
or through suburban backdoors.
habitat diversity, and often the most common form
Peter Fleming, Brazilian Adventure, 1933
of greenspace vegetation
Is there a better dream than the glorious life of a song- Greenspace patches of course vary from large to
bird, gliding over the land from tree to tree, diving into small, and green corridors from wide to narrow. At
flower gardens, splashing in a pool, and joining hun- least 75 of these key urban features, varying in spa-
dreds in a chorus with scores of parts? Home may be tial scale and from metro area to outer urban-region
the luxuriant tropics where life is always sunny. Your ring, are readily recognizable (Forman, 2008). In the
ancestors gave you genes for the marathon, when you metro area, examples are large wood-lawn park, zoo,
migrate to foreign land with an explosion of delicious railway corridor, and protected coastline strip, as well
insects or seeds, nice for raising babies. After several as small vacant plot, historical site, tree line, and high-
nights of flying, an inhospitable metro area stretching way median strip. The exurban or peri-urban area may
to the horizon appears beneath you. But look, a large include large protected semi-natural area, golf course,
green patch ahead … and tired wings thankfully carry and greenway, plus small cemetery and pond area. The
you there for rest and food (Figure 12.1). While for- outer urban-region ring often contains large cropland
aging, you meet an unknown relative who grew up areas, natural lands, river corridors, and powerline cor-
in forest beyond the city. The local bird reached your ridors, in addition to small swamp and former quarry.
greenspace by moving along a wonderfully wide green Considerable research has clarified ecological pat-
corridor, connecting natural land to city center. terns in urban patches varying from large to small
Many types of large greenspaces and major green (see Chapters 8 and 9). Yet the ecological effects and
vegetated corridors are introduced in this chapter. The functions of urban-corridor width appear to be still
vegetation within them appears in six general forms little studied. Wide green corridors are usually long,
(Dorney and McClellan, 1984; Kot, 1988; Godde et al., and serve as major connectors across the urban area.
1995; Rieley and Page, 1995; Breuste, 2009). Examples Narrow urban corridors tend to be short, and fre-
of each are listed: quently cut up into a row of stepping stones.
1. Woods: woodland, forest, natural, semi-natural, Over time, the abundance of greenspace in a metro
remnant, regenerated, all normally containing area decreases as densification and infill occur (see
litter, herbaceous, and shrub layers Chapters 3 and 10). Informal squatter settlement is a
2. Lawn with trees: cemetery, golf course, city park, prime example. From 1950 to 1980, green areas in rap-
playing field area, and plaza, most containing idly growing Mexico City apparently decreased sharply

342
 Urban agriculture

Figure 12.1. Two large parks important

for both city wildlife and migrating
songbirds. Parks contain lawn, walkways
and small roads, trees scattered and in
lines, small semi-natural patches, and
water body (lower left). Large urban
parks are magnets for migratory birds;
large size and some habitat diversity
support many resident animals. Tiny bits
of green facilitate wildlife movement
between the parks and outward across
the city. London. R. Forman photo.

from about 42% to 14% of the city. In contrast, with of their food, while some cities grow 50%, 70%, even
population loss or de-densification, greenspace cover more than 90% of the green vegetables and some other
often increases, as in Detroit (USA) in the late 20th products annually consumed by the population (see
century. Disasters such as a hurricane/cyclone in New Figure 12.2a).
Orleans (USA) or wars in various cities usually lead to From the beginning of cities, residents grew food
more urban vegetation. Construction sites and associ- in urban greenspaces. Turning some parks of these key
ated successional habitats are usually small, appearing spaces into lawn-dominated parks interrupted the pro-
plot by plot. Occasionally, extensive construction cre- cess, yet urban agriculture persists for good reasons.
ates a large greenspace or major corridor. Food production occurs on remnant large fields in
Greenspace patches, irrespective of size, appear to peri-urban/exurban and suburban areas, as well as in
be more abundant (at higher density) in smaller than temporary vacant lots and little-used interstitial spaces
larger cities (Forman, 2008). Also, green corridors are in the city. Despite diverse locations and products, in
more common in smaller cities. Therefore, buildings all cases urban agriculture is characterized by growing
on average are furthest from an urban park in large cit- food and related products as part of an overall urban
ies, and per person the average distance from residence system. Thus, overwhelmingly the growers, resources
to park is extremely large. used, food produced, environmental effects, and food
The array of green spaces, corridors, and systems eaters are of the local urban area (Mougeot, 2005; van
is presented in five groups: (1) urban agriculture; (2) Veenhuizen, 2006).
parks; (3) diverse large greenspaces; (4) green corri- Useful general references on urban agriculture
dors and networks; and (5) urban greenspace systems. also grow in number (Smit and Nasr, 1992; Lawson,
Railway corridors and rail yards (see Chapter 10), 2005; Viljoen et al., 2005; Mougeot, 2005, 2006; van
industrial areas (Chapter 11), and informal squatter Veenhuizen, 2006; Nordahl, 2009). Many African
settlements (Chapter 11 and Epilogue) are excluded. cities emphasize urban agriculture (Mougeot, 2005;
McGregor et al., 2006; Maconachie, 2007). Other
Urban agriculture prime urban food-production areas include Germany,
Several hundred million people participate in grow- East Asia, UK (Moran, 1990; Gilbert, 1991; Ravetz,
ing food in gardens and fields of urban areas. Although 2000; Howe, 2002), USA (Hynes, 1996; Lawson, 2005),
the process causes lots of human and environmental and Latin America (Losada et al., 1998; Premat, 2005;
problems, an extraordinary range of benefits propels Mougeot, 2005; Torres et al., 2007; Wright, 2009).
the extensive effort forward. From simply the food Many key components of the subject were explored
produced perspective, families may grow 10% or more in detail in preceding chapters, including soil and

343
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

(a) (b) Figure 12.2. Urban agriculture

production and pest/disease diversity.
(a) All cities are in Africa Region, except
Sofia, Bulgaria, London, Shanghai. (b)
Lome (Togo). Ladybugs included with
caterpillars; leeches included with
centipedes. Insects include crickets, ants,
termites, fireworms, white flies, bugs.
Adapted from Mougeot (2005).

chemicals (Chapter 4), air (Chapter 5), water (Chapters 6 and fruits aggregated in small fields, intensely
and 7), plants (Chapter 8), wildlife (Chapter 9), house using irrigation, fertilizer, and pesticides. Being
plots and buildings (Chapter 10), and residential, com- close by a city, small trucks daily carry fresh
mercial, and industrial areas (Chapter 11). We now produce to markets and restaurants in the urban
briefly introduce four dimensions of the subject: (1) area, much reducing transportation costs. The
locations and types of urban agriculture; (2) growing agricultural park by Barcelona (Tribo, 1989),
food; (3) ecological effects; and (4) linkages with neigh- huertas by Valencia (Spain), and the Kent and Lee
borhood and urban region. Valley areas by London are characteristic.
4. Community service agriculture. CSAs (and various
Locations and types of urban agriculture related terms) combine food growing on fields
The location of a food-growing area helps determine its with other goals, such as involving neighbors,
size. Size and location then largely determine the type volunteers, interns, and inner city children or
of operation and food produced. For convenience, we adults, as well as providing food free to urban
group urban agriculture types in three categories: (1) people in need, and free or at a discount to
large sites; (2) small sites in peri-urban/exurban and neighbors (Donahue, 1999). Educational and
suburban areas; and (3) small sites in suburb and city. recreational dimensions may be included, and
often the products produced are quite diverse.
Large sites 5. Aquaculture and fish farms. Fish farms grow
1. Livestock on pastureland. Near cities with high land mainly herbivorous fish for food in many
prices, livestock usually are relatively uncommon small ponds, typically using grass and other
and mostly for dairy products (McGregor et al., cuttings, animal wastes, and sometimes human
2006; van Veenhuizen, 2006). wastewater for nutrients (Duning et al., 2001).
2. Fields with national-market crops. Typically Shellfish aquaculture, such as near Bangkok, is
producing grains and beans, such fields are similar. Aquaculture using sewage wastewater,
basically linked to rural agricultural economies sometimes after partial treatment, benefits from
and communities, not to the urban area. Often abundant nutrients and water to grow food such as
these are remnant fields on good soils. Specialized vegetables, rice, and fish, usually in ponds (Costa-
crops are also produced in different areas, Pierce et al., 2005).
including rice in paddies (Song and Gin, 2008),
orchards, vineyards, and flower-growing (e.g., in Small sites in peri-urban/exurban and suburban areas
Holland). 6. House-plot gardens. Especially characteristic are
3. Market gardening. Sometimes called truck farming, vegetable gardens in the back spaces/yards of
these areas typically produce diverse vegetables attached or detached houses in residential areas

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 Urban agriculture

(Ojo, 2009). Such home gardens also occur in and infrastructure are planted by residents. Such
courtyard/patio houses. Families have essentially opportunistic gardens may be informal or with
total control over food growing and harvesting formal permission, and tend to be relatively
processes. Urban agriculture households consume ephemeral (Freeman, 1991).
more diverse foods and more calories than other 11. Buildings growing food. Vegetables and herbs
urban residents (Zezza and Tasciotti, 2010). are grown as potted plants in windows, window
House-plot gardening may increase during boxes, balconies, even green walls. Intensive green
wartime and difficult economic periods (Hynes, roofs with some 30 cm (1 ft) of soil may also be
1996). planted for food production. Food plants inside
7. Greenhouse production. Although sometimes buildings grow in artificial or natural light, even
covering large areas, as in Holland, Spain, Italy, using mirrors (Kellert et al., 2008). Mushroom
and China, most greenhouse production is a growing in warm moist soil in the dark typically
small operation. Plant production is normally occurs in building basements or elsewhere under
controlled and often high in greenhouses. Growing a city (Clement and Thomas, 2001).
and maintenance costs may also be high. Some
greenhouses grow flowers, and some contain Growing food
still-more-expensive hydroponics and recycling
The setting for growing food in urban areas commonly
facilities (Todd and Todd, 1994). Greenhouses
contains an access road. Other widespread features of
containing imported soil may be built on poor or
urban agriculture are: a scatter of ditches for irriga-
contaminated soil (Losada et al., 1998).
tion and drainage (Geertsema and Sprangers, 2002;
Asare Afrane et al., 2004); dispersed trees providing
Small sites in city and suburb harvestable products and enhancing soil conditions
8. Institutional gardens. Typically established on the (Maconachie, 2007); lines of woody vegetation along
grounds of a university, school, hospital, prison, roads, ditches, streams, and hedgerows; shed, fencing,
factory, or government building, institutional compost pile, and personalized artifacts (Bruno et al.,
gardens often vary considerably over time, as 2006); and farmsteads with farm roads.
maintenance effort and care change. Usually an Specialized fencing and other features are associ-
educational dimension means a high diversity of ated with the growing of different animals for food,
products grown. such as chickens, rabbits, goats, pigs, and cows (Premat,
9. Community gardens. A community garden 2005; McGregor et al., 2006; van Veenhuizen, 2006).
or allotment is typically an aggregation of Some animals may also be raised on roofs where they
individually tended tiny plots (Moran, 1990; are not disturbed by people (Losada et al., 1998). By
Gilbert, 1991; UN Development Programme, consuming organic wastes, may animals are effective
1996; Perez-Vazquez et al., 2005; Lawson, 2005). recyclers.
Perhaps as the original urban-agriculture type, The plants grown are primarily vegetables, though
allotments were formalized in the UK in the fruits, herbs, and flowers are also widely grown. Getting
1800s, and in 1970 the small city of Swindon was started with planting is often a challenge because the
1% covered with allotments (60 ha = 150 acres, urban soil is contaminated with chemicals, includ-
composed of 37 sites containing 1300 individual ing heavy metals (Alam et al., 2003; Kirpichtchikova
tiny plots) (Moran, 1990). In the USA, community et al., 2003; Maconachie, 2007; Khai et al., 2007). The
gardens were sequentially known as potato basic safe options are to remove the contaminated soil,
patches (1800s), liberty gardens (early 1900s), add clean soil on top, or still better, do both (virtu-
relief gardens (1930s), and victory gardens (1940s) ally always the rate of phytoremediation is much too
(Hynes, 1996; Lawson, 2005). Even in dense high- slow). Urban growers often consider organic meth-
rise-covered Singapore today, planning standards ods to reduce chemical use and increase biodiversity
dictate one local garden (≥0.2 ha = 0.5 acre) per (Wickramasinghe et al., 2003; Bengtsson et al., 2005).
3000 building units (Jim and Chen, 2003). Pollinators are important for production in many
10. Tiny gardens in little-used spaces. Tiny spots in species. In New York City urban gardens, 54 bee spe-
“interstitial” spaces between urban structures cies are present, dominated by a native bumblebee and

345
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

two non-native bees (Matteson, 2008). Weeds are com- as the evapo-transpiration from irrigated soil and a
mon in urban food-growing spaces, especially if the cover of herbaceous plants (Smit, 2006). The cooler air
space adjoins fields and hedgerows (Moran, 1990). also means that air pollutants in warm air of surround-
Pest herbivores, our competitors for the food, ing areas may be drawn to and deposited on the food
are attracted to food-producing sites (Figure 12.2b) plants and soil.
(Moran, 1990; Gilbert, 1991). Deer, rabbits, rodents, Overall, the soil quality is usually high, a rela-
woodchucks, pigeons, sparrows, and lots of insects and tively scarce phenomenon in urban areas. Fertilization
other invertebrates may arrive. The herbivores attract provides abundant nutrients. Added organic mat-
predators, so the garden may have foxes, domestic ter normally enhances a whole range of soil proper-
cats, raccoons, snakes, spiders, insect-eating birds, and ties, including nutrients, moisture, soil animals, soil
raptors. Gardeners often plant certain species, such as microbes, root growth, water infiltration, and aeration
marigolds and mints, with chemicals that deter herbiv- (see Chapter 4). Pollutants may arrive from the air, but
ores. Deterring people from stealthily removing food contaminating or toxic levels of pollutants often result
produced is often more difficult. from the addition of organic solid waste, sewage waste-
After planting plants, many things are added to water, or dry wastewater sludge (Huang et al., 2006).
enhance growth and food production: Water quantity, water quality, groundwater condi-
1. Water is normally added, particularly in dry tions, and the downslope local water body are all apt
climes and dry periods. Partially treated or to be affected by areas of urban agriculture. Irrigation
untreated sewage wastewater is sometimes used channels may add water to the food-production site.
for irrigation, and adds nutrients as well (Smit and Consequently both infiltration into the soil and evapo-
Nasr, 1992; Keraita et al., 2003). transpiration normally increase. In heavy rainfall
2. Chemical fertilizers, especially containing times, flooding is increased because the soil is already
phosphorus and nitrogen, are commonly added moist or saturated.
to stimulate growth. The soil pH may be increased The input of nutrients, especially nitrogen and
with lime or decreased chemically or organically. phosphorus, frequently exceeds the rate of absorption
3. Manure or humus provides organic matter as well by the plant roots. Excess nutrients are typically car-
as mineral nutrients. Composted yard waste is a ried downward by infiltration and washed downslope
prime source of humus. The soil organic matter by stormwater runoff. Both nutrients and heavy metals
retains water and nutrients, and enhances the soil reaching groundwater effectively accumulate because
fauna and microbial components, with added (except in limestone areas) groundwater normally
benefits to plant growth. Alternatively, organic solid flows very slowly. Such groundwater pumped from
waste, such as household garbage, is sometimes wells for water supply may be toxic and require water
added to provide organic matter and nutrients treatment. The abundant nutrients carried downslope
(Anikwe and Nwobodo, 2002; Hough, 2004; eutrophicate the local water body, with reverberating
Pasquini, 2006: Maconachie, 2007). However, effects often leading to a degraded aquatic ecosystem
municipal solid waste, even when sorted for its and scarce fish.
organic contents, is commonly rich in toxic heavy Do urban agricultural sites have high or low bio-
metals. diversity? First, overall, habitat diversity is low, and
4. Pesticides, such as insecticides, herbicides, and few habitats normally mean few species. Second, the
fungicides, are often added to eliminate pest smoothed food-growing site often has replaced a suc-
species that limit food production. cessional habitat with many species, whether the size of
a field, vacant lot, or tiny interstitial spot. Third, heavy
pesticide use sharply reduces biodiversity.
Ecological effects Yet three other factors counter these patterns. Water
The air over and downwind of a large urban-agricul- is added, thus benefitting a wide range of non-culti-
ture space is likely to be cleaner and cooler than that of vated species. Soil is enriched by various additions of
nearby urban areas (Figure 12.3). The main source of nutrients and organic matter, thus stimulating growth
air pollution would be wind-eroded dust in dry peri- of numerous plants, and providing invertebrates as
ods. The lower-temperature air results from the near- food sources for varied predators. Finally, the high
absence of heat-radiating impervious surfaces, as well production of our nutrient-rich food plants also serves

346
 Urban agriculture

Figure 12.3. Market gardening

agriculture for vegetables and fruits
adjacent to city. Intensively cultivated
small fields with scattered farm-related
buildings and woody-plant corridors
along some irrigation/drainage
channels. Source of clean cool air for
the city, and resting/feeding areas by
Mediterranean coast for birds migrating
between Europe and Africa. Las Huertas,
Valencia, Spain. Photo courtesy and with
permission of Arancha Munoz Criado.

as a significant food source for numerous herbivores. The food-growing site also strongly interacts with
Balancing these six processes suggests that urban agri- the city (Figure 12.3). Fresh food is trucked into city
culture sites generally have a moderately high species markets and to the periodic farmers’ market. Food
richness. products go to restaurants, including those serving
organically grown food. Soil pollutants absorbed by
Linkages with neighborhood and food-plant roots are passed to consumers in this way.
Organic waste from markets and restaurants, in turn,
urban region may be sent to peri-urban/exurban farms as valuable
Urban agriculture sites interact with their neighboring fertilizer or pig food. Food-transporting trucks also
area, with the city, and with the broad urban region. At carry an assortment of “hanger-on” species, including
the neighborhood scale, a food-growing site serves as native species, non-native species, and pests. The city
a key species source, from which plants and animals serves as a source of such species, yet the urban agri-
disperse and colonize the surroundings. Wildlife regu- culture site does too. Another interesting research sub-
larly move both directions between site and neighbor- ject awaits study. At the city scale, the food-production
hood. Pollinators also move from site to surroundings, site serves as a stepping stone for movement of species
and vice versa, pollinating flowers and increasing fruit across the city.
and seed production. Public-health disease vectors and Viewing an urban agriculture site in the broader
pests, such as mosquitoes, move from ditches and wet context of the urban region highlights several more
areas into the surrounding neighborhood (Brown and dimensions of linkage. Birds migrating over an extensive
Jameton, 2000; Asare Afrane et al., 2004). Pollutants from built metro area see a large agricultural patch and stop
adjoining busy highways spread into the agricultural (Figure 12.3). Although cover for resting is limited, food
site. And farm stands or shops selling the food products is often abundant. A different case from the Wuxi area
attract neighbors to the urban agriculture site (Torres of China, where urban farmland was heavily fertilized
et al., 2007). Indeed, the urban agriculture site is best with cow manure from a surrounding area, found high
viewed as a key piece of a “multi-functional landscape levels of heavy metals in both soils and some vegetables
mosaic,” where pieces fit together and regularly interact (Huang et al., 2006). The cows fed on grass in an area
(see Chapter 2) (Brandt et al., 2003–2004; Hardoy et al., receiving heavy metals from factory emissions. In this
2004; Tacoli, 2006; McGregor et al., 2006). way, far-distant factories, distant pastureland, its cows,

347
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

their cow manure, the urban-agriculture soil, and finally number of types of production. For example, the Berlin
food produced for urban markets were tied together. and Bamako (Mali) urban regions have many separ-
A “food-shed” refers to the area surrounding a city ate agricultural landscapes, but few types (Forman,
where much of a city’s food is produced (Lister, 2007). 2008). On the other hand, the Rome and Barcelona
In the USA in 1900, before the spread of motor vehi- regions have many urban agriculture landscapes and
cles and paved roads, <40 km (25 mi) was probably the also many types of production (Forman, 2004, 2008).
average distance a piece of food traveled to a plate for That provides valuable flexibility for getting through
eating. Apparently, in 1960 the figure was 425 km (265 future crises.
mi), and in 2000 on average food traveled 2400 km
(1500 mi). Urban agriculture now sharply cuts both
transportation distance and cost, also reducing time
Parks
and food spoilage (Zezza and Tasciotti, 2010). From the beginning of cities, urban greenspaces must
Outward urban development tends to target farm- have provided enjoyment and aesthetic values for resi-
land and good agricultural soils (Losada et al., 1998; dents. Food production was doubtless also important.
Benfield et al., 1999; Morello et al., 2000; Lopez et al., Since about the 17th century in Europe, urban “parks”
2001; Tan et al., 2005; Faggi et al., 2008). In fact, sus- with lawns, flower beds, and scattered trees and shrubs
taining agriculture near cities in the face of urbaniza- have been largely planted and maintained for the
tion may be an important societal goal (Vail, 1987; enjoyment of people, including leisure and recreation
Johnston et al., 1987). Various types of locations have activities (Figure 12.4) (Platt et al., 1994). Such park
been suggested as particularly desirable for urban agri- designs spread worldwide (Ishikawa, 2001; Sorensen,
culture, such as in greenbelts or green wedges (Howard, 2004; Havens, 2011). More recently, providing a spot of
1902; Hardoy et al., 2004; Forman, 2008). Also, urban nature has become an additional important function
agriculture may flourish near informal squatter settle- of parks. Today “city parks” are usually either managed
ments full of people recently arrived from rural areas overwhelmingly for the enjoyment of people, or may
(Freeman, 1991), and thus relatively knowledgeable also have an important nature protection value. Semi-
about farming. natural vegetation in a park supports both nature and
Almost irrespective of location, urban agriculture nature-based recreation.
sites and the intensity of food production tend to be Numerous park roles or benefits are well recog-
temporary (UN Development Programme, 1996). nized (Chiesura, 2004; Tyrvainen et al., 2005). Major
Near cities and high land prices, dairy farms frequently benefits are: (1) social (recreation, health, educational,
fold. Community gardens on vacant lots are regularly cultural, historical values); (2) aesthetic (experience
replaced by buildings. Back-space vegetable gardens in nature, frame/define/screen structures, variations in
house plots disappear when the next resident moves in. plant color/texture/density); (3) climatic and phys-
Gardens in tiny interstitial spots are here today, gone ical (cooling, controlling wind, humidity, air cleaning,
tomorrow. Indeed, planting trees for fruit production sound, light, flooding, erosion control); (4) ecological
is sometimes recommended to give the perception of (plants, vegetation, animals, wildlife movement, bio-
permanence. diversity, aquatic ecosystems, fish); and (5) economic
Finally, food production in urban agriculture helps (property values, tourism, and the preceding non-mar-
provide some “food security” or stability in the face of ket values).
crises (UN Development Programme, 1996; Koc et al., Park size is typically the most important attribute
1999; Premat, 2005; Mougeot, 2005; Ojo, 2009; Wright, determining its functions and benefits. This is illus-
2009; Zezza and Tasciotti, 2010). Europe has had two trated with tiny, small, and medium-size city parks and
major wars in a century, oil markets for transportation their plants in Rome (Attorre et al., 2003). All three of
remain volatile and seemingly beyond control, and his- these Mediterranean-climate parks appear to be well
tory records many cities degraded by severe prolonged used by people. Apparently all of the trees and shrubs
drought. In addition to adaptability from a series of were planted, suggesting rather intensive maintenance
perturbations, flexibility leads to stability. “Land-use that removes colonizing woody plants.
flexibility” may be provided by a large area of urban 1. Tiny city square. The 35 m × 65 m (115 ft × 217
agriculture (Johnston et al., 1987; Jim and Chen, 2003), ft) Piazza Cairoli contains one fountain, one
a large number of separate locations with it, and a large monument, two flower beds, nine park benches, a

348
 Parks

gravel-walkway areas covering about 40% of the

area, plus large flower beds on 40% and a pond
covering 20% of the park. Also present are one
monument, one fountain area, 12+ park benches, a
tiny raised gravel space, and an area of steps. Today
there are 61 woody plants representing 25 species.
The predominant forms (in order) are conifers,
deciduous vines/climbers, deciduous trees, other
evergreen trees, palms, and evergreen shrubs.
Woody plants in the park have plummeted from
496 (in 1894) to 61 today.
3. Medium-size city park. The approximately 320
(a) m × 360 m (1050 ft × 1180 ft) Parco del Pincio is
covered about 75% by gravel walkway, 10% asphalt
walkway, 5% road surface, and 10% flower beds.
One building, 11 fountains, 5+ park benches, and a
sidewalk on one side are present. The 1244 woody
plants (in order of abundance) are primarily oak
(Quercus ilex) (approximately 275 trees), laurel
(Laurus nobilis) (150 shrubs), plane tree (Platanus
× acerifolia) (70 trees), horse chestnut (Aesculus
hippocastanum) (65 trees), cypress (Cupresssus
sempervirens) (50 trees), pine (Pinus pinea) (45
trees), and black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia)
(40 trees). Woody plants in the park have dropped
(b)
from 7049 (in 1870) to 1244 today.
All three parks are mainly covered by gravel for walk-
ing park-goers. Gravel cover also facilitates stormwa-
ter infiltration, protects against erosion, minimizes
heat buildup, and consequently enhances the park’s
plant growth. All three parks have a conspicuous mix
of deciduous trees, evergreen trees, and evergreen
shrubs, providing variation and benefits through-
out the year. At least in the small and medium parks,
woody plant density has dropped enormously over
some 13 decades.
(c) Large city parks provide a similar set of resources
Figure 12.4. City parks mainly for recreation/leisure of residents. for people. But in addition, semi-natural areas that
(a) Fairground and pond for sailing model boats. Tuileries, Paris. (b) escape manicuring by park maintenance personnel
Morning exercises on soil substrate beneath dense tree canopy. Île
de la Cité, Paris. (c) Lawn chairs placed in the sun; foreground with are sustained in part due to limited government budg-
soil walkway and bench; group of common pigeons (rock doves) ets. Central Park (300 ha = 750 acres) in central New
(center left). R. Forman photos (bottom photo courtesy of Jessica York City contains two semi-natural patches (The
Newman).
Ramble and North Woods), each about 16 ha (40 acres)
(Rosenzweig and Blackmar, 1992). Ecologically the
gravel surface, and a surrounding sidewalk. There are North Woods is particularly interesting because much
13 deciduous trees (3 species), 6 evergreen trees (1 of the tree canopy is composed of non-native species.
species), and 13 evergreen shrubs (1 species) present. Other large parks in the central portions of cities
2. Small city park or garden. The 80 m × 100 m (262 ft are predominantly used for human enjoyment, but also
× 328 ft) Giardino di Carlo Alberto has connected include semi-natural areas such as Golden Gate Park

349
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

(400 ha =1000 acres in San Francisco); Mount Royal Capdevila, 2000).Tiny fountains and ponds serve as key
Park (100 ha = 250 acres in Montreal), Monjuic (in attractors for a variety of animals in parks. Meanwhile
Barcelona), Table Mountain Park (in Cape Town, South streams, rivers, large ponds, and shorelines are major
Africa), a large nature reserve in central Singapore, habitats, indeed tightly packed groups of habitats, in
Tiergarten (215 ha = 530 acres in Berlin), and probably parks.
Stanley Park (400 ha = 1000 acres) in Vancouver and In effect, this habitat diversity or heterogeneity
Chapultepec Park in Mexico City. The Reserva Natura increases species diversity (Tilghman, 1987). High
del Sur in central Buenos Aires established on a former habitat diversity in a park means a large species pool,
dump site, is mainly for nature conservation, and pub- the total number of species present. It also means that
lic access is limited. the park is a large species source, i.e., many species move
Plants in ten large urban parks (each ≥400 ha = 1000 outward from a park to surrounding areas, including
acres) near the center and periphery of major cities other greenspaces. If the park contains a semi-natu-
were studied in the Boston-to-Washington megalop- ral area, both the species pool and species source are
olis (Loeb, 2006). In total, 1391 vascular plant species still larger and more important for the neighborhood
were recorded, including 490 non-natives. Both natives or city.
and non-natives are prominent in the plant mixture The simple presence of people frightens away many
dominating all the parks. Perhaps surprisingly, less animals. However, in urban areas perhaps most spe-
than 1% of the species are in all ten parks, and <2.5% cies are habituated, i.e., accustomed and less scared of
in nine or more parks. No distinctive or common park humans. In parks, people also compact soil by tramp-
flora seems to exist in this region, which has a relatively ling, and damage vegetation in varied ways.
similar climate and where parks are surrounded by The avian use of four highly different habitats in
millions of people. Two large parks in the Bronx por- a medium-size park in Sheffield (UK) is instructive
tion of New York City are more similar in flora to parks (Gilbert, 1991). Over a year, 643 birds (of 25 species)
in Baltimore and Washington than to nearby parks in were recorded in a wooded patch, 322 birds (21 spe-
other portions of New York City. This suggests that cies) on sloping lawn (grass), 253 birds (23 species) in
the process of planting and removal of plants by park flower gardens, and 854 birds (8 species) on a pond.
maintenance personnel has a greater effect on a park’s Thus, in woods and lawn, birds were rather dense and
flora than does geographic proximity. diverse. On grass and gardens, bird density and diver-
Since convenient human access to a city park is a sity were highest in winter. On the pond, diversity was
prime goal, convoluted or elongated shapes are espe- low throughout the year, but density was very high
cially effective, as form-and-function theory would in winter (98% of the birds were mallards and black-
indicate (Forman, 1995). In contrast, square parks headed gulls). The park’s habitat diversity supported
with a higher interior-to-edge ratio (Figure 12.1) a rather species-rich year-round avifauna, with bird
are better for protecting internal resources, such as densities highest in winter.
semi-natural areas. Dense adjacent built areas tend In effect, animals “need” to move in order to find
to degrade semi-natural resources, while enhancing food, nutrients, water, mates and nest/den sites, and
human access (Tilghman, 1987). Adjoining built areas to escape from predators (Harris and Scheck, 1991).
generally inhibit mammal movement more than bird Furthermore, animals may move to exploit sporadic
movement (Thornton et al., 2011). Adjacent busy roads resources, accomplish different stages of a life cycle,
degrade both semi-natural and human-enjoyment colonize new environments, and respond to distur-
goals, at least in the edge portions of a park (Forman bances and stresses such as climate change. A line of
et al., 2003). Even without a semi-natural area, a park shrubs and/or trees is a linear feature and route, typ-
with heterogeneous land uses for people may support a ically enhancing animal movement (Figure 12.5). For
moderately high biodiversity. us, the same line of woody vegetation provides aesthet-
Trees are especially characteristic and important ics, screens out something on the other side, reduces
in parks (Figure 12.4). Flower beds, gravel areas, water air flows, and filters aerial dust. However, the linear
features, shrub patches, lines of woody plants, hedges, vegetation typically does not provide sufficient cover
lawns, and so forth each provide somewhat different for nesting/denning or escape from predators. Instead,
conditions and attract different species (Goode, 1986; a patch or clump of vegetation is optimal (Figures 12.1
Gilbert, 1991; Houck and Cody, 2000; Boada and and 12.5) (Goldstein et al., 1981). Thus, in park

350
 Diverse large greenspaces

(a) (b) (c) Figure 12.5. Spatial patterns

suggesting frequent wildlife routes and
a tightly interwoven land mosaic. + =
initial location of animal; * = subsequent
location. Letters = different land uses or
habitat types.

(d)

management, providing both vegetation patches and cool by evapo-transpiration. Street canyons have more
corridors is likely to enhance conditions for wildlife, shade, but trapped heat rises more slowly, resulting in
as well as people. For large urban parks, this is particu- hot evenings (Pearlmutter et al., 1999). Sprawl resi-
larly important for migrating birds, which mainly need dential housing typically has considerable impervious
cover for resting and food energy for tomorrow’s trip. surface and often little shade. With topographic het-
Instead, the birds arrive at a typical city park in large erogeneity, cool air drains down valleys into low areas.
numbers after a long flight to find relatively inhospit- In arid cities, atmospheric moisture may be high at
able lawn, ornamentals, people, and pollution. night due to irrigation of lawns and parks, but much of
Tropical cities have hot air year round (Yu and the moisture quickly evaporates in the morning.
Hien, 2006; Chang et al., 2007). A study of 61 city parks Overall, in dry climes, an abundant cover of scat-
in Taipei found that large parks have cooler air than in tered low-water-use shrubs and small trees that shade
their surrounding built areas. However, approximately a heterogeneous non-paved surface seems to be a good
20% of the parks are not cooler. This latter groups has solution for city parks (Shashua-Bar, 2009). That mim-
≥50% paved surface and little tree-and-shrub cover. ics some desert conditions, which additionally sup-
These patterns again emphasize the importance of port a rich fauna of animals, especially active at night.
minimizing hard surface cover, and providing a diver- Indeed, mimicking nearby natural lands in park design
sity of land uses or habitats within a park. offers varied ecological benefits, and is also likely to
Cities in dry climates have both water conserva- reduce maintenance budgets.
tion and high temperature challenges (Pearlmutter
et al., 1999; Setha et al., 2005; Brazel et al., 2009). Large Diverse large greenspaces
parks or grouped parks cool the city air (see Chapter 5) Of the 75 widespread greenspace types in cities, sev-
(Shashua-Bar, 2009). Lighter color and porous surfaces eral often occur as relatively large patches (Forman,
absorb less solar radiation, resulting in less urban heat, 2008). Although essentially all have been introduced
as evident in white North African cities. Trees, shrubs, from various perspectives in the preceding chapters, it
and structures shade surfaces, and the plants effectively is useful to pinpoint the following seven groups of large

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 Green spaces, corridors, systems

greenspaces, representing 13 types, with their charac- the extensive adjoining built area, mean that ecological
teristic key environmental dimensions: conditions today are quite different from those of pre-
1. Semi-natural habitat areas and urban woodlands/ urban times. Such semi-natural areas may be protected
forests as nature reserves or not protected. Although the
2. Cliffs, quarries, mines abundance, e.g., of birds, may be low or high, natural
3. Golf courses areas are usually species rich (Figure 12.6). The prox-
4. Cemeteries imity of a large human population means a continued
intense pressure on sustaining natural processes and
5. Institutions and municipal facilities
conditions.
6. Dumps, brownfields/vacant lots
Habitat heterogeneity, both natural and human-
7. Airports and military bases
induced, tends to be rather high. While urban wet-
Other related large urban patches have been consid- lands are often scarce, the presence of wetlands, ponds,
ered in different contexts: rail yards (see Chapter 10); streams, and other water bodies greatly augments
construction sites (usually small; Chapter 4); ware- habitat and species diversity. Woodland or forest is
house truck-terminal areas (Chapter 11); informal especially characteristic of urban semi-natural areas,
squatter settlements (Chapter 11); and industrial areas though old woodland with big trees, many fallen logs,
(Chapter 11). Parks, urban agriculture, and major and a relatively deep soil organic layer is usually absent
green corridors were considered above in this chap- or scarce. Shrublands, dry habitats, or meadows (Ahern
ter. Hazardous waste sites are basically non-urban, and and Boughton, 1994) are sometimes present, and suc-
demolition sites are usually small. cessional habitats often common, in large greenspaces.
Each large greenspace has a single specialized func- Large area and considerable habitat diversity mean rich
tion or role, but almost all are multi-functional, multiple biodiversity (see equations, Appendix B).
use. Conflicting land uses within a greenspace per- In suburban/exurban Wilmington (Delaware,
sist as management challenges, and land-use changes USA), over a century (1890–1990) forest cover
appear endless. Consider the large wooded Ajusco area increased from 5% to 22% of the area (Matlack, 1997a).
on the southwest edge of Mexico City that contains or Most modern woods are <60 years old, and only 2.5% of
provides water supply; air cooling; air cleaning; bio- the landscape has forest >100 years old, mostly on poor
diversity; recreation; weekend houses; informal squat- agricultural soils. Most residential development is on
ter settlements; drug activities and therefore police well-drained upland areas, which therefore contain lit-
and guerillas (in the past), and therefore the military tle forest. The modern forest is mainly away from roads
(Pezzoli, 1998; Forman, 2008). Vegetation in large and on steep valley slopes. Few large woods are present.
urban greenspaces remains in flux and usually succes- Almost all forest trees are within 50 m of the margin of
sional habitats are present, even widespread. Indeed, a woods, and thus the woods are overwhelmingly edge
over time the greenspaces themselves change in area, habitat (Forman, 1995). The average distance from
usually shrinking. Equally important ecologically, woods to nearest house is 150 m (about 30 houses are
their surroundings are constantly changing. located within 500 m of a woods), but little evidence of
For detailed ecological insights into the following pedestrian damage to the woods is present. An overall
large greenspace types, especially see Chapters 4 (urban rather low plant diversity may mainly result from the
soil and chemicals), 5 (urban air), 6 (urban water sys- woods being young and fragmented.
tems), 7 (urban water bodies), 8 (urban habitats, vege- Natural areas provide many values for people (Spirn,
tation, plants), and 9 (urban wildlife). 1984; Breuste et al., 1998; Hough, 2004; Kowarik and
Korner, 2005; Adams et al., 2006; Kellert et al., 2008).
Semi-natural habitat areas and urban Large natural areas help clean and cool the urban air,
and store ample carbon (Bradley, 1995; Beckett et al.,
woodlands/forests 1998; Rydberg and Falck, 2000; Brack, 2002; Zhu and
Zhang, 2008). Some roles of large urban natural areas
Natural and semi-natural habitat areas are suggested by the Tamaki ecological district of
Large natural habitat areas are usually better called Auckland (Galbraith, 2000). Large wooded patches,
semi-natural, because of previous and ongoing human though much modified over two centuries, seem to
impacts (see Figure 1.5). These impacts, combined with be valued by residents for: (1) native people’s (Maori)

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 Semi-natural habitat areas and urban woodlands/forests

(a) (b) (c) Figure 12.6. Vertebrate diversity and

abundance in golf courses, woods, and
suburbs. Species richness = number of
species; total abundance = an index of
relative abundance of individuals; * =
significant difference, p < 0.05; numbers
at bottom = approximate median
abundance of regionally threatened
species at a site. Based on sampling:
20 golf courses (32–181 ha), 10 woods
(nature reserves and forests 40–892 ha),
and 10 suburban areas in the Brisbane–
Gold Coast Region, Australia. 1 ha = 2.5
acres. Adapted from Hodgkinson et al.
(2007).
(d) (e) (f)

traditions; (2) rich biodiversity; (3) rare plants and ani- Especially in Mediterranean-type climates (of
mals; and (4) pollinators (small flies, beetles, moths, California, Chile, South Africa, Australia, and the
bees) that pollinate flowers throughout residential and Mediterranean Basin), urban development often
commercial areas. spreads into large natural areas composed fire-prone
In Portland (Oregon, USA), Forest Park is a 2000- woodland (Trabaud, 1987; Loehle, 2004; Omni, 2005;
ha (5000-acre) green wedge on an elevated geological Vince et al., 2005; Theobold and Romme, 2007; Keeley
formation projecting inward to the city center area et al., 2008). Frequent wildfires (uncontrolled burns
(Houck and Cody, 2000). The park is a large natural of areas) lead to an abundance of fire adaptations by
area containing infrastructure (pipelines and power- plants and animals, such as thick bark, protected buds,
lines), streams, and rich biodiversity. The most striking burrowing animals, and fire-stimulated sprouting,
feature is the presence of large wild mammals in the seed dispersal, and seed germination (Forman, 1979b;
city, including foxes, coyotes, bobcats, deer, elk, bears DeBano et al., 1998; Whelan, 1995). Following a fire,
and mountain lions (Vulpes, Canis, Felis, Odocoileus, such fire-adapted vegetation develops to become very
Cervus, Ursus, Felis). Eagles and native trout are also similar to the pre-fire vegetation.
present in this area of the city. Habitat heterogeneity Wildfires usually move as a broad ellipse encoun-
and alternative travel routes facilitate wildlife move- tering topographic, substrate, and fuel-accumulation
ment (Figure 12.5). patchiness, and subject to changes in wind. Afterward,
The size of large greenspaces does matter, as illus- the burned land is a conspicuous mosaic, often at a
trated by 12 urban woods in Seoul ranging from 92 to fairly fine scale, with skipped patches of green. To
356 ha (230–890 acres) (Park and Lee, 2000). Breeding reduce building loss, basically the first rule is to keep
bird diversity steadily increases from 14 to 19 species buildings away from fire-adapted vegetation. Secondly,
according to large-park size. While there are twice as certain well-known house materials and adjoining
many resident as summer-visitor breeding birds, the woody-plant arrangements can decrease the probabil-
rate of diversity increase along the forest-size gradient ity of a house fire. Controlled (prescribed) surface fires
is the same. Different bird guilds (see Chapter 9) also are sometimes used in urban areas. However, near built
increase, though at different rates, along the gradient areas, controlled burns tend to be hazardous. This is
from large to very-large natural urban greenspaces. due to smoke and human respiratory ailments, the risk

353
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

of fire climbing up into the tree canopy and causing In somewhat dry climates with savanna-like tree
a tree-killing wildfire, and the threat of fire taking off vegetation, as in East Africa, peri-urban residents har-
horizontally out of control. vest branches and trees for valuable firewood. Also, in
At the landscape scale, special fire danger occurs wartime, urban woodlands and forests tend to be valu-
when about 20–40% of the land is developed (Forman, able resources intensively cut by residents. Where food
2004b; Francisco Rego, personal communication, is short, some residents comb the forest for animal
2003). With this development level, typically natural meat to eat.
vegetation is extensive enough to support big hard-to- Occasionally all the trees in an urban area (street
stop fires. Also, buildings are frequent enough to likely trees, yard trees, park trees, and so on) have been called
be in the path of a fire. At higher development levels, an “urban forest.” Such a concept is not used here, since
typically wildfires are more readily controlled. Land normally hardly any continuous woodland or forest,
planning and management in urban fire-prone lands or even grass-dominated savanna, is present (and har-
often needs to create spatial arrangements that accom- vesting for wood products is normally absent). Tree
plish three goals: (1) limit the loss of trees for wood plantations have occasionally created parks for recre-
products; (2) limit the loss of buildings and people; ation (e.g., the 875-ha Amsterdam Bos) or to limit bird
and (3) provide wildfires to sustain uncommon fire- populations and aircraft-bird strikes (e.g., a monocul-
adapted species. ture of Betula pendula birches by an airport) (Polano,
Finally, the complex and delicate natural condi- 1992; Berrizbeitia, 1999).
tions of a natural greenspace area are highly sensitive Urban forests producing wood products near cities,
to human effects, from recreational activities to altered like market-gardening areas, provide local resources to
water-table and baths of air pollutants. Since cities urban residents. This is valuable in the face of a glo-
seem to mainly grow and expand, human impacts bal growing population and resource limitation, plus
increase. The future does not seem rosy for individual increasing transportation costs. Except for recreational
natural areas. Tying natural and semi-natural habitat parks, urban forests are the most multi-use large green-
areas together into a tightly integrated system, how- spaces available to people. In times of emergency these
ever, offers hope for nature near the people of cities. forests provide stability.

Urban woodlands/forests for forestry Cliffs, quarries, mines

Urban forests and woodlands to produce wood prod- Rock-outcrop cliffs typically contain crevices, ledges,
ucts using good silvicultural planning, management, small caves, and accumulated talus rocks at the base
and harvesting practices are scarce in urban areas (Larson et al., 2000). This high habitat heterogeneity
(Bradley, 1995; Miller, 1997; Rydberg and Falck, 2000; supports a wide range of vertebrates, invertebrates, and
Konijnendijk, 2000; Kowarik and Korner, 2005). plants. Some algae and lichens (endolithic) even live
Forestry areas normally provide multiple uses or values between minerals in the rock surface.
to society. The prime goal is producing wood products, All cities use sand and gravel for construction and
and usually the secondary goals are protecting and pro- water drainage purposes. Since sand and gravel are
viding clean-water supply, soil erosion protection, and heavy, large quarry or mine areas are created nearby
recreational opportunity. (Gilbert, 1991; Wheater, 1999). If ground-level sites
Many German cities have good examples of mul- are available, especially on a river floodplain, sand and
tiple-use urban forests (Forman, 2008). For 13 such gravel are readily dug out. With a high water-table,
forests, all apparently provided several of the following such mining sites often create ponds, thus providing
important values (in order of frequency): (1) produc- habitat for a somewhat distinctive but species-poor
tion forestry; (2) recreation; (3) water production; (4) flora and fauna (Kelcey, 1984). If sand mining is not
mining and reclamation; (5) wildlife habitat (mainly available, a “rock quarry” provides rocks rocks that are
for viewing rather than hunting animals); and (6) cli- crushed into gravel. Often older resource-extraction
mate and noise mitigation. A “group-selection cut- sites have been encircled by development and are no
ting” approach, harvesting small groups of trees, is longer active.
consistent with or enhances the other values. Berries The face of a rock quarry typically somewhat
and mushrooms are also harvested in the urban forests resembles a natural rock outcrop. If the quarry is active,
(Konijnendijk et al., 2005). very few species thrive, considering the ever-changing

354
 Semi-natural habitat areas and urban woodlands/forests

surface, heavy machinery, moving trucks, and air- patterns against nature’s processes. Characteristic
borne dust. In an inactive quarry, however, ecological widespread problems are: (1) excessive water use; (2)
succession proceeds. Various types of plants colonize, excessive fertilizer use; (3) excessive pesticide use; and
soil particles accumulate, plants grow and replace one (4) habitat loss in the construction phase. In dry climes,
another, and diverse animals become abundant. 18 strange green patches consume scarce water in a
In the Wye Valley by the England/Wales border, brown land (Merola-Zwartjes and DeLong, 2005).
natural cliffs have a thin soil, rather dry microclimate, Typical Midwestern USA golf courses annually
heterogeneous surface, and so forth (Peterken, 2008). add 7 kg/ha (6.2 pounds/acre) of pesticide to reduce
The predominant plants are common, though rare spe- pests, plus 41 kg of nitrogen and 4 kg of phosphorus
cies are present. Active quarries have little vegetation. to enhance grass growth (Wheater, 1999; Kohler et al.,
Succession on inactive quarry faces gradually leads 2004; King et al., 2007). Many of the pesticides kill non-
to the species composition characteristic of natural target animals and plants on site and in nearby water
cliffs. Dark cave-like spaces tend to have uncommon bodies. Much of the nitrogen and phosphorus washes
ferns and bryophytes. Piles or heaps of unused quarry off as surface or subsurface runoff to groundwater and
material (without the toxic materials of most industrial local water bodies, often triggering eutrophic algae
mining) are quickly covered by tall herbaceous plants. blooms and cascading degradation of the aquatic
Small marshes form around quarry ponds. On the ecosystem.
infrequent huge quarries, succession leads to species- Phosphorus and nitrogen in stormwater, or in efflu-
rich natural communities. However, humans adding a ent from secondary sewage treatment, can effectively
monoculture of quarry-reclamation plantings seems replace the fertilizers and irrigation water added to golf
to facilitate non-native species spread, and noticeably courses. “Constructed wetlands” on a golf course can
slows the species-enrichment process of ecological reduce stormwater runoff and treat (i.e., clean) storm-
succession. water pollutants (see Chapter 6) (Kohler et al., 2004).
Stormwater basins, ponds, and wetlands often support
Golf courses rich biodiversity (Figure 12.6). Indeed, golf courses
About 0.67% of Japan is golf course, a land use rap- could be extremely valuable by absorbing the piped-in
idly increasing in the UK and USA (Yasuda and Koike, stormwater, and treating its pollutants, from surround-
2004; Hodgkinson et al., 2007). The 16 000 golf courses ing residential and commercial land uses.
in the USA average about 55 ha (140 acres) in size, of In city and suburban areas of Stockholm a quarter
which 40–70% is typically unplayable space (Kohler of all the ponds present are on golf courses (Colding
et al., 2004; Colding and Folke, 2009). Golf courses et al., 2006). Ponds on golf courses attract water-
usually contain short-grass fairway strips lined with birds, amphibians, wetland plants and aquatic spe-
taller-grass “roughs,” manicured greens, and elongated cies (Kohler et al., 2004; White and Main, 2005). The
tree patches (edge habitat) (Balogh and Walker, 1992; waterbirds are frequently accustomed to people, and
Terman, 1994, 1997; Porter et al., 2005; King et al., feed around the ponds, but usually do not roost or nest
2007). The golf areas are lawn dominated, intensively there. Amphibians tend to be abundant in vernal pools
managed, and have little shrub cover. With very little that dry out seasonally, but the animals are less com-
impervious surface, golf courses normally contribute mon in permanent ponds with predatory fish (Boone
little heat to the urban air, or surface runoff to storm- et al., 2005; Montieth and Paton, 2006).
water systems. The grassy rough areas on a golf course are used by
The earliest Scottish links or golf courses were some wildlife for both feeding and habitat (Wheater,
largely designed by nature; they had considerable red- 1999; Yasuda and Koike, 2004; Hodgkinson et al.,
dish-brown mixed grasses, and shrub areas or unusual 2007). Some grassland species including birds occur
features were retained for players to go around (Cornish on golf courses (Yasuda and Koike, 2004; Cristol and
and Whitten, 1988). Today’s American golf courses Rodewald, 2005). Large old trees with holes support
usually result from extensive earth-moving of the woodpeckers, owls, arboreal mammals, and other
surface. This creates mounds, sand traps/pits, ponds, species (Cristol and Rodevald, 2005), and apparently
low-diversity grass strips, monoculture greens, a path wider wooded strips have more biodiversity than do
network for electric carts, and so forth. Considerable narrow ones (Yasuda and Koike, 2004). One study sug-
maintenance effort and cost are used to maintain gests that adding ground cover adds 1–2 breeding bird

355
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

species, shrubs add 1–4 species, and a tree layer adds In addition to chemicals applied on the surface,
12–15 bird species (Terman, 1997). casket and embalming chemicals (e.g., formaldehyde, a
The context or area surrounding golf courses of carcinogen) may leak and pollute soil and groundwater
course also affects this biodiversity. Stockholm con- (Stowe et al., 2001). “Natural burial,” such as with a bio-
tains distinct “green wedges” projecting into the city, degradable casket and no vault or embalming fluid,
and half the golf courses are in these wedges (also 90% promotes rapid return of a corpse to earth.
of the nature protection areas, plus 25% of the commu- Lichens and birds have attracted the most biodiver-
nity gardens or allotments) (Colding et al., 2006). Only sity interest in cemeteries. Lichens often colonize and
3% of the golf courses adjoin a protected natural area. A spread on gravestones, which are dated and usually dif-
USA breeding-bird study of six urban land uses (nature fer in stone type, angles and carving. Plants and animals
reserve, recreation park, golf course, residential area, in older sections of burial grounds or around older
office center, business district) found avian diversity on trees tend to be quite different than in other sections.
the golf course to be about average, whereas bird dens- Owls and rare plants may thrive (Adams et al., 2006).
ity was highest (Blair, 1996). In Australia, avian spe- Birds from surrounding rural areas use Chicago ceme-
cies richness was higher on a golf course than in nearby teries (Lussenhop, 1977; Esteban and Jukka, 2000). A
residential land, while amphibian and reptile diver- 2.5-year study of birds in a 13-ha (33-acre) cemetery in
sity was lower than in a nearby woods (Figure 12.6) Dallas (Texas) found common urban birds predomin-
(Hodgkinson et al., 2007). Another study reports sur- ating (Adams et al., 2006): >706 starlings (Sturnis vul-
rounding land use to be a better predictor than on-site garis); 142 house sparrows (Passer domesticus); and 47
golf-course conditions for bird diversity (Porter et al., native species with abundances from 131 to 2 individ-
2005). Similarly, the amount of forest within a radius uals. Recreational use seems to decrease biodiversity
of 0.75 km (0.46 mi) was found to be the best predictor (Lussenhop, 1977).
for the presence of “species of conservation concern” “Old overgrown cemeteries,” such as Highgate
on a golf course (LeClerc and Cristol, 2005). In short, in London and Mount Auburn in Cambridge
golf courses are tightly and reciprocally tied ecologic- (Massachusetts, USA), are rare but of exceptional bio-
ally with their surroundings. diversity interest (Figure 12.7) (Gilbert, 1991). The 19th-
century picturesque 70-ha (174-acre) Mount Auburn
Cemeteries Cemetery is a burial ground as well as an arboretum,
Over time, millions of people have lived and died in a statuary collection, and wildlife sanctuary (Howard,
large city and, although today surprisingly few mark- 1987; Linden-Ward, 1989). Built originally in farm-
ers indicate their burial, urban cemeteries cover con- land and now enclosed by residential development,
siderable high-value space (Barrett and Barrett, 2001). the cemetery lies between two urban water bodies, a
Typically, burial grounds are on hilltops and other river and a large pond. Over 18 decades, the cemetery
well-drained soil areas near the edge of an urban area. designs and fashions have changed. Today the place has
With subsequent urbanization, most cemeteries, as intensive management and a naturalistic flavor. The
relatively permanent objects in a metro area, are then savanna-like form has ample lawn, extensive tree cover
surrounded by development. In this setting, a sacred (4000 trees), 30 000 planted annuals, four ponds, and,
burial ground may secondarily serve as a neighbor- most unusual, considerable shrub cover. An extremely
hood amenity or leisure area. high biodiversity is emphasized by 900 tree species and
Normally, mowed lawn surrounds a relatively regu- varieties and 130 shrub and groundcover species.
lar distribution of stone markers and a scattering of Over 210 bird species have been recorded in the
trees on a cemetery (Gilbert, 1991). Usually few shrubs Mount Auburn Cemetery (Howard, 1987). Resident,
are present and, unless the lawn is heavily herbicided, a winter, and summer birds are appreciated by neigh-
diversity of grasses and other plants thrive. Even though borhood birders. However, this large greenspace
the space may be kept tidy or manicured, some habi- surrounded by the Boston metro area serves as a
tat heterogeneity is provided by marker stones, paths, “migration magnet.” Migratory birds are the highlight,
roads, fences, buildings, discarded materials, and water often attracting hundreds of birders on a May migration
features (Gilbert, 1991; Vezzani, 2007). Also, grave dig- morning. Most migrants stay for the day (12 hours),
ging, soil disturbance, and variations in herbicide and during which they need food and rest. Habitat diversity
fertilizer application contribute to habitat diversity. provides a variety of food for the many bird species.

356
 Semi-natural habitat areas and urban woodlands/forests

processes. Fertilizers and pesticides are commonly

used, while stormwater is frequently piped off-site. Just
as for golf courses presented above, stormwater and its
pollutants from surrounding built areas could be piped
to the large greenspace and treated in constructed
ponds or wetlands. Associated high biodiversity would
be a bonus.
Somewhat similar to the old-overgrown-cemetery
case above, a naturalistic design highlights native plant
communities and forms fit to topographic, sun, and
water conditions (Jensen, 1990). Local native species
could be highlighted, or people could be mentally
transported to, e.g., a Japanese garden, lush tropics, or
desert environment. The campus may be a mosaic of
outdoor rooms, mysterious curves, sweeping vistas,
evocative glimpses, symbols of former inhabitants,
water features, long tunnel views, and other delights
and surprises. People may be encouraged to feel, see,
hear, and otherwise experience the place. Institutions
Figure 12.7. Large old overgrown cemetery with high
biodiversity. Ivy (Hedera helix) on tree trunks and gravestones,
and municipal facilities offer rich opportunity for eco-
abundant shrub- and understory-layer vegetation, and mixed open logically creative features and flexible solutions, includ-
and shaded areas provide high habitat diversity and extensive cover ing linkages with other greenspaces.
for wildlife. Highgate Cemetery, London. R. Forman photo courtesy
of Jessica Newman.
Dumps and brownfields/vacant lots
Abundant shrubs plus trees provide ample cover for Dumps
resting and minimizing disturbances by people. Many
Solid waste is received and accumulated in a dump
features of old overgrown cemeteries can be dovetailed
(landfill, tip, rubbish heap) (McBean et al., 1995; Bagchi,
into most urban cemeteries to greatly increase both
1994; Wheater, 1999; Boada and Capdevila, 2000).
their biodiversity and neighborhood amenity values.
Large dump sites for municipal solid waste (MSW) are
normally established on the edge of an urban area, and
Institutions and municipal facilities over time may become surrounded by urbanization
Building clusters in “campus-like settings” (often sim- (Figure 12.8). In the USA, paper products compose
ply called “institutions”) are limited in number, but 35% of the rubbish, and yard trimmings, food scraps,
together are important large greenspaces in a metro and plastics each compose about 11.5% of the dump
area. Universities, colleges, schools, health-care facil- content (Benton-Short and Short, 2008). Metabolism
ities, research centers, government centers, water-sup- by aerobic bacteria in the presence of oxygen and mois-
ply treatment facilities, and sewage-treatment facilities ture, plus chemical oxidation, readily decomposes
are characteristic (Urban Land Institute, 1998, 2001). organic and other materials, and may warm the dump
Each type has special features, such as dense residents surface (Cairns, 1995). Indeed, dumps can be, and per-
in universities, daily commuters in research centers, haps will increasingly be, mined for valuable resources
excess nutrients and pathogenic bacteria by sewage- (Lee and Jones, 1990).
treatment facilities, and water and wetlands around When a dump is active, trucks and heavy machin-
water-supply and sewage-treatment facilities. ery add and spread waste materials on the large mound,
The greenspace is commonly covered with lawn, which is typically surrounded by a ring of successional
buildings, carparks, paved walkways, a scatter of trees habitat (Berger, 2006; Benton-Short and Short, 2008;
and tree clumps, ornamental plantings, flower beds, Belanger, 2009; Marsh, 2010). Local people may sort
and a water feature. Sports fields with compacted soil through the material to find and sell valuable items,
may be present. Maintenance effort and cost are often as described for a “favela” dump in Chapter 11 (World
considerable to maintain the setting against nature’s Resources Institute, 1996; Hardoy et al., 2004). Organic

357
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

a decade, methane production is high. Since methane

accumulation can be explosive, pipes project upward
to release the gas. Alternatively, the methane is some-
times captured and used as an energy source.
Traditionally trees have not been planted atop
the dump cover, because, with high wind velocity on
a mound, a tree may blow over leaving a hole where
water could penetrate the cover. However, studies sug-
gest that the woody plants present produce shallow
roots that do not penetrate the clay layer (Dobson and
Moffat, 1993; Robinson and Handel, 1995). As a safety
margin, trees may be planted in spots with an extra
deep impermeable layer (Stephen Handel, personal
communication, 2010). Former dumps may make
Figure 12.8. Dump filled with municipal solid waste and capped good parks with views.
with clay layer. Eroded soil and chemicals have washed down to the
left in several places. Small curved powerline through woods (left), Selected trees and shrubs on closed-dump surfaces
multi-lane highway, detached single-unit housing (lower right), and can attract fruit-eating birds from neighboring areas
small warehouse and truck terminal area (upper right). Suburban (Robinson and Handel, 1993, 2000; Kirmer et al., 2008).
Boston. R. Forman photo.
These birds bring in and drop seeds, thus accelerating
plant colonization. Indeed, vegetation as far as 17 km
material may be extracted and used for fertilizer (see (10.5 mi) away may affect the species colonization of a
Figure 2.4) (Maconachie, 2007). Various approaches dump. Although plant growth is often slow (Rawlinson
for recycling diverse valuable materials at dump sites et al., 2004), this seed input by birds catalyzes ecological
are common (Ravetz, 2000). succession, which increases biodiversity. Tiny pools
Bees, wasps, flies, and other invertebrates readily and wetlands with associated species often form atop
reside in rubbish (Wheater, 1999). Rats, as well as birds or on the sides of the relatively impervious dump cap.
such as gulls and crows, are normally abundant feeding Finally, being in an elevated position, wind-dispersed
on the concentrated food resources. Coyotes around a seeds from dump-top plants are readily spread to sur-
Mexico dump are denser and have smaller home ranges rounding urban areas.
than animals further away (Hidalgo-Mihart et al.,
2004). The abundance of such animal scavengers on a Brownfields and vacant lots
dependable food source is highlighted when the food The terms brownfield and vacant lot have different
input stops, as illustrated by municipal-waste truck- meanings in the UK and USA, and overall seem to
ers’ strikes in Paris, Naples, or New York. Hungry rats be poor descriptors (Gilbert, 1991; Kirkwood, 2001;
quickly invade surrounding neighborhoods. Reisch et al., 2003; Hardoy et al., 2004; Lincoln
The typical dump has no clay or other nearly Institute of Land Policy, 2004; Benton-Short and
impermeable layer at the bottom. Heavy metals and Short, 2008; Hollander et al., 2011). Nevertheless,
an array of other chemicals are often present at high these urban greenspaces are important, so we use sim-
levels in a dump (see Chapter 2) (Maconachie, 2007). ple descriptive concepts. A brownfield is a large area
Precipitation water infiltrates through the waste of contaminated soil (substrate), whereas a vacant
material, leaching toxic and other substances into the lot is a small unbuilt space, usually between build-
groundwater and local water bodies (Cairns, 1995; ings or built plots. Both places may contain areas of
Kidder, 2000; Marsh, 2010). bare substrate, but are typically dominated by succes-
On a closed dump, chemical leaching is minimized sional vegetation (herbaceous, often with shrubs and
by adding impermeable-layer cover or cap on top, e.g., small trees present). Thus, a brownfield is open land
of clay 1 m (3 ft) thick. Neither water nor oxygen then and does not refer to non-contaminated meadows
penetrates into the dump material, so anaerobic bac- or successional habitats A vacant lot may or may not
teria continue the decomposition of organic matter, have contaminated soil. Many possible futures, from
but at a much slower rate. Methane, a strong green- nature reserve to building, exist for both brownfield
house gas, is produced in this process and, for perhaps and vacant lot.

358
 Semi-natural habitat areas and urban woodlands/forests

An estimated 450 000 brownfields are present in the or grow only slowly; rate of contaminant uptake is too
USA, especially in and around metro areas (Kirkwood, slow; input of pollutants continues; necessary removal
2001; Benton-Short and Short, 2008).With the grow- and disposal of harvested plant tissue containing pol-
ing and pervasive use of industrial chemicals, many of lutants is difficult or too slow; and management, mon-
which have not previously been encountered by organ- itoring, and political commitments change. Still, if
isms in natural processes, the number of brownfields contamination levels and inputs are low enough, theor-
grows. The process of soil contamination occurs in etically an adequate rate of bio- or phyto-remediation
overlapping phases, often including solid, liquid, and might be achieved.
gaseous chemical forms (Brown, 2002). Several char- Almost any land use may follow brownfield con-
acteristics typify a brownfield: resulting from industrial ditions on these large greenspaces (Greenberg et al.,
pollution; being an integral part of the urban structure; 2000, 2001; DeSousa, 2003, 2004; Hollander et al.,
having adverse effects on urban life; requiring outside 2011). In Toronto, using various treatment approaches,
mitigation intervention; and offering development or 14 brownfields were converted to leisure/recreational
different opportunities that do not encroach on other parks. In addition to several human benefits, the eco-
more-valuable greenspaces. logical benefits most frequently cited were creation/
Following the demolition of structures, brownfield expansion of ecological habitat spaces (9 cases); flood
substrates, tend to have rapid drainage, high pH, low control (3 cases); and environmental renewal (e.g., soil
organic matter, and low nitrogen levels (Wheater, 1999). and groundwater quality) (3 cases).
On the other hand, brownfields on previous industrial Vacant lots are important features of both urban
sites typically have compacted soil, considerable ero- residential and commercial areas (Chapters 2, 3 and
sion, and either high alkalinity or high acidity. 11) (Salisbury, 1961; Davis and Glick, 1978; Vessel
Brownfields are typically an early successional and Wong, 1987; Gilbert, 1991; Godde et al., 1995;
mosaic habitat, with numerous plant species, pol- Bastian and Thomas, 1995; Hodge and Harmer, 1996;
linators, and other animals feeding and nesting/ Suchman, 2002). Ecological succession, from early
denning (Wheater, 1999; Kovar, 2004; Strauss and colonizing plants and animals to later trees, is com-
Biedermann, 2006). Not surprisingly, the brownfield monly conspicuous on vacant lots (Wheater, 1999).
habitat is continually changing, often rapidly, and Plant species richness increases with the age of a
usually contains patches in different successional vacant lot (Figure 12.9). As expected from species–
stages. Like the golf course, a brownfield essentially area curves, plant diversity also increases with area of
does not contribute to surface stormwater runoff a vacant lot.
or heating the air. However, groundwater and local On 46 urban vacant-lot (plot) sites in the UK, only
water bodies are often contaminated by brownfield three tree species were found, mostly colonizing near
chemicals. Generally the area is too big to remove all apparent parent trees (Hodge and Harmer, 1996).
the contaminated soil, so either uncontaminated soil Substrates with small stones (gravel, ballast) and little
(e.g., 1 m ≈ 3 ft thick) is added on top, or ecological grass cover had the most cover of woody plants, sug-
succession or alternative land use follows directly on gesting the fastest rate of succession.
the contaminated surface. Usually the concentra- Infill, i.e., building on urban vacant lots, high-
tions of toxic substances decrease very slowly over lights a key urban-ecology issue. A green vacant lot
time with microbial decomposition, oxidation, and provides a spot of habitat, animals, vegetation, evapo-
other natural processes. transpiration, water infiltration, and air cooling for
A study of 246 brownfield plots in the Bremen and the immediate neighborhood. Perhaps more import-
Berlin areas of Germany found that plant species num- antly, the green plot is part of a system, enhancing
ber was relatively constant (Strauss and Biedermann, species movement and biodiversity across the metro
2006). However, species composition varied greatly. area. Yet by building on a vacant lot within a metro
Composition correlated best with vegetation structure, area, infill is often considered ecologically better
landscape context, soil, and age of site. than constructing the equivalent building in a lower-
As indicated in Chapter 4, attempting to speed up density exurban/peri-urban area. So, a researchable
the de-contamination process in urban areas using question remains. At what point does more infill
plants (“phytoremediation”) is way too slow. This is disrupt the urban system of species movement and
because the: contaminant levels are too high; plants die biodiversity?

359
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

moving along a runway. But bird–aircraft collisions or

strikes in the air are the big problem (Satheesan, 1996;
Servoss et al., 2000; Barras and Seamans, 2002). Heavy-
body birds and birds in tight flocks are the prime plane-
strike species. The former include waterfowl, gulls, and
raptors such as kites and vultures around Indian cities
(Cooper, 1991; Satheesan, 1996). Birds in tight flocks
include blackbirds and pigeons (Barras and Seamans,
2002). Lots of scare and other deterrent techniques have
been used to reduce the plane-strike problem, typic-
ally with little or only temporary success (Servoss et al.,
2000; Avery and Genchi, 2004; Adams et al., 2006).
Habitat management approaches seem to be more
successful in reducing wildlife around airports. A com-
mon goal is to maintain a relatively homogeneous cover
of plants that are unattractive to wildlife, and with low
Figure 12.9. Plant diversity in vacant lots varying in age and fire hazard (Dolbeer et al., 2000; Barras and Seamans,
size. Number next to each point = area in square meters (1 m2 =
10.8 ft2). Vacant lots = building plots currently covered mainly by 2002; Washburn and Seamans, 2004; Adams et al., 2006).
successional habitat (see Chapter 1). Vegetation in lots >30 months Minimizing trees (which provide perches), clumps of
old has been cut at least once. Species richness did not correlate evergreens (roosting cover), shrubs (cover and habi-
with various measures of distance to other lots. Regression line
based on log-log model. Chicago. Adapted from Crowe (1979). tat), and tall grass (cover and habitat) is also a common
management approach. Yet ecologically, tall species-
rich (low-dominance) meadows may support few large
Airports and military bases birds and few bird flocks. Usually plantings on the pub-
Airports are the only big places where minimizing or lic side of an airport are largely attractive ornamentals
eliminating nature is often a primary goal. Cover it, kill for us, but are relatively unattractive to wildlife.
it, prevent its appearance – all to reduce the chance of Aircraft noise is very loud and a problem for people
animals striking a moving aircraft. This applies to both (Biggs, 1990). With infrequent aircraft landings and
portions of an airport, the “public side” and the “air- take-offs the effect on wildlife may be limited, more
craft side.” like occasional trains passing on a railway corridor (see
Most urban regions have one or two major airports, Chapter 10). With frequent aircraft activity, somewhat
though five or more are present around some cities like frequent commuter-rail trains, the noise is more
(Forman, 2008). Airports are typically large open flat analogous to the chronic traffic noise of a busy highway
areas elongated in the direction of prevailing winds. that has a major inhibitory effect on wildlife (Forman
Commonly located in former farmland, low wetland et al., 2002, 2003; Reijnen and Foppen, 2006).
areas, or by water bodies, this limits the amount of Aircraft emit CO2, NOx, particulate matter, and
buildings and air-polluting industries nearby (Adams other pollutants, as do the dense moving vehicles on
et al., 2006; American Planning Association, 2006). both the public side and the aircraft side of an airport.
The surroundings of an airport often have con- Busy airports are doubtless major pollutant sources.
siderable protected land for nature, which helps with Air turbulence generated by moving planes on a run-
water quantity and quality issues, but is a source of way lifts particulate pollutants into the air, perhaps
wildlife moving onto airport land. Certain birds more strongly than the analogous polluting effect of
feeding in a nearby dump or in farmland may pose vehicles moving on a road. In cool regions, de-icing
problems for aircraft. A massive planting of feathery substances (such as ethylene) are used on both aircraft
birches (Betula pendula), essentially without perches and runways. Some airports attempt to capture and
for large birds, mainly surrounds the Amsterdam air- re-use some of the de-icing liquid. But most of it flows
port, and somewhat seamlessly extends into adjoining rapidly into, and may severely degrade, groundwater
neighborhoods. and local water bodies. Other soil and water pollutants
Aircraft collisions with large herbivores, such as emanate from aircraft, airport vehicles, and vehicles on
deer and kangaroo, are of concern while the plane is the public side.

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 Green corridors and networks

Normally, most of an airport area is unpaved, and

therefore contributes little to heating the urban air or
Green corridors and networks
to surface stormwater runoff. Still, in summer, air-
ports with a high percent cover of black tarmac/asphalt Corridors
absorb considerable solar radiation, and liberate heat Green corridors slicing through an urban area are con-
in the late afternoon and evening. This heats the air, spicuous. Such strips (1) subdivide the area, (2) block
and wind may carry the warm air into downwind out the other side, (3) are filters for movement across,
neighborhoods. But at night typically the wind dies, (4) are thin and dominated by edge species, (5) are likely
and then warm air over the heated asphalt/tarmac rises to be seen or encountered, (6) may be appealing or dan-
vertically. This draws in air from neighboring land (see gerous, and (7) tend to channel movement along their
Chapter 5). A possible net effect is to provide some ven- length. Indeed, these characteristics lead to the five
tilation (air cooling and cleaning) for areas surround- major ecological functions of corridors (see Chapter 3)
ing an airport. The amount depends on the surface area (Saunders and Hobbs, 1991; Forman, 1995; Forman
and arrangement of tarmac/asphalt and grassy areas. and Hersperger, 1997; Bennett, 2003): conduit; bar-
“Urban-region military bases” typically contain an rier/filter; source; sink; and habitat. Considering their
airport, concentrated living facilities for personnel, and limited surface area, vegetation corridors (Lyle and
mostly vegetated training areas. Some bases have a port Quinn, 1991; Terrasa-Soler, 2006) are major centers of
with shipping and some have numerous military train- ecological and human activity, strongly determining
ing vehicles with associated noise, soil-and-vegetation how an area works.
disturbance, and even fire (Forman et al., 2003). Over Few vegetation or ecological corridors simply cross
time, as development spreads in the surroundings, a urban land. Even the recent supposedly green “Big Dig”
military base may close, offering opportunities to “nat- corridor in Boston results from an elevated highway
uralize” the space as well as the city. Recent closure of being placed underground. Green urban corridors are
an army base of >3 km2 (740 acres) near the center of usually along streams, powerlines, pipelines, property
Seoul provided the opportunity to create a major green boundaries, railways, coastlines, and so forth. Many are
corridor and other park features across a broad area of much used and disturbed by people, and all are used for
the city. movement by some wildlife. Small neighborhood cor-
Perhaps mainly because these military-base green- ridors such as lines of street trees, front spaces/yards,
spaces have become largely surrounded by devel- side-boundary hedges and fences, house-plot back-
opment, rare species may be in abundance (Leslie lines, and wider house-plot back spaces/yards are con-
et al., 1996). Some of the rare species thrive with the spicuous and of considerable ecological importance
frequent disturbance from training activities (Smith (see Chapter 10) (Rudd et al., 2002).
et al., 2002). Indeed, extensive bare soil, erosion, habi- Major green corridors, typically tens of meters
tat degradation, explosions, and fire may be common wide, with a lengthwise walking trail and abundant
(Milchunas et al., 1999). Extremely diverse pollutants recreational use, are often referred to as greenways
and toxic substances often accumulate in the soil, or (Whyte, 1968; Little, 1990; Searns, 1995; Turner, 1995;
flow into groundwater and local water bodies. Subject Ishikawa, 2001; Ahern, 2002; Jongman and Pungetti,
to the primary military goal of a military base, eco- 2004; Erickson, 2006; Hellmund and Smith, 2006;
logical management of the area can protect water bod- Havens, 2011). Like green wedges (see Chapter 2),
ies from pollution, and provide important centers of major radial vegetation-corridors also facilitate the
biodiversity in urban regions (Goodman, 1996; Leslie movement of wildlife and walkers/bikers into and out
et al., 1996). of the city. An exception was the former green strip
Taken together, large greenspaces provide a dis- between East Berlin and West Berlin, apparently mili-
tinctive framework for a city, with the potential to tarily maintained in a relatively “sterile” ecological con-
become an integrated functional system. Moreover, dition. In contrast, today the Korean “de-militarized
these greenspaces are so different in primary goals, as zone” is non-urban and of considerable biodiversity
well as form and function, that the whole framework is importance.
extremely rich ecologically. We now turn to the major In Ottawa, some of the major green corridors or
green corridors and networks that play central roles for greenways go along streams, railways, and roads, while
urban flows and movements. others do not (Figure 12.10). Urban green corridors

361
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

(a) Figure 12.10. Land uses/habitats

within and surrounding urban green
corridors. Ottawa. Adapted from National
Capital Commission (ca. 1981), G. Katz,
personal communication, 1998.

(b)

are often crossed by roads. Walking and bicycling trails respectively of Figure 12.10. Such habitat heterogeneity
pass along some corridors (Figure 12.10a). Parkland in a corridor supports high species diversity. But, just as
may extend along stretches of green corridors, but it for people movement, the heterogeneity must notice-
usually occurs as patches at periodic locations. Habitat ably limit species movement along a green corridor.
heterogeneity is often high, illustrated by 10 habitat Greenbelts, typically as wide protected circu-
types and 11 habitat types in the upper and lower maps lar areas around a city or town, normally contain

362
 Green corridors and networks

varied land uses and habitats. Greenbelts have been vehicles and bikes (Luken et al., 1992). These straight
described for an imagined sixteenth century utopia green strips are usually herbicided and/or cut to reduce
(Moore, 1984), Letchworth (UK) (Howard, 1902), tree growth.
London (Abercrombie, 1945; Elson, 1986), Seoul Although urban studies are scarce, predators
(Nakagoshi and Rim, 1988; Im, 1992; Jun and Hur, often forage along powerline corridors (Graves and
2001; Bengston and Youn, 2006), Ottawa (Taylor et al., Schreiber, 1977; Chasko and Gates, 1982; Knight et al.,
1995), Tokyo (Yokohari et al., 2000; Sorensen, 2004), 1995). The strips, especially with low vegetation, are
Boulder (Colorado, USA) (Forman, 2008), and other a barrier to movement across by some animals (Rich
cities. The Seoul greenbelt has recently been sliced up et al., 1994). Forest edge and shrubland species typic-
into a ring of large remaining greenspaces. The goals ally thrive (Niering and Goodwin, 1974; Dreyer and
and values of greenbelts vary widely, including inhib- Niering, 1986; Baker et al., 1990; Steenhof et al., 1993).
iting outward urban expansion; recreation and hunt- Towers are often used as perches, roosts, or nest sites
ing; farmland protection; aesthetics; clean air; food by raptors, while collisions and electrocutions with
resources; municipal services; military activities; wires periodically occur (Bevanger, 1995; Lehman,
and providing fuel during wartime. For London the 2001; Yahner et al., 2003). Arboreal mammals such as
greenbelt mimics a geometric ring form. In contrast, monkeys are also electrocuted (Lokschin, 2007). Avian
for Seoul and Boulder the form was strongly tailored behavior, including migration, may be altered, and
to protecting natural resources, and hence is quite electromagnetic fields are hypothesized to affect ani-
asymmetric. mal health (Brown and Drewien, 1995; Doherty and
A related but different concept is the urban growth Grubb, 1998; Shimada, 2001). Large animals such as
boundary, best known around Portland (Oregon, USA) deer, moose, and bear may move into cities along radial
(Nelson et al., 1995; Porter, 1997; Benfield et al., 1999; powerline corridors.
Marshall, 2000). This boundary defines the perimeter of Urban roadsides are green strips but overall seem to
the all-built metro area. Outward urbanization is both be of limited importance as conduits for animal move-
drastically slowed and usually channeled into environ- ment (Forman et al., 2003). “Parkways” built around
mentally suitable areas. The boundary protects agricul- New York City beginning in the 1920s had moderate
tural land, forest resources, and nature. Densification traffic on curvy highways enclosed by a broad band of
and infill occur inward, though the resulting a scatter woods and lawn, and were impressive vegetation cor-
of urban greenspaces and tiny green spots (Houck and ridors (Rowe, 1991). But today’s urban highways have
Cody, 2000) may or may not be adequate for effective dense traffic and mainly thin grassy roadside strips
species movement. (Viles and Rosier, 2001). Traffic noise and disturbance,
Green corridors along rivers and streams have plus mowed roadsides, severely limit habitat use of the
high habitat diversity, and somewhat enhance water strips, and apparently very few animal species move
quality. Green strips may follow buried pipelines car- along the urban roadside corridors. The same patterns
rying former stream water, as well as along daylighted seem to describe roadsides of smaller roads.
streams (see Chapter 7) (Godefroid and Koedam, A surprising array of values and benefits, including
2003; Benjamin et al., 2003). Railway corridors tend to those just presented, are provided by green corridors.
be especially important ecologically (see Chapter 10). The conduit function along a corridor is for the flow of
Former railways sometimes are converted to walking air, water, animals, seeds, and/or people. In addition,
and/or bicycling trails (Flink et al., 2001). green corridors reduce stormwater surface runoff and
Electric powerline corridors are somewhat similar potential flooding, and increase water infiltration into
to pipeline corridors for oil, gas, water supply, stormwa- the soil. Windbreaks reduce streamline windspeed,
ter, and sewage wastewater, except for the high-volt- and alter turbulence and vortex airflows (Brandle
age electric-transmission lines supported by towers et al., 1988; Erell et al., 2011). Lines of street trees create
of 15 to 30+ meters (50–100+ ft) (Figure 12.11). The shadow corridors appreciated on hot days. Tree lines
transmission lines lead to lower-voltage distribution filter airborne dust, and visually screen highways and
lines, typically on wooden poles along street networks buildings. Soil berms and noise walls, both preferably
(Williams et al., 1997b). The wide disturbed and oft- plant-covered, cut traffic noise. Hedges and plant-cov-
eroded zone beneath transmission lines usually con- ered fences and walls support biodiversity and provide
tains a service road commonly used by motorized animal movement routes. Habitat heterogeneity within

363
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

In general, wide urban vegetation-corridors are

primarily of habitat value for local wildlife, providing
cover and food for nesting/denning, and secondarily of
value as a conduit for movement of other animals. For
narrow corridors, the lengthwise movement function
for local wildlife may often be more important.
Linear features typically cross different substrates,
land uses, habitats, and sometimes topographic con-
ditions (Jongman and Pungetti, 2004). Narrow green
strips are strongly affected by diverse disturbances
from both sides. Corridor vegetation changes over
time (Lyle and Quinn, 1991). Therefore, it is not sur-
prising that typically corridor habitat heterogeneity is
high. A narrow strip is essentially only suitable for edge
Figure 12.11. Corridor with powerline, bicycle/walking path, species and other urban generalists. Still, with habitat
and canal connecting city and surroundings. Relatively continuous
lines of woody and herbaceous vegetation plus aquatic plants and
heterogeneity, biodiversity may be relatively high.
fish indicate high habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity packed
together. Northern edge of London. R. Forman photo courtesy of
Jessica Newman. Networks
Green networks (ecological networks, ecological
and along a corridor is often striking and functionally infrastructure) at different spatial scales are especially
significant (Mason et al., 2007). important in providing connectivity for species or
Major radial corridors connecting city and coun- people. Fine-scale networks of green corridors with-
tryside, such as along a railway or river, are especially out attached vegetation patches are common in certain
important for air movement, which cools and cleans portions of a metro area. Such networks are mainly
city air (e.g., breeze from the country; see Chapter 5). discovered when viewing aerial photos and satellite
Analogously, in hot North African cities, certain streets images, or in a descending airplane. At a very fine scale,
oriented in the direction of prevailing wind funnel air plants appear along anastomosing cracks and crevices
into the city. In effect evapo-transpiration by vegetation in surfaces, such as former parking lots, stone walk-
in radial green corridors cools the air entering a city. In ways, and stone walls (see Figures 10.6 and 10.8). Ditch
Tokyo, cool radial green-corridors separate warm cor- networks for irrigation and/or drainage are often pre-
ridors of dense development along rail lines (Gartland, sent in peri-urban/exurban areas, and contain strips of
2008). In hilly urban areas, cool air drainage at night changing vegetation (Geertsema and Sprangers, 2002;
flows down valley and stream corridors. Blomqvist et al., 2003). More common in residential
Finally, green corridors are sometimes used to areas with detached houses are strips of woody vegeta-
help “shape” development (Walmsley, 1995). In this tion along property boundaries. Together the tree lines,
way the small city of Boulder (Colorado, USA) pro- shrub lines, fence lines, and plant-covered walls form a
vides a logical attractive unity to its commercial areas, distinctive green network of considerable ecological
and helps reduce residential sprawl. Separating small and human importance. At a still-broader perspective,
spaces at a relatively fine scale may create an appealing lines of front spaces/yards and back spaces sometimes
mixed-use mainly walkable urban area. interconnect to form a network. At the same scale, and
Overall, three structural or internal characteristics often extending into city areas, are networks of street-
and two external characteristics mainly determine the tree lines.
effectiveness or rate of corridor functions (Henein and Broad-scale or regional green networks seem to
Merriam, 1990; Forman, 1995; Bryant, 2006; Mason enhance ecological patterns such as stream biodiver-
et al., 2007). Structurally, (1) the width, (2) the con- sity and the movement and persistence of native plant
nectivity, and (3) the habitat or land-use quality of the species (Damschen et al., 2006; Urban et al., 2006). But
corridor are central. The prime external characteris- the regional networks more broadly enhance ecological
tics are (4) adjoining land uses and (5) attached green conditions across a metro area (Jongman et al., 2004;
patches, if any. Wu, 2008). While the functions of individual corridors

364
 Integrated urban greenspace system

are reasonably well understood, the ecological import- management purposes, as for instance in Copenhagen,
ance of interconnected corridors as a network remains Tokyo, Philadelphia, Kansas City, and numerous other
a little-explored frontier. cities (Erickson, 2006). However, the unconnected
The form of green networks also provides eco- parks really do not have an inter-linked functional sys-
logical insight, just as does the form of other urban tem of flows.
network types (see Figures 6.6 and 10.4). Many coastal For instance Washington, D.C. was designed for
cities, such as Barcelona and Toronto, have more-or- vistas, extensive lawns, and commemorative historic
less parallel streams or piped former-streams draining sites. Of the >600 parks, 425 are <0.4 ha (1 acre) in
a slope to the sea or lake, but these do not form a net- size (Bednar, 2006). Eighty percent of the park area
work. Most urban stream networks are dendritic (tree- is in parks >20 ha (50 acres), and small green wedges
like), with a progressive hierarchy of stream sizes and extending outward from parks are prominent. The
no loops (alternative routes). Usually superimposed park system is primarily designed for the movement of
on these forms are strongly rectilinear patterns (dom- people. If nature thrives, that is a bonus.
inated by straight lines and right angles) of roads and Boston’s Emerald Necklace, a long green corridor
buildings. Yet at the urban region scale, a city is effect- connecting some green patches, is often considered as
ively a nucleus with corridors radiating outward. Often, a particularly effective urban structure by providing
for large cities, the radial corridors are interconnected diverse recreational and natural resources, provid-
by one or more ring-road corridors (e.g., Beijing has ing connectivity for movement, and linking well with
several concentric ring roads). adjoining neighborhoods (Shea, 1981; Zaitzevsky,
These dendritic, rectilinear, radials-and-ring, 1982; Hough, 2004). The corridor connects large
and irregular networks may be evaluated for several greenspaces that especially support nature, and small
characteristics known to be of ecological importance ones mainly for social benefits.
(Forman, 1995; Cook, 2002; Jaeger et al., 2010). Seven A 1929 plan for London recommended walk-
attributes are especially valuable for understanding ing “parkways” to connect residents to parks and
how an urban ecological system works: corridor dens- green wedges, and thence to the surrounding green-
ity; connectivity; circuitry (loops); linkages per inter- belt (Abercrombie, 1945). Similar proposals exist for
section; presence of hierarchy; sizes of enclosures; and various cities (Lyle and Quinn, 1991; Ishikawa, 2001;
spatial scale (see equations, Appendix B). Havens, 2011). To maintain the important scatter of
parks as London expanded outward, industrial sites
Integrated urban greenspace system beyond the perimeter were to be identified and con-
verted to parks.
All-built metro areas display a scatter of greenspaces
A plan for Syracuse (New York) emphasizing bio-
and tiny green spots, plus green corridors and networks
diversity identified four types of greenspace (Hilliard,
at various spatial scales. But do they work together as
1991): (1) large green patch adjoining the surrounding
a system? How could the dispersed elements be con-
rural area; (2) large patch and connected by green cor-
verted into an effectively functioning urban greenspace
ridor to the surroundings; (3) large and isolated in the
system, that is, a group of vegetated patches connected
metro area; and (4) small greenspace located anywhere
by frequent ecological flows or movements? In this
in the metro area. The plan assumed that surrounding
section I explore these questions by considering: (1)
farmland and forest was the primary species source,
groups of greenspaces; (2) functionally linked green-
and predicted that species diversity decreased pro-
spaces; and (3) keys to an effective greenspace system.
gressively from greenspace type 1 to type 4. Ecological
surveys were needed to provide solidity, but overall the
Groups of greenspaces predictions were probably right.
Using the analogy of urban infrastructure where In areas of expanding and coalescing towns and small
transportation and utilities provide flows and values, cities, a plan for the Barcelona Region proposed a “green
green spaces, especially vegetated corridors and small mesh” network (Forman, 2004b). This was composed
patches, are sometimes called green infrastructure or of ca. 50–200-m-wide green corridors along munici-
ecological infrastructure (Benedict and McMahon, pality borders. The green mesh provided greenspace for
2006; Yu et al., 2011). Scattered parks are some- habitat and local recreation, a connected walking trail
times referred to together as a system essentially for system, a connected system for wildlife movement, and

365
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

a slight separation of municipalities to highlight and

sustain the distinctiveness of each. In much-urbanized
Functionally linked greenspaces
Years ago, Dutch ecologists, planners, transportation
Puerto Rico, a proposed green network plan empha-
specialists, and others mapped the “National Ecological
sized ecological (ecosystem) services and sustaining
Network” of The Netherlands (Ministry of Agriculture,
biodiversity (Terrasa-Soler, 2006). Different portions of
Nature and Food Quality, 2004; Jongman and Pungetti,
the green network would connect forest areas, protect
2004). At the core, this was composed of the nation’s
river corridors, enhance coastal areas, improve urban
large green areas connected by major wildlife and
neighborhoods, ecologically retrofit roads, and con-
water corridors. Some areas and corridors were incom-
serve lands in the path of development.
plete and secondary characteristics were included.
Proposed greenway systems for five North
Nevertheless, the result was an elegant example of an
American cities are interesting for their distinctive fea-
emerald network, where the most-valuable gems (large
tures (Erickson, 2004, 2006):
natural areas) are interconnected by major green cor-
1. Chattanooga (Tennessee):>12 km (7 mi) total ridors. A similar habitat conservation plan drives bio-
length; mostly along streams; several lines diversity protection for the future in the San Diego
radiating outward; very few loops. Region. An emerald network plan was developed for
2. Chicago: 1087 km (674 mi) existing and 1477 km the Barcelona Region, and was the foundation for suc-
proposed; a dense network; numerous loops; cessful land protection in a town in suburban Boston
several spurs. (Forman, 2004b; Forman et al., 2004).
3. Minneapolis (Minnesota): hundreds of kilometers But in urban and many other areas establishing suf-
existing and proposed; along river and along many ficient green corridors would be extremely difficult.
streams; connections to scattered lakes; many Green corridors are generally optimal for both human
loops; a few spokes radiating outward. and wildlife movement. Yet wildlife often moves with
4. Portland (Oregon): 563 km (349 mi) proposed; varied degrees of effectiveness and in varied routes
overall network form is intermediate between where no corridors connect large vegetation patches.
those for Chicago and Minneapolis. Thus, the idea of an ecological network has evolved,
5. Toronto (Canada): proposed 901 km (559 mi), referring to a constellation of green patches connected
plus 201 km along the city’s lake waterfront; along by species movement routes (with or without green
western and northern ridges beyond the metro corridors) (Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food
area; numerous short relatively parallel strips Quality, 2004; Jongman et al., 2004; Opdam et al.,
in stream valleys connecting the ridgetop and 2006; Vos et al., 2008). Species movement between two
waterfront corridors. patches is likely to be greatest along a continuous cor-
The primary objectives in these cities (in order of fre- ridor, but also occurs in many non-corridor situations
quency) are recreation and fitness; conservation and (Figure 12.12d).
wildlife; linking neighborhoods and parks; water A study of 16 common wild animals in urban areas
quality protection; economic market values; and of Finland’s 11 largest cities provides insight into the
non-motorized-vehicle transport. The objectives are factors affecting wildlife movement among urban
expected to change over time. greenspaces (Vare and Krisp, 2005). The data suggest
Waitakere City (New Zealand) chose the goal of that movement between green patches best corre-
“Naturalizing the City” to help address conspicuous lates with low human abundance, low infrastructure
air pollution, degraded streams and harbors, degraded density, and the absence of a construction site. In city
soils in plant production and recreation (leisure) use centers, these conditions were absent, so in effect the
areas, and loss of habitat and wildlife (Wilson, 2000). greenspaces there are not functionally connected by
The first strategic goal focused on developing com- much wildlife movement. On the other hand, subur-
pact urban “villages” as living and transport nodes to ban greenspaces seem to be relatively well connected
decrease car use. The second strategic goal increased by wildlife movement.
and extended the group of protected greenspaces in Before considering how to create effective urban
order to clean water, clean air, provide wildlife habitat, greenspace systems, several unrelated insights are
provide recreation areas, protect biodiversity, connect useful. (1) A corridor-and-small-patch system often
mountains to the sea, and enclose the urban area. includes special locations where people aggregate, thus

366
 Integrated urban greenspace system

(a) (b) Figure 12.12. Interdependent

greenspace system attributes to cool
air, reduce flooding, and provide rich
biodiversity across a metro area. (a)
Illustration roughly based on data in
Figures 6.5 and 6.6. (d) With a scarcity of
research studies, the 11 alternatives are
in hypothesized order from high to low
probability of success.

(c)

(d)

(e)

inhibiting wildlife movement. (2) Successful flows or movements, and clumped vegetation better for wildlife
interactions decrease with increasing distance moved habitat (Goldstein et al., 1981). (5) The narrower the
(often recorded as a “d−2 pattern”). (3) Compared with green strip, the more important adjoining conditions
an isolated patch, a patch connected by corridor to are in affecting movement along a corridor (Mason
another one tends to have a higher rate of species col- et al., 2007). (6) Urban bat movement among diur-
onization and lower rate of species loss (Figure 12.12d) nal roosts varies from an even distribution of linkages
(Collinge, 1998). (4) A thin line of trees or shrubs is with lots of loops across an area to a centralized roost
useful for people movement, aesthetics, wind reduc- with radial connections and few loops (see Figure 9.4)
tion, visual screening, and short-distance wildlife (Rhodes et al., 2006). Also, understanding and creating
movement. But wider corridors seem better for longer greenspace systems could benefit from the ecological

367
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

engineering approach of systems analysis (Odum, sustaining a relatively high biodiversity throughout the
1983; Baccini, 2012). entire metro area, not just in major greenspaces. An
In Washington, D.C., green walkways connect three emerald network of corridor-connected large green
types of objects: residential neighborhoods, parks, and patches remains the optimum framework for a metro
transportation stops. In dense tropical Singapore, lin- area. However, this is nearly impossible in the near
ear green corridors 6–30 m wide with native vegetation term for most or all of an urban area.
are connected to large parks containing rainforest areas The three keys to a successful greenspace system, in
(Sodhi et al., 1999). The abundance of park-related order of importance, seem to be:
birds and rainforest-related birds in these tropical cor- 1. Maintain major species-source areas close to the
ridors correlates with the type of park or rainforest, and all-built metro area.
with the amount of vegetation in a corridor. Although 2. Maintain an arrangement of urban greenspaces,
avian diversity in a corridor does not correlate with green corridors, and tiny green spots that are
adjoining built-area characteristics, small green woods accessible, e.g., within local urban wildlife-
within 100 m of a corridor seem to greatly increase the movement distances, for almost all species.
number of bird species in it. The planned city of Brasilia 3. Design greenspaces and corridors internally to
has very large parks but few neighborhood parks. Many enhance species flows between them.
cities have small intensely managed parks in the central
Major species sources effectively provide a “spe-
area, and large more-ecological parks near the metro-
cies rain” of organisms into all spaces of the metro
area edge.
area (Figure 12.12c). Most organisms die in unsuit-
A study of an urban area with 54 greenspaces (637
able locations, while others may survive and/or thrive
ha = 1573 acres total area) concluded that biodiversity
in all greenspaces and tiny green spots. Seeds, spores,
in a park best correlated with three factors: the total
spiders, flies, butterflies, bats, and birds often arrive by
area of parks connected to it; the park size (if >10 ha =
air, while numerous other species arrive by land, by
25 acres); and park age (Rudd et al., 2002). Multiple-
vehicle, by people, and sometimes by water. Although
connected small parks (connected by wildlife move-
most populations disappear over time, the species rain
ment) were reported to contain more species than
maintains a reasonable level of biodiversity. Non-native
the same area in one large park. The degree of con-
and native species both arrive in this species rain.
nectivity contributes more to biodiversity than does
Non-native species mainly arrive in a city on
park size. Thus, based on species number, a connected
ships, trains, trucks, cars and aircraft from afar (see
fragmented park system is better than one big park.
Figure 3.2). Since most of these carriers come from
These urban species are mainly generalist edge species.
other cities, often distant, non-native species tend to
However, if rare species are important in urban areas,
be well-adapted to urban conditions. Trucks serving
the large park is more likely to sustain uncommon and
warehouse storage areas, as well as commercial and
rare species.
industrial sites, effectively spread many of the common
The study also used several models to evaluate net-
types across the urban area.
work connectivity, and noted that at least 325 linkages
In contrast, for native species the major sources
(or corridors) would be needed to effectively connect
normally are large natural lands in the urban-region
only half of the 54 greenspaces present (Rudd et al.,
ring (Figure 3.4) (Forman, 2008). These sources may be
2002). That degree of connection would only be accom-
adjacent, or in the form of a major corridor, or as a large
plished by including and/or enhancing backspace/yard
stepping stone (Figure 12.13). The portion of a metro
habitats, planted boulevards, and utility (infrastruc-
area directly receiving the rain of species depends
ture) rights-of-way.
on the species-source size and arrangement. Upon
arrival in the metro area, the native species progres-
Keys to an effective greenspace system sively spread among patches and corridors according
In view of the preceding patterns and diverse threads of to appropriate species-movement distances. Planning
evidence, I think that an effectively functioning urban and greenspace restoration/establishment then can
greenspace system can be established in almost all cities. fill gaps in the urban pattern to facilitate movement of
Flows tie together patches of the system. Furthermore, species across the entire area. Various metro-area and
this system can accomplish the ambitious objective of park arrangements greatly facilitate this process (Yu,

368
 Integrated urban greenspace system

Figure 12.13. Adjacent land and

internal greenspaces to provide a
“rain” of native species across a metro
area. Assumes that species disperse
outward from a greenspace a distance
proportional to the size of a greenspace.
Shaded area in metro area receives
the continual input of species; more
strategically located greenspaces
needed to provide a species rain over
the entire area.

1996; Pirnat, 2000). For instance, Dutch studies show such as a large-home-range animal. The second alter-
that small green patches or corridors close to a large native supports many specialists, while the third option
patch increase the species colonization rate, and also essentially only supports generalist species, which also
decrease the local extinction rate, for large greenspaces live in small patches and corridors. The adjacency
(see Figure 3.4c) (Forman, 1995). effect, whereby an adjacent land use or habitat affects
Also, various tiny structures or features containing a greenspace, especially affects the portion next to the
a plant or a few plants, such as widely present in Tokyo, land use (see Figure 2.10). This is important relative to
enhance movement between urban greenspaces. An the direction of species movement from another patch.
animal navigating through an area makes continu- Movement can doubtless be enhanced by maintaining
ous decisions about attractions, dangers, continuing the same habitat on sides of patches facing one another
ahead, turning, or returning. Thus, a multitude of tiny (see Figure 3.4f). Thus, butterfly gardens facing one
objects (see Figure 1.5) (Hersperger et al., 2012), tiny another (Giuliano, 2000), or duck ponds on sides near-
designed spaces (Krier, 1979; Kostof, 1992), neglected est each other, should facilitate movement of the ani-
spots (Gilbert, 1991), backyard spaces and front yards mals between the greenspace patches.
(Rudd et al., 2002) both enhance and inhibit movement Could urban heat buildup, as well as biodiversity,
of animals in an urban area. be controlled by greenspace arrangement? In Berlin,
Some 23 spatial arrangements of patches, corridors, small parks cool the air about 1°C (1.8°F), medium-size
and matrix increase the rate of movement between, for 3°C, and large ones 5°C (see Figure 5.6). The cooling
instance, two green patches (Figure 12.5). These sim- extends outward from the greenspace some 200 m to
ple spatial patterns are readily amenable to planning, >1 km, depending on size (see Figure 5.7). Using such
design, and, in many cases, implementation in urban information, large, medium and small greenspaces can
areas. be arranged to cool the entire urban area, as illustrated
The third characteristic affecting movement suc- in the abstract design of Figure 12.12a.
cess between parks is their internal design. Habitat Stormwater runoff and consequent flooding for the
diversity supports more species, but the arrangement whole area can also be controlled with urban green-
of habitat and land uses also matters. In Figure 12.12e, spaces. To achieve this, the parks should (1) reduce sur-
the first alternative provides for a specialist species face water runoff, (2) increase infiltration into the soil,

369
 Green spaces, corridors, systems

and (3) increase evapo-transpiration (Figure 12.12b). Dry hot air may be humidified and cooled using
In addition to arranging greenspaces, their internal greenspace trees, which evapo-transpire more than
design is particularly important. For instance, a strip of shrubs, which in turn evapo-transpire more than herb-
trees along the sunny edge, as well as along the windy aceous cover. Using tree lines or shrub lines, stream-
edge, has a high evapo-transpiration rate. An elon- line airflow can be bent to increase ventilation, or
gated depression or grassy swale along the upslope alternatively, to reduce wind. Also greenspace trees can
edge reduces surface water runoff, and also increases decrease or increase turbulent and vortex airflows cre-
infiltration into the soil. Runoff water from a broad ated by buildings.
upslope area can be channeled or piped to such depres- An urban greenspace system of course could also
sions. These tree strips and elongated depressions also directly benefit people, such as providing leisure and
work well in small narrow greenspaces. A patch of recreation opportunities. For instance, similarly
semi-natural vegetation in a greenspace addresses all designed parks across an urban area are likely to serve,
three stormwater goals, low runoff, high infiltration, and in part be cared for by, their local neighborhoods
and high evapo-transpiration. (Forman, 2008). On the other hand, flagship special-
What other environmental issues across the entire ized parks normally serve a broader urban area, but
metro area could be effectively addressed with arrange- largely depend on government for maintenance. These
ment, or a functioning system, of urban greenspaces? different types and support roles can be fit together into
Consider air quality. The strip of trees along a windy a functioning system. Furthermore, the greenspace
edge filters out airborne particles. Indeed, a strip of system can help delineate and strengthen neighbor-
shrubs and/or trees on streetside edges of greenspaces hoods in urban areas.
probably reduces airborne particulate matter lifted In short, it is time to achieve and sustain a range
from road surfaces by moving vehicles. Some heat from of ecological and human benefits throughout a metro
surrounding built areas flows horizontally (advection) area. The urban greenspace system does just that. The
to cooler greenspaces, and carries pollutants in the key elements for success seem clear and doable. Wise
flows (see Figure 5.3). At higher temperature, hydro- thinking and action, city-by-city, neighborhood-by-
carbons on roads and carparks evaporate to become air neighborhood, person-by-person, can create the suc-
pollutants, so cooling the air with an adjacent green- cess stories passed on from decade to decade.
space (see Figure 5.7) limits the pollution.

370
Epilogue

One by one they stopped and gasped at the sight that Distributions of aggregated people
lay beneath them. Millions of stars seemed to have Suppose everyone lived in villages connected by roads
fallen from the sky to land on the Earth far below. It was and surrounded by nature. That means connected vil-
the lights of the city! Giant buildings crowded into the lages and fragmented nature. Instead, in this simple
evening air. Rumblers roared along paved roads. As far spatial model, put people in one city, two towns, and
as the eye could see the city spread itself over the land. a few villages in one portion of the land. That would
Where were the trees? The birds? The flowers? … The mean connected nature (e.g., for stream/river systems,
healing tree, the creek, it’s all gone. groundwater, biodiversity, wildlife movement) and
Garry Fleming, Bollygum, 1995 connected population centers (including city with
specialized museum, orchestra, industrial center, rail
There are many themes in nature’s symphony, each
hub, diverse jobs, diverse housing). But people need
with its own pace and rhythm. We are forced to choose
to eat, so let us add farmland surrounding the popula-
among these, which we have barely begun to hear and
tion centers to the model. Now the land has connected
understand.
nature at some distance from people, connected farm-
Daniel B. Botkin, Discordant Harmonies, 1990
land close to people, and connected population centers
Following our journey through the rich patterns, including the resources of towns and city. That is good
delights and surprises in urban ecology, let us reflect, for both nature and people. More variables of course
even speculate, a bit. I have chosen a handful of themes can be added to this spatial model to create still better
to explore that seem to be of particular interest and patterns.
importance now and for the future. Let us consider Now peer into the city or urban mosaic and con-
urban ecology and (1) distributions of aggregated sider the typical “home range” of people, that is, the
people; (2) greenspaces and park system; (3) habitat area commonly covered in daily movements. A large
heterogeneity and biodiversity; (4) tight urban water home range means that a person’s residence, job, shops,
system; (5) ecological flows and urban networks; (6) school, park, entertainment place, and so forth are far
urban change; and (7) societal goals and applications apart. A small average home range invests less energy
of urban ecology. In reflecting on these big subjects, my into transportation/movement and more into a per-
goal is to crack them open enough to catalyze further son’s neighborhood. Mixed use describes the place.
and useful pondering for scholars and for society. Safe appealing walkways, usually with tree lines, per-
But first, consider a moment what the preceding meate neighborhoods, and parks readily walkable from
text represents. Most likely we have just experienced everyone’s residence are densely spread throughout the
the first comprehensive scientific portrayal of the urban area.
ecology of urban areas. We penetrated the familiar Outward urbanization (ultimately limited by
human and socioeconomic dimensions describing a decreasing population growth) in some areas occurs as
city to portray equally fundamental ecological patterns concentrated development adjoining the existing built
and processes, essential to understanding and chan- metro-area. However, in many regions much urban
ging urban areas. Nature in powerful natural systems spread is low-density-development sprawl. This dis-
permeates every point, every population center. The persed development may be as large house plots con-
ecological flows and changes across an urban mosaic taining large personal spaces, or may be concentrated
provide a compelling view of how cities are structured small plots adjoining dispersed villages and towns.
and how they work. This perspective is essential in wise The long-term human problems and widespread eco-
improvements for our future. logical problems with dispersed development are well

371
 Epilogue

documented. But, assuming that both private spaces Greenspaces and park system
and ready access to parks are important, what is the For most of urban history, urban greenspaces were
optimum way to urbanize? Concentrate people, but mainly for intensive local food production. Later many
with private spaces and walkable greenspaces that became parks, often with ornamental plantings, ferti-
sustain vibrant natural systems across the space. That lized/pesticided/mowed lawn, piped-away stormwa-
should be doable. ter, and extensive walkways plus park buildings. Yet in
The entire urban region as a distinct functional many cities, greenspaces near potential jobs are prime
unit highlights the interdependence between a city, locations for squatter informal settlements. Small lit-
actually a metro area, and the ring-around-the-city tle-used or overlooked spaces, as well as large spaces
(see Chapter 2). The fundamental form of an urban with severe environmental conditions and hazards, are
region points to how it works, almost irrespective both suitable for squatter residents. All three uses of
of city size and geography or culture. Urbanization greenspaces (intensive food production, lawn/orna-
expanded from a nucleus, usually surrounded by mental/walkway, and squatter settlement) serve urban
farmland and outer natural land. Radial transporta- residents. Although some species diversity is present,
tion corridors with nodes of development subdivide each case represents an extreme along gradients of
the urban-region ring into sections. In-and-out city- degradation of urban-greenspace nature. In the urban
and-ring flows predominate, from people and goods greenspaces and park systems designed by society, we
to air, water, and species. Yet multiple built nodes and typically assume the presence of at least some semi-
asymmetries in the urban region create networks that natural conditions. Virtually all greenspaces can be
dominate urban ecology flows and highlight how the designed and maintained to limit the severe-degrada-
region works. tion uses and sustain some semi-natural conditions.
At a still-broader scale, “megalopolis ecology” Could a collection of urban parks be transformed
remains a frontier perhaps as well known as bedrock- into an integrated park system providing several key
surface ecology in central Greenland. As essentially functions for the entire urban area? Parks would have to
the largest urban-ecology object, the megalopolis ties be functionally connected, and success would depend
together nearby major cities with associated coalescing on benefits from an integrated system reaching the
development and remnant agricultural and natural whole metro area. For example, a spatial arrangement
land. A megalopolis, such as Boston-to-Washington, of greenspaces could cool the summer air across the
Big Dutch Cities Area, Western UK Midlands, entire city (see Chapter 2). Furthermore, park designs,
Yokohama-to-Tokyo, and Pearl River Delta (China), is both internal and arranged according to sun, wind
almost too big to see. Excesses such as impervious sur- and stormwater-flow directions, could limit flooding
face, heat, air pollution, water pollution, wastewater, across the urban area. An integrated park system could
and solid waste are conspicuous. Scarcities, including play additional roles for society, including reducing or
clean-water supply, recreational greenspace, areas to increasing air flows, reducing particulate and other air
treat wastes, wetlands, and urban agriculture, increase pollutants, treating stormwater pollutants, and enhan-
in importance. But the basic megalopolis patterns of cing wildlife movement.
habitat arrangement, species sources, and barriers to For a greenspace system to provide rich biodiversity
and routes of wildlife movement remain little studied. across the built metro area requires a continual “species
Major human resources are distributed “multi-nod- rain” from the surroundings (see Chapter 12). Most
ally,” and concentrated human movement is multi- urban greenspaces are small, ecologically degraded,
directional rather than radial. What is the best pattern isolated, dominated by generalist including non-native
for treating and dealing with the massive wastes pro- species, and unlikely to sustain many native specialist-
duced daily? Habitat areas are extensively fragmented, species. The incoming organisms from agricultural
degraded, and shrinking, so how does the emerald and natural lands may not survive long nor reproduce
network of large connected green areas, and even in the new tough milieu, but the endless species rain
transit-oriented-development-with-nature (TODN), helps maintain the presence of species (and reduces
fit? Perhaps most important is the pattern of big ten- local extinction) in urban greenspaces.
tacles from the megalopolis permeating the outer agri- For instance, assume that species spread outward
cultural and natural lands of the “greater megalopolis from a semi-natural area a distance proportional
region.” to size of the semi-natural area. We can then readily

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 Epilogue

recognize configurations or arrangements of function- cumulative effect of high habitat heterogeneity, a large
ally connected greenspaces in the metro area. Together species pool, numerous environmental gradients,
these configurations highlight the portion of a metro diverse channels for movement, and both habitat and
area where rich biodiversity is sustained by species species packing means a cumulative high biodiversity
rain from surrounding lands. By strategically adding for the metro area.
greenspaces to the system, the entire metro area can be At the fine scale, a remarkable percentage of the
sustained with relatively rich biodiversity. British Isles flora and fauna was recorded in a single
This biodiversity solution suggests that we must 0.1-ha (1/4-acre) house plot (see Chapter 8): 11% for
turn outward, focusing on the large natural areas near vascular plants; 44% harvest spiders (daddy longlegs);
a metro area. The outward big picture is combined with 38% ladybirds (ladybugs); 36% hoverflies; 34% butter-
the major green corridors of the region, the arrange- flies; 33% lacewings (and allies); and so on. At the
ment of greenspaces in and around the urban area, and broad scale of a metro area [Warsaw with 1.7 million
even bits of green providing functional connectivity people in 517 km2 (201 mi2)], the numbers of species
between parks. In short, more species will arrive, sur- recorded (see Chapter 9) are 3800 terrestrial inver-
vive, and thrive in our urban greenspaces, and more tebrates; 320 vertebrates; 40 mammals; 274 birds; 5
will enrich our urban built spaces. reptiles; 11 amphibians; and 30 fish. Comparing these
numbers with same-size spaces in nearby agricultural
Habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity and natural lands, and indeed with the little-known
Cities or metro areas contain an extraordinary number species richness of tropical cities, would be quite
of different microhabitat types, from tiny flower gar- interesting.
dens to rail yards, low-income residential sites, semi- A finer view of small patterns and processes that
natural greenspaces, dumps, and urban water bodies escape maps and GIS images is needed to understand
(see Chapter 8). The contrast in species present among urban habitats and biodiversity. Instead of only exam-
habitat types is also striking. In places, the small habi- ining roads, parks, shopping centers, industrial areas,
tats are packed together, as in many house plots, indus- and so forth, look at key “hot spots” for species (e.g.,
trial sites, institutional areas, and medium-size parks. an old mother tree, or rare wet spot), major species’
Viewing habitats at different spatial scales provides “needs” (food patches, shrub-cover patches, house-
further insight, as for example the set of microhabitats plot backlines), and flows of water and wildlife. But
within a house plot contrasted with, and added to, the also, look sharply at the “invisibles,” such as nutrient
set in other house plots along a street or in a neighbor- flows, tree-top organisms, and underground inter-
hood. In short, although locations such as parking lots actions, in addition to familiar visible features (see
and ball fields have few habitats, the metro area as a Chapter 1). Use the human eye, or even move as if
whole boasts extremely high habitat heterogeneity. using the “eye” of an animal or plant (moving seed).
Biodiversity normally strongly correlates with We might then understand habitats and biodiversity
habitat heterogeneity. Three urban features add to the of the city.
story. First, a richness of native, spontaneous non-
native, and planted horticultural/ornamental species is Tight urban water system
highly intermixed across the metro area. Second, spe- The urban water system is basically a heterogeneous
cies respond differently along environmental gradients set of “flow-throughs” and receiving bodies, which
such as air temperature and soil moisture, and the city sharply contrasts with that in agricultural land, and
provides a huge number of environmental gradients especially natural land. Pipe networks for water sup-
(with countless interactions), such as of heavy metals, ply, stormwater, sewage wastewater, septic wastewater,
traffic noise, chemical sprays, trampling, flooding, gar- and stream water, plus groundwater flow, all basic-
bage accumulation, and light at night. Third, diverse ally funnel water and pollutants to local water bodies
network types channel species throughout the urban (see Chapter 6). Precipitation provides stormwater
area, such as cockroaches in storm drains connected and also a water-supply source, either protected and
to building basements, night mammals along streets, clean, or unprotected and polluted. The stormwater
pathogenic bacteria in piped water, and rats through running over impervious and other surfaces picks up
empty little-used or oft-forgotten pipe systems. Again, pollutants. Meanwhile the water supply picks up and
although conspicuous spots are species-poor, the carries household, commercial, industrial and pipe

373
 Epilogue

pollutants, as well as human wastewater. Plants pump Ecological flows and urban networks
some water upward in evapo-transpiration, but storm- Traditional ecosystem ecology highlights plant prod-
water is mainly piped to local water bodies. The house- uctivity and food-chain energy flow, plus mineral-nutri-
hold water with pollutants and wastewater is piped to ent or biogeochemical cycling. In natural ecosystems,
sewage wastewater facilities and septic systems that chemicals either cycle within or flow through the sys-
partially clean the water before it drains into water tem. Thus, nitrogen may cycle from live foliage to dead
bodies. These mainly separate flows are large, and local leaf litter to roots and back to live foliage, or it may flow
water bodies such as streams, river, and estuary receive through an ecosystem, entering in wind and leaving in
a heavy dose of both water and pollutants. stream-flow. In natural ecosystems, wind, water, and
Some routes can be beneficially shortened, such as animals are major transport vectors. Frequently key
stormwater pipes. Some water can be recycled, as in available nutrients and most human-produced chemi-
filtered gray-water from tubs and basins used to flush cals are limited in amount, while other natural chemi-
toilets. Some wastewater and its contents can be used cals are exceedingly diverse and mostly present in tiny
to grow food in aquaculture. However, most short- amounts.
term tightening of the overall water system decreases Urban areas seem fundamentally different. Plant
interconnections between different flow types. Thus, productivity is small. The flows of heat energy rather
reduce: stormwater leaks into the wastewater pipe than food-chain energy are primary. Chemical flow-
system; stormwater flow through contaminated soil throughs predominate. Little internal cycling occurs.
to water bodies; wastewater-pipe leaks into soil and Mineral nutrients are usually abundant or in excess,
groundwater; sewage flows (CSOs) into stormwater and typically in a rather high-pH environment. Natural
and water bodies during heavy-rain events; and the chemicals mainly produced by the plants seem to be
abundance of malfunctioning septic systems channel- little studied, and some (e.g., PAHs) may play import-
ing little-treated wastewater toward water body. A tight ant ecological roles. Human-produced chemicals are
water system enhances all habitats involved, and saves extremely diverse and abundant (see Chapters 4 and
money. Reduce water use, reduce runoff. Increase infil- 5), and most originate in the urban system. The flows of
tration into clean soil, increase evapo-transpiration. human-produced chemicals, involving plants, animals
But what can be done with the urban-provided and microbes (and people) in urban areas, should be
pollutants? Increase stormwater treatment, increase both interesting and important.
septic-system effectiveness, and increase sewage waste- Perhaps equally important and more distinctive
water treatment efficiency. Stormwater is largely treated is the central role of mostly human-built-and-main-
(cleaned) by infiltration through uncontaminated soil, tained networks in the urban ecosystem. Railways,
for instance, via constructed ponds, wetlands, basins, powerlines, streets, water-supply pipes, stormwater
and biofilters. Sewage wastewater can be treated by a pipes, sewage wastewater pipes, septic-system pipes
sewage treatment facility (especially tertiary), a pond- are familiar, as are semi-natural streams, ground-
and-wetland facility, and theoretically in an aquacul- water, river, wildlife movement routes, and ecological
ture pond. When functioning well, septic wastewater networks (see Chapter 12). These diverse networks
is cleaned by bacteria and the soil. Still, after cleaning, are pervasive, differ markedly in form, connect to
where have all the pollutants gone? large and small nodes, and often interconnect. Other
Some pollutants accumulate in and contamin- networks are present including truncated food webs,
ate the soil, while most pour into local water bodies. industrial interdependence, and cracks in surfaces (see
Streams, rivers and ponds experience both floods and Chapters 9 to 11). The prime footprints model, spider-
low-water levels. Aquatic ecosystems and fish in the like, links key resource and waste areas with a metro
water bodies depend primarily on aquatic habitat het- area (see Chapter 2). In effect, ecological flows in urban
erogeneity, water quality, and sustained suitable water areas are centrally driven by people, wind, and water
flows and levels. To maintain these key conditions, along networks, mainly somewhat rectilinear in form.
tighten the urban water system and treat/clean the The hierarchical street, road and highway network
water contents. Local water bodies are the assays of the with vehicle traffic is most conspicuous and argu-
urban system. Make the stream, river, lake, pond and/ ably most ecologically detrimental. Thus, the netway
or estuary both suitable for native fish and appealing to system with pods, designed primarily to recover and
urban residents. reconnect the land and nature in non-urban areas,

374
 Epilogue

seems to be a particularly promising change for urban disappear. Since each piece of the urban mosaic plays
transportation (see Chapter 11). Flexible designs per- an ecological role, evaluating and mapping the relative
mit alternate-street use, silent bus/van pods, or added stability of pieces would be informative.
bicycle routes, as well as underground use in suburbs. Wars and, in today’s world, bombing are targeted to
With increased transport efficiency and safety, no fossil cities. Widespread destruction occurred, for instance,
fuel use, no greenhouse gas emissions, increased area in Tehran (1220), Washington (1814), Atlanta (USA)
for market gardening, and increased recreational trail (1864), Dresden (Germany) (1945), Hiroshima
networks close to the city, netways promise many bene- (1945), Manchester (UK) (1996); and Bagdad (2002).
fits for both humans and nature. Cities with traffic-free In World War II, Berlin’s large central Tiergarten Park
streets or zones know that the urban space provided is had virtually all trees removed for fuel, urban agri-
a boon for people in neighborhoods, convenient local culture, and military activities. In Tokyo and Seoul,
shopping, and increased plantings, with associated air, swaths of buildings were transformed into open cor-
wildlife, and aesthetic benefits. ridors serving as fire breaks and military zones with
The urban-waste flows of stormwater, sewage anti-aircraft guns. In view of such destructive forces,
wastewater, and solid waste are especially promin- rather than simply rebuilding in the previous foot-
ent, and involve water, microbes, mammals, birds, print, an adaptable urban design should be able to
invertebrates, algae, fish, organic matter, and diverse noticeably and sustainably enhance the ecological
chemicals. The spread of microbes in public health conditions of a city.
often involves rats, mosquitoes, people, wind, and/ Nine other “disasters” or big sudden disturbances
or water. Anthropogenic networks are maintained by are particularly serious in urban areas where people
people; breakdowns occur. Envision a major accident and their structures are concentrated: wildfire (e.g.,
on a ring road, water-main-pipe break, clogged sew- Canberra, 2003; San Diego, California, 2003 and 2007);
age pipe, damaged bridge on a commuter rail line, and volcanic eruption (Pompeii, AD 79; Pereira, Colombia,
urban river pollution blocking migratory fish. Flows 1985); earthquake (Caracas, 1812; San Francisco, 1906;
are interrupted and often diverted to a different route; Kobe, Japan, 1995); tsunami (Alexandria, Egypt, AD
indeed network forms change over time. On the other 365; Banda Aceh, Indonesia, 2006); flood (Dhaka,
hand, a “string of pearls” path connecting tiny green- Bangladesh, 1998; New Orleans, USA, 2005); hurricane
spaces and lined with trees has stability (see Chapter 2), (cyclone/typhoon) (Hong Kong, 1937); industrial-pol-
because active users prevent its blockage by informal lutant release (Bhopal, India, 1984); nuclear-power-
squatters, flower gardens, or urban agriculture. Every plant radiation release (Chernobyl/Prypyat, 1986);
piece counts in a simple connected system. In a com- disease outbreak (European and Asian cities, 14th
plex system, loops and redundancy provide stability. century). Just as for war and bombing, urban nature
In addition, network lines or linkages may function could benefit greatly by implementing a creative urban
as barriers as well as conduits, well-illustrated by strip design for disaster adaptability.
(ribbon) development blocking wildlife movement. Slow degrading processes, most ecological, also
Furthermore, the functional ecological network undermine the urban concentration of human struc-
of flows across the land, and especially the emerald tures. Termites chewing, wood decaying, metal rusting,
network of connected large green areas, is central to buildings settling, vibrations cracking, groundwater
ecological flows in urban areas (see Chapters 2 and 3). dropping, heat building, salt dissolving, reservoir fill-
Despite the “multi-colored spaghetti” of diverse net- ing with sediment, and many more processes gradually
work lines with massive never-ending flows, the emer- degrade the urban area. The massive people-movement
ald network seems powerful enough to sustain the from Central and Western China to the East Coast
flows of biodiversity throughout an urban area. over a few decades has transformed – both improved
and degraded – population centers across much of the
Urban change nation. Slow change may be relatively constant but is
Cities come and go: sometimes appearing, spreading, likely to include noticeable changes in rate, including
densifying; sometimes decaying, dying, disappearing. lulls and spurts. These gradual almost-eternal proc-
Petra, Angkor Wat, Machu Pichu, and Tikal sank under esses mean that when budgets and maintenance/repair
the sands or rainforests of time. More visible near home activities are down, ecological change accelerates and
are the vacant lots, buildings, and parks that appear and more species survive and thrive.

375
 Epilogue

Spatial pattern offers a handle to ecologists for cover; reestablish coastal wetlands; increase soft edges
understanding urban change. Spatial processes, includ- between natural and built areas; make residential
ing fragmentation, connection, shrinkage, expansion, development compact; increase plant cover (includ-
disappearance, and appearance, operate not only in ing with green walls and roofs); find new solutions
exurban/peri-urban areas, but at finer scales within for sewage wastewater; and plan for environmental
the metro area (see Chapter 3). Five models of outward surprises. Most are common sense for the reader, as
urbanization, such as concentric rings, transportation well as the informed public. Most also make sense for
corridors, and dispersed patches (sprawl), highlight dealing with big disturbances or disasters in general.
both how we spread and what the ecologically best Why wait?
and worst ways are to urbanize. A more-detailed ana-
lysis of alternative ways to expand from a metro-area Pondering societal goals and urban ecology applications
border highlights the apparent ecologically optimum Urban ecology is “a study of …,” with the objective
trajectory. But the approach also provides a changing of understanding. Applying the theories, principles,
template to pinpoint at any stage the best and worst models, concepts, examples, evidence, and ideas to
locations for the next park, shopping center, or other solving problems may be creatively accomplished by a
land-use change. Adding socioeconomic dimensions range of professions and disciplines. Major portions of
to these spatial optimization models could highlight a the knowledge are useful to engineering, urban plan-
compelling future for the urban billions just ahead. ning/design, public health, landscape architecture,
Stability of a metro area, or portion thereof, may be water resources, bio/nature conservation, sociology,
increased in lots of ways, including strong hierarchy; and economics. With solidification of urban ecology,
negative feedbacks; increasing the size (harder to dis- its knowledge is useful for government in planning,
rupt); maintaining gradual edges (so that responses construction, maintenance, and repair. The future is
to disturbance are not all-or-nothing); and loops as not just what lies ahead; it is something that nature and
optional routes in a network. Providing adaptability, in we create.
the sense of a flexible capacity to become modified in An ecologist might highlight goals, such as maxi-
response to disturbances, seems to be a more import- mizing native-species biodiversity, or maintaining
ant goal than stability. An urban mosaic with adaptable a relatively natural ecosystem, or establishing small
changing pieces should provide an ecologically richer tight water-and-material/chemical flows, throughout
trajectory than could a stable system. the urban area. On the other hand, an urban ecologist
Although termites are chewing, bombs going off, probably would not emphasize or recommend maxi-
and other disturbances brewing, currently global cli- mizing biodiversity, or maintaining only native spe-
mate change stays in the headlines. Expectations for cies, or focusing on rare species protection. In an urban
urban areas differ by region and city, but include higher area, success is highly unlikely in all of the cases.
air temperatures (especially in the surroundings); sea In contrast, using environmental knowledge, a
level rise; estuarine encroachment; more precipitation public health official might be more interested in
(or less); more extreme-weather events; more and/ increasing bat populations to control mosquitoes, a
or higher stream/river flooding; more and/or longer water resource manager in how best to treat stormwa-
stream/river low flows; and threats to clean-water sup- ter to sustain fish populations, an engineer in how best
ply. An array of changes would provide climate change to establish and arrange habitats to reduce flooding,
adaptability and ecological benefit, such as recover and a landscape architect in how best to arrange which
wetlands in low areas; increase vegetation cover; plants to cool air and attract birds. An urban planner/
minimize rebuilding after extreme-weather events ; designer has a rich set of ecological principles to use,
accelerate transit-oriented-development-with-nature focused on water, transportation, residential areas, and
away from the coast or river; shorten stormwater-pipe so forth (see Chapter 2). An additional set of specific
systems; recover and protect vegetation around clean- spatial patterns, the good, bad, and interesting, can be
water supplies; reduce the home-range areas of urban creatively combined for different situations and cities
people; establish a protected emerald network; protect (see Appendix A).
suitable habitat for species expected in the future; cre- Providing ecosystem or nature’s services for urban
ate and maintain high habitat diversity; replace busy- residents might be a promising overall objective. Urban
traffic roads with netways; reduce impervious surface habitats such as street trees, cultivation, and wetlands

376
 Epilogue

provide a variety of services, including air filtration, shrinking the footprint. Longer-term goals might be
microclimate regulation, and stormwater drainage. to build structures mimicking nature’s time-tested
Although the services provided are a small portion of structures, and have them work as nature’s processes
the total services required, the general habitat types do. An umbrella goal might integrate several sub-goals,
involved seem to improve residents’ quality of life. such as widespread tree cover or semi-natural vegeta-
Yet the measure of success in addressing ecologically tion cooling the air, reducing flooding, cleaning storm-
dependent goals remains a challenge. A “natural” eco- water, and being sources for species dispersing more
system basically does not exist in an urban area and is widely. The usefulness of urban ecology to scholarship
not a promising goal for a large urban area. We could and to society will be determined by the perspectives of
attempt to achieve some “degree of naturalness,” but potential users, and the rate at which ecology becomes
that is an odd and awkward goal for a largely built area important to the life of people in the onrushing urban
with highly distinctive characteristics. At the other end enterprise on Earth.
of the spectrum, the objective could be some measure As the preceding chapters reveal, I am passion-
of human satisfaction, such as quality of life, delight, ate about understanding the urban mosaic, where I
discovery, surprise, biophilic benefit, or educational, have lived much of my life. The pages emphasize that
aesthetic, inspirational, health, or political value. A perspective and context matter. Cities remain sur-
conundrum awaits solution. rounded by extensive farmland and natural land, two
Everyone can list societal actions that benefit places where I’ have done considerable research and
nature, such as driving less, using less water, growing also feel at home. I am an ecologist who scientifically,
vegetables, using public transport, and making com- if not almost in toto, grew up in nature. I still go to
pact housing developments. Most people can also the most remote places. Now that urban ecology has
pinpoint useful goals that directly use urban ecology. begun to gel, I ponder an ecology of land and city. Do
Broad-scale goals might include having a city live in landscape ecology, road ecology, and urban ecology
balance with resources of its urban region. Or in bal- dovetail enough to spark synergies for scholarship and
ance with its present ecological footprint, or even society?

377
 Appendix A: Positive and negative
attributes of an urban region

Ecologically positive and negative attributes of urban regions. Based on analyses of 38 urban regions worldwide
(Forman, 2008).

Positive Negative
City, metro, and region City, metro, and region
Urban region is an administrative unit Urban region split between nations
City close to several land types Urban region split between states/provinces
City on border of two land types City competes/collaborates with other city
City by protected coastal bay Metro area reflects former political division
Compact metro area Elongated metro bisecting a natural landscape
Planned city retained natural attributes Limited greenspace in metro
Numerous small greenspaces in metro Creeping development into large natural area
Green network connects greenspaces Nature, forest, and food
Distinct border of metro Little forest remaining in urban region
Urban growth boundary Few natural areas remain along coast
Scalloped metro border Limited cropland in urban region
Green wedges present Only one or two farmland types
One wide long green wedge Main cropland concentrated near metro border
Greenbelt or ring of large parks Water
Facing hillsides with protected vegetation Water supply basin partly outside urban region
Towns by farmland–nature boundaries Water supply covered with cropland
Low total border length of built areas Major reservoir polluted
Regional planning indicated by metro form Best aquifer threatened by development
Regional planning evident in urban-region ring Few rivers surrounded by natural land
Nature, forest, and food Rivers reduced to low flow most years
Many wooded landscapes in urban region Transportation, development, industry
Large forest patches across urban region Many radial highways reaching region boundary
Large natural patch adjoining metro area Two-lane ring road likely to be widened
Emerald network well developed Port located far from city center
Many protected natural areas Built areas surround most streams/rivers
Many one-day tourist/recreational sites High total border length of built areas
Native People’s lands protected Towns in urban region threatening to coalesce
Different farmland types present Dispersed site development predominates

378
 Appendices

Positive Negative
Large wooded patches in cropland Slopes near metro area largely developed
Market-gardening areas close by Many informal squatter settlements
Agriculture-nature park close by Heavy industry close to city
Water Coastal near-shore water polluted
Water supply area mainly woodland/forest Streams/rivers highly polluted
Natural land around most streams/rivers Large mine-waste areas in urban region
Main reservoir/lake outside metro area Hazards
Vegetation along lakeshores Riverside city subject to flooding
Extensive wetlands near metro Coastal city subject to cyclones, tsunamis
Transportation, development, industry Area subject to sea-level rise
Commuter rail extends beyond metro Built areas close to fire-adapted vegetation
Transit-oriented-development along rail line
Reticulate rail network in urban region
Highways along border of land types
Wildlife under/overpasses for connectivity
New development only by existing built areas
Heavy industry mainly by separated port

379
 Appendix B: Equations

Many of the basic or widely used equations presented m = probability of species extinction
additionally exist in other forms, with somewhat differ-
(Turner et al., 2001).
ent assumptions or variables. Before using a particular
equation it is wise to read further about it in the literature. Network connectivity
Also see Forman (1995), Turner et al. (2001), Leitao et al. L L
(2006), Butler and Davies (2011), Erell et al. (2011). Gamma index, γ = =
Lmax 3(V − 2)
Chapter 1
L = number of linkages in network;
Rank-size rule for city population Lmax = maximum possible number of linkages;
V = number of nodes (i.e., intersections and
Pn = Pl × Rn−1
linkage ends)
Pn = population of city to be calculated; (Forman and Godron, 1986; Forman 1995; Turner
Pl = population of the largest city; et al., 2001).
Rn = rank of city to be calculated Network circuitry
(Hartshorn, 1982; Rowe et al., 2012).
number of circuits or loops
Alpha index, α =
Chapter 2 maximum possible number of
Patch shape circuits or loops
l L −V +1
F= =
w 2V − 5

F = form; L = number of linkages;

l = length of long axis; V = number of nodes
w = width of patch perpendicular to long axis. (Forman and Godron, 1986; Forman, 1995).
Many measures of patch shape exist, generally indicat- Node connection
ing the degree of compactness of a patch. Most are based L
on: lengths of axes; perimeter and area; area; radii; area Beta index, β =
V
and length; perimeter and length; perimeter; or a frac-
L = number of linkages;
tal (Forman, 1995; Turner et al., 2001).
V = number of nodes.
Chapter 3
Gravity model
Metapopulation dynamics
dp P1 P2
= c p (1 − p − mp ) I=k
dt d2
p = the proportion of available locations (patches) I = degree of interaction between two centers or nodes;
with individuals present at any point in time; k = a scaling constant indicating the units of flow;
c = probability of species colonization; P1 = size or population of center 1;

380
 Appendices

P2 = size or population of center 2; Network connectivity, network circuitry, node

d = distance between centers connection
(Turner and Gardner, 1991; Hartshorn, 1992). See Chapter 3 equations.
Lowry and journey-to-work models Chapter 5
Equations simulate the spatial distribution of popula-
Shadow length
tion, employment, service, and land use. The models
are commonly used based on the hypothesis that resi- h
dences gravitate toward employment locations, and Sl =
tan(SA)
are independent of environmental variables (Marzluff
et al., 2008). Sl = shadow length;
Linear growth h = height of an object;
dN SA = sun angle
=r
dt
(Lynch and Hack, 1996; Marsh, 2010).
N = population size; Sky view factor
t = time;
cos β1 + cos β2
r = intrinsic rate of increase for a species SVF =
2
(Smith, 1996; Turner et al., 2001; Cain et al., 2011).
Exponential growth β1 = tan−1(H1/0.5W);
β2 = tan−1(H2/0.5W);
dN H1 and H2 = the average heights of adjacent
= rN
dt structures on, e.g., two sides of a street;
W = width of street
N = population size
t = time (Craul, 1999; Erell et al., 2011).
r = intrinsic rate of increase for a species. Net radiation balance
J-shaped curve (Smith, 1996; Turner et al., 2001; Cain Q * = (K dir + K dif )(1 − α) + L ↓ − L ↑
et al., 2011).
Logistic or sigmoid growth Q* = net radiation balance;
dN K −N Kdir = direct short-wave radiation (solar rays
= rN directly from Sun);
dt K
Kdif = diffuse short-wave radiation (solar radiation
N = population size; reflected from clouds or aerosols in the
t = time; atmosphere; makes the sky appear bright even
r = intrinsic rate of increase for a species; when the Sun is hidden);
K = carrying capacity (maximum population size α = albedo (reflection) of the surface;
sustained by the environment). L↓ = long-wave radiation received from the sky;
L↑ = long-wave radiation emitted by the surface
S-shaped curve. Verhulst logistic growth (Smith, 1996;
Turner et al., 2001; Cain et al., 2011). (Erell et al., 2011).
Solar heating
Chapter 4
Decomposition of carbon compounds SH = Si (1 − A)sin(SA g )

Organic matter + O2 = gases (CO2, NH3) + water SH = solar heating (cal/cm2/min or joules/m2/min);
(H2O) + cations (e.g., K+, Ca2+, Fe2+) + anions Si = incoming solar radiation (cal/cm2/min or
(e.g., NO3−, SO42–, PO43–) joules/m2/min);
(Jenny, 1980).

381
 Appendices

A = albedo (or reflection) (1 − A = percentage of V = velocity of water flow through a cross-section of

energy absorbed); a porous medium such as sand;
SAg = sun angle in degrees (at ground surface) K = hydraulic conductivity (related to permeability
of the medium); negative indicates
(Marsh, 2010).
downward flow;
Horizontal windspeed around a barrier h/L = the hydraulic gradient (potentiometric head
divided by length or distance)
U x z h h 
= f  , , , , ϕ Darcy’s law. (Jenny, 1980; Baker, 2009; Marsh, 2010).
Uh  h h z0 L 
Stormwater runoff (combined surface and
U = average horizontal windspeed for a long
subsurface)
thin windbreak barrier on a large flat surface
with wind direction perpendicular to SR = f (P , L, S,W , C ,V , M )
windbreak axis;
Uh = average approach windspeed at top of P = precipitation intensity and duration;
windbreak; L = land surface slope;
h = barrier height; S = soil permeability;
x = perpendicular distance from windbreak; W = water-table depth;
z = height above the surface; C = channel curvilinearity;
z0 = roughness length taken from the uninterrupted V = vegetation width and density in stream/channel
wind profile; corridor;
L = the Monin–Obukhov stability length (a M = matrix vegetation cover and density
measure of atmospheric stability); surrounding stream/channel corridor
φ = porosity of the barrier.
(Forman, 1995).
The Reynolds number (hUh/ν, where ν is the molecu- Surface depression storage
lar viscosity of air) also affects the average horizontal
windspeed, but is unimportant with air mixing over a k1
field (Brandle et al., 1988; Forman, 1995). d=
s
Chapter 6 d = rainwater that becomes trapped in small
Urban water budget depressions on a basin/catchment surface
(measured in mm of water);
p + I = r + E + F + ∆A + ∆S k1 = coefficient dependent on surface type;
s = surface slope.
p = precipitation;
I = water supply piped into the urban area; Typical values: d = 0.5–2 mm for impervious surfaces,
r = surface and subsurface runoff; 2.5–7.5 mm for flat roofs, up to 10 mm for gardens
E = evapo-transpiration; (Butler and Davies, 2011).
F = water vapor released due to human activities Peak stormwater discharge
(such as combustion);
Q = A⋅C ⋅ I
∆A = net advection of moisture in or out of the area;
∆S = increase or decrease in water storage during Q = peak discharge or flow (m3/s);
the period.
A = area;
(Erell et al., 2011; Butler and Davies, 2011). C = coefficient of runoff;
Groundwater flow I = intensity of rainfall (cm/h).
h Applies to a single rainstorm at the mouth of a basin/
V = −K
L catchment. (Marsh, 2010).

382
 Appendices

Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Stream density Species richness of a patch
TL S p = f [habitat diversity (+ ), disturbance ( − /+ ),
SD =
A area of patch interior (+)]

TL = total length of streams; + = positive effect; − = negative effect. Secondary vari-

A = area. ables, including matrix heterogeneity, patch age, and
isolation, may be important in an urban area (Forman,
Analogous equation used for road density, corridor 1995).
density, edge density, e.g., in km/km2 (Forman, 1995;
Forman et al., 2003; Marsh, 2010). Moran index for degree of compactness
or clustering
Sinuosity ratio
Ls n∑ i ∑ j wij (zi − z )(z j − z )
SR = I (d ) =
Lv Wd ∑ i (zi − z )
2

Ls = length of stream or river; n = number of areas or objects;

Lv = length of valley. zi and zj = values of the variable at locations i and j
respectively;
SR < 1.5 for eroding streams/rivers; SR > 1.5 for mean-
z̄ = the variable mean;
dering streams/rivers (Gregory and Walling, 1973;
wij = a weight matrix where a value of 1 indicates
Dunne and Leopold, 1978).
a pair of locations i and j that are in the same
Recurrence interval for a particular flow distance class d, plus a value of 0 for all other
amount cases [commonly used as an indicator of the
1 presence (1) or absence (0) of a connection
Tr = n + between two locations];
m
Wd = the sum of the wij’s for the dth distance class.
Tr = recurrence interval (years); The Moran index is used to indicate the type of com-
n = total number of flows; pactness/dispersion or spatial autocorrelation of areas
m = the rank (number in the ordered list of greatest or objects in a particular distance class, d. Index values
to smallest flows) of a particular flow amount or range from +1 (clustered, monocentric, positive auto-
height correlation) to 0 (a number of smaller clusters, polycen-
tric, no autocorrelation) to −1 (dispersed, decentralized,
(Marsh, 2010).
negative autocorrelation) (Klopatek and Gardner, 1999;
Stream flow velocity Rowe et al., 2012).
R2 /3 S1/2 Patch shape
V = 1.49 See Chapter 2 equations.
n
Species dominance
V = velocity (m/s);
1
R = hydraulic radius, which represents depth, and D=
is equal to the wetted perimeter of the channel ∑ i
pi2
divided by its cross-sectional area;
S = slope or gradient of the channel; pi = proportion of a species (i) in a total sample of
n = roughness coefficient for the channel bottom. individuals.

Manning equation (Marsh, 2010). Simpson index (Ricklefs and Miller, 2000; Turner et al.,
2001; Rowe et al., 2012).

383
 Appendices

Chapter 9 Plotting the cumulative percent of a resource (vertical

axis) against the cumulative percent of a population con-
Species richness of a patch
taining it (horizontal axis), a straight line indicates com-
See Chapter 8 equations.
plete equality in the population, while a lower curved
Metapopulation dynamics line represents an unequal distribution of resources in
See Chapter 3 equations. the population. A = area (on the graph) between the
two lines; B = area below the curved line. The Gini coef-
Chapter 10 ficient ranges from 0.0 (everyone has the same resource
Road density amount) to 1.0 (one person has all the resources). The
See stream density in Chapter 7 equations. coefficient can also be a measure of diversity, and may
Network connectivity, network circuitry, node be especially sensitive to the pattern at low resource
levels (Frumkin et al., 2004; Rowe et al., 2012; Michael
connection
Hooper, personal communication, 2013).
See Chapter 3 equations.
Chapter 12
Chapter 11
Corridor density
Gini coefficient of inequality
See stream density in Chapter 7 equations.
A Network connectivity, network circuitry, node
Gini coefficient =
A+ B connection
See Chapter 3 equations.
This equation compares an observed distribution of a
resource in a population with a theoretical distribution.

384
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442
Index

All index entries relate to the urban cooling, greenspace size and, land use effect, 146
environment unless otherwise 137–138, 369 urban vs. suburban areas, 145–146
noted. energy and radiation, 129–133 sources, 143
Individual cities are listed under the see also energy; radiation spatial distribution, 145–147
city name, not the country. global warming and, 147–148 street trees affected by, 284
heat and, see heat temperature effect, 147
acclimation (acclimatization), 220 in/out of cities, 126–128 toxic, 144
actinomycetes, in soil, 109 layers, 128–129 traffic causing, 146, 281,
adaptations, 220, 235, 270, see also genetic moisture, 126–127, 351 284–285, 287
adaptation; wildlife (urban) “side streak”, 142 types, 143–145
Adelaide (Australia), bird use of temperatures, see temperature urban agriculture and, 346
trees, 248 trees’ ecological roles, 125, 223, 224 vegetation reducing, 19
adjacency (adjacencies), 51–52, 53, 230 urban boundary layer, 128, 135 wall plants reducing, 309
corridor-centered neighborhood, 56 urban vs. non-urban, 126–128, 135 aircraft noise, 360
house plots, 294 urbanization effect, 83–84 airdome, 128–129, see also heat island
importance for wildlife, 265–266 air flows (urban), 65, 66, 126, 127–128, airports, 360–361
parks, 350 139–143 air/water pollution, 360
patch-centered mosaic, 56 air layers and, 128, 129 wildlife habitat, 263, 360
wildlife movement and, around buildings, size/shape wildlife movement and
265–266, 369 effect, 142 collisions, 360
adjacency arrangement effects, 52, 53 bats and bird affected by, 247 albedo (surface reflection of energy),
adjacency arrangement model, 56 breezes (local), 139–140 131–132, 136, 139
adjacency effect, 51, 238–239, 369 cool air drainage, 128, 140 algae, 109, 188, 212, 307
advection (net horizontal energy flow) isolated buildings and trees effect, algal blooms, 167, 168, 201
(QA), 131, 133, 136 142–143 allotment (community garden), 207
aeration, urban soil, 103 seed dispersal, 220 alpha diversity, 208
aerobic bacteria, 108, 163, 357 skimming, ventilation from, alpha index, see circuitry (alpha index)
aeroecology (aerobiology), 247 142–143 amphibians, 253–254
agricultural land, 265, 344 streamline, see streamline air flow adaptation to urban conditions,
groundwater pollution, 154 street canyons, 141–142, 327 271–272
habitat loss by urbanization, 89–90, turbulent, 65, 127, 140 changes over decades/centuries, 270
322, 324, 348 vortex, 65, 140, 141 decline with habitat changes/loss,
see also cropland winds and windbreaks, 140–141 253, 254
agriculture (urban), 17, 342, 343–348 air pollutants/pollution, 25, 126, habitat requirements, 254
ecological effects, 346–347 143–148 Amsterdam, 81, 360
food growing, 345–346, 347 from aircraft, 360 anaerobic bacteria, 108, 163, 167
on green roofs, 313 airdome development, 128 anaerobic conditions
large sites, types, 344 cities in arid land, 147 urban soil, 103, 104, 106
locations and types, 344–345 city centers and, 327, 329, 331 wastewater discharge into water
neighborhood and urban region dominant, in different cities, 145, 146 bodies, 166, 167
linkages, 347–348 gases, 143, 144 anaerobic decomposition, 116
pest/disease diversity, 344 green roofs reducing, 311 anastomosing networks, 45
small peri-urban/suburban sites, greenspace reducing, 370 animal(s)
344–345 health effects (adverse), 144 around dumps, 358
small sites in suburbs/cities, 345 indoor plants reducing, 307 in cracks in hard surfaces, 291
temporary nature, 348 industrial, 145, 146 dispersal, 67, 264
air, 125–148 inside buildings/vehicles, 146 for food, in urban areas, 345
composition, 143 low-income residential areas, 318 groundwater, 155–157
cool air drainage, 128, 140 particulates, 25, 100, 143, 144, 145 in/on buildings, 307, 309

443
 Index

animal(s) (cont.) Barcelona (Spain), 230, 257, 266, 320, biomimicry/biomimetics, 339
migration, 67, 264 365–366 biophilia, 19, 307
pollinators, and seed dispersal, 220 barrier islands/strips, 201–202 “bioreceptivity”, 307
trees’ ecological roles, 224 basins, constructed, see constructed bioremediation, 117, 181
in urban soil, 110–112 basins bioretention basins, 179, 180, 181–182
urbanization effects, 86 Basle (Switzerland), pigeons, 253, 262 biotope mapping, 205
see also wildlife (urban); specific bat(s), 246–247, 268 bird(s) (urban), 247–253
animals activity, and dependencies, 53, agricultural land (urban) and, 347
animal biology, 264–265 246, 247 air flows and atmospheric
animal movements, 15–16, 66–68, 70, movement routes, 267–268 conditions, effects, 247
264–265 roost locations, 247, 257, 267, aircraft collisions, 360
by boundaries, 69–70 270, 367 annual counts/censuses, 268–269
city centers to residential areas, 330 species/types, 246 behavioral adaptations, 270
control, translocation, 265 beaches, urban, 202 big-three city, 248, 252–253
lobes and coves channeling, 70 bees, 220, 278 abundance, and feeding, 252
narrow wooded corridors, 227–228 beetles, 112, 297 effect on native birds diversity, 252
roadsides, 363 behavioral adaptations, 270, 271 breeding, density in house plots, 297
shrubby area, 230 behavioral adjustment/change, 270 breeding habitat extent required, 240
translocated animals, distance, 265 Berlin, West, bryophyte species, 211 on buildings, 309
tree rows (urban), 227, 286 Berlin area (Germany) cat predation, 22–23
types, 264 green corridors, 361 characteristics, 241
via vehicles on roads, 286 greenspace effect on temperature, city centers, 330–331
see also wildlife (urban), movement 137–138 densities
anoxic “dead zones”, 167, 186 land-use changes, 87 changes over time, 269
anthropogenic climate change, plant density and zones, 213, 214 in cities, 259, 261–262
269–270 rubble and chemicals in, 117 in suburbs, 249, 250, 261–262
anthropogenic heat (QF), 131, 132, 133, Sudgelande Railway Park, tree cover effect, 266
135, 332 vegetation, 215 diurnal, food and numbers, 248
ants, 112 vegetation, time scales for change, 75 on dumps, 358
apartments, location, 38 beta diversity, 208 feeding, 264
aquaculture, 165–166, 344 beta index (intersection linkage), 72, “foraging guilds”, 248, 251, 257
aquifers, 151, 155 122, 380 genetic changes, 271, 272
Arcata (California, USA), 150, 525, 165 Bhopal, India, 145 green corridors and, 368
archaeophytes, 213 bicycling, 286 green roofs and, 312, 313
architecture, 28 bioaccumulation of heavy metals, 115, groupings and types, 247–248
Argentina, fertilizer, peri-urban soil 154, 167 habitat selection, 55
contamination, 117–118 biodiversity, 232 large greenspaces, 353
arid land, 135, 147, 253 agricultural land (urban), 346–347 cemeteries, 356–357
arthropods, 25, 254 golf course, 355–356 golf courses, 355–356
spatial pattern, 255 habitat heterogeneity and, 373 microhabitats, 257
see also insect(s); invertebrates house plots, 295–297, 298, 306, 373 migration, 248, 256, 267, 313
artifacts, in fill, 116–117 human patterns correlated, 233 mortality
asbestos, 162 plants, see plant(s) (urban) floodlights/lights, 256
asphalt see tarmac (asphalt) surface primary measure (richness of glass strikes, tall buildings, 256
Auckland (New Zealand), tree species), 232 railways and, 278
distribution/species, 226 sprawl affecting, 86 movements
Austin (Texas, USA), bats, 246 suburban residential developments daily fluctuations, 268
and, 326 inhibitors, 266
back-corner patches, 294–295 urban areas, ecological change stepping stones, 266, 267
backline strips, house plots, 294, rates, 84–86 turnover rate, 268–269
295, 321 urban ecology solutions, 30 origin (rock cliffs), 248
back-space corridors, 321, wetlands, 177 in parks, 343, 350, 351
see also house plots wildlife, see wildlife (urban) public interest, 241
bacteria see also species richness (diversity) seed dispersal, riparian
aerobic, 108, 163, 357 biofilters, 180 vegetation, 193
anaerobic, 108, 163, 167 biofiltration, indoor plants, 307 species richness (diversity)
chemo-synthetic, 108 biogeochemical cycles, 119 cities, 215, 261–262
fecal coliforms, 164, 167, 179 biogeochemical flows, 68 dogs on leashes and, 20
in urban soil, 108 biological oxygen demand (BOD), 163, habitat fragments, remnant
“bank storage”, 158 164, 173, 174 greenspaces, 260

444
 Index

shrub cover/height bird collisions/mortality, 256 abundance estimates, 21, 330

relationship, 258 city centers, 328–329 feral, 19, 21, 22
small wooded patches, 228, 266 designs and interiors, 306–307 food types, 21–22, 264
spatial habitat patterns, 259, 260 green roofs, see green roofs free-ranging, types, 21
suburbs vs. city, 262 green walls, see green walls predation by, 22, 23
suburbs vs. rural, 262 growing food, 345 catacombs network, 120, 123
Syracuse (USA), 259 heat due to, 132 cattle, urban farmland, 347–348
wood area as predictive of, 249 isolated, urban air flow, 142–143 cellulose, decomposition, 110
spillover effect from adjacent plants and animals, 307–309, cemeteries, 356–357
land, 265 see also wall plants ecological succession, 237
tree use in cities, 248, 285 rating certification-system lichens, bird and animals, 356–357
vegetation layers and, 251, 257–258 (LEED), 306 “old overgrown”, 356–357
street trees and, 285 scale, geomorphic patterns wildlife habitat, 263
vertical built structures affecting, 37–38 centipedes, 112
as habitats, 256–257 size/shape effect, air flows central place theory, 46
as hazards, 256 around, 142 change(s), 11, 73–76, 375–376
walls/roof as habitats, 257 urban soil affected by, 100 city centers, 327
woody plants in house plots, role, wooden foundations, 152 cyclic, 73
270, 303, 304, 305 see also built structures environmental (by century/
see also raptors; songbirds; built area, 7, 137, 202 year), 83–84
waterbirds built environment, 7, 12–14 land mosaic, 45
bird feeders, 264, 297, 306 built objects, 12 plant species, 234–238
Birmingham (UK), tree species, 238 built spaces, 7 time scales, 16
blackbirds (Turdus merula), 270, 271 built structures, 3, 4, 12–14, 125, urban coastal zone, 197
“black-box” models, 46, 68 275–313 urbanization and peri-urban area,
block surfaces, 288 edge of floodplains, 183 322–324
boat landing areas, 200 positive/negative ecological wildlife, see wildlife (urban)
“boom and bust” production, 336 importance, 13–14 see also ecological change, rates/
Boston Region (USA), 84, 90, 196, sustainability and design, 275 trajectories
200, 365 urban coastal zone, 197, 198 changes-over-time principles,
boundaries, 44 urban heat and, 136–137 16, 73–76
convoluted vs. straight, 56, 69–70 vertical, wildlife hazards/habitats, time scales, 16, 75–76
flows around, 69–73 256–257 Charles River (Boston Region), 189–190
interwoven land mosaic, 50 see also buildings Chattanooga (Tennessee, USA),
movements across, 69–70, 72 bulges models, urbanization, 77, greenway system, 366
lobes and coves effect, 70 235, 324 chemical(s)
soft and hard boundaries, 69–70 burial grounds, see cemeteries absorption, tolerant plants, 217
parallel movements (animal), 69 buried structures, 100 estuary pollution, 201
perpendicular movements, 69 buses, 286 “flushing” from surfaces during
between plants, 231, 239 business areas, 38 storms, 163
soil types and, 96 buteos, 249 groundwater pollution, 154
see also edge(s) butterflies, 266, 309 industrial, in wastewater, 162
boundary (edge) model, 48, 82, 83 urban air, 143, see also air pollutants/
Brasilia, 50, 319, 368 Cairo (Egypt), air pollution, 147 pollution
Brazil, flooding management, 196 calcium (Ca), 113–114 urban river pollution, 189
breezes, 66, 139–140, 147 calcium chloride, 115 urban soil, 91–124
brick surfaces, 288 calcium-magnesium-acetate concentrated chemicals, 94
bridges, 287 (CMA), 115 contamination, 110, 117–118
Brisbane (Australia), bird diversity, 262 “campus-like settings”, 357 flows, 118–119, 374–375
brownfields, 110, 117–118, 358–359 Canada geese, 265 gases, 116
habitat and succession, 359 canals, 186 from human structures, rubble,
soil contamination, 358, 359 Canberra (Australia), 84, 212 artifacts, 116–117
soil remediation, 181, 359 capuchin monkeys, 271 inorganic, 113–115
bryophytes (mosses), 211, 291, 307 car parking/parks, 287, 332 organic, 115–116, 118
buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), 230 carbon dioxide, air pollution, 144, origin and sources, 113, 118
Budapest (Hungary), 80 147, 148 toxicity, 115, 116, 118
buildings, 306–313 carbon monoxide, 144, 146 types, 113–116
abundance and spatial carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, 110 see also mineral nutrient(s)
arrangement, 306 cars, 30, 285–286 in water bodies after wastewater
air pollution inside, 146 cat(s), 21–23 discharge, 167

445
 Index

chemical flow-through, 119, 120 city as ecological system model, 49 color surfaces, heat amelioration
chemical leaching, 358 city centers, 35, 38, 327–332 (cities), 139
chemical oxygen demand (COD), 173, air pollution, 331 combined sewage/stormwater systems,
174, 185 birds, 330–331 162–163
Cheonggyecheon Stream/River (Seoul, “border areas”, 327 combined sewer overflows (CSOs),
South Korea), 195 buildings, people and transport, 327, 163, 166, 189
Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 76, 268 328–329 commercial areas, 314, 327, 332–336
Cheyenne (Wyoming, USA), 258 distinctive and unusual city center, 327
Chicago (USA), 12, 213–214, 313, 366 characteristics, 327 distribution around city, 333, 335
China, 84, 89, 225–226, 347–348 habitat types, 330 marketplace, 332–333
Chlordane, in urban rivers, 189 plants, habitats/types, 329–332 neighborhood streets with
chlorofluorocarbons, 145, 147 shade and urban heat, 331–332 shops, 332
circuitry (alpha index), 380 soil, water and air, 329–332 office center and town centers,
networks, 72, 122, 283 spatial patterns, flows and changes, 333–334
circular gradient, 12 326, 327 residential land mixed, see mixed-
cities, 3, 63 spread, disasters and, 328 use areas
air in/out of, 126–128 wildlife habitat, 263, 327, 330, warehouse truck distribution center,
bird species richness, 215, 262 331, 332 336, 337
centers. see city centers city residential areas, 315–322 commercial strips, 334–336
coastal, see coastal cities courtyard/patio and single-unit community garden, 207, 237, 345
compact vs. spread-out, 80 housing, 319–322 community service agriculture
definitions, 6 types, 319, 320 (CSAs), 344
development from villages, 36, 212 diverse housing types, 316 community shopping centers, 336
ecosystem decline, 5 low-income areas, 316–319 “commuter shed”, 6
future perspectives, 371–372 multi-unit high-rise or low-rise, commuting, 75, 327, 328
gradient pattern, 41 316, 328 compact-nucleus expansion, 7
history of nature in, 5–6, 212 squatter settlements, see informal composition of ecological
largest, population size, 4 squatter settlement community, 14
location, 36–38 suburban residential area vs., compost, 109, 110, 118, 297, 302
human needs influencing, 36, 37 325–326 composting toilets, 169
microclimate and, 37 types/forms, 316, 317 concentric models, 48
metaphors, 4 city–suburb–rural gradient, 41, 77, 262 concentric ring model, urbanization,
“mixed-use patterns”, 5 city-to-rural gradient, 10, 12 77, 78, 235, 324
natural forest gradient, 41 clay, 37, 95, 100–101, 102 concrete surfaces, 288
parks, see park(s) clean water supply, see under water cracks, 288
planned built communities, 326 climate change, anthropogenic, “cone of influence,” wells, 158
planning, 31, 63–64, 82–83 269–270 connected impervious cover, 171
population growth and histories, 4–8 coal-mining spoil, ecological connectivity (gamma index), 36
population size, see population size succession, 237 networks, 72, 122, 380
satellite, 77, 78, 235, 324 coastal cities, 198, 199 road network, 283
shade from trees, 216–217 groundwater flows, 153 constructed basins, 179–182
shape, 76–77 waterfront and harbor, 198, 200 bioretention/retention, 179, 180,
size coastal plains, 98 181–182
bioregional limits, 5 coastal regions, 59 detention basins/ponds, 180
changes over history, 4–6, 236 coastal saltwater wetlands, 175 stormwater pollution, 180, 181–182
greenspace, woodland and trees, coastal wetlands, 175, 176, 177 constructed wetlands, on golf
208–209 coastal zones (urban), 197–204 course, 355
optimum, 5 city waterfront and harbor, 198, 200 construction fill, groundwater
radius and number of, 76 estuary and lagoon area, 198–201 pollution, 154
travel time as guide to, 5 flows and movements, 59, 197, controlled burning, 353–354
small, 63 202, 203 convergency point, 37, 55, 72, 294
small food-producing sites in, 345 natural changes, 197 cool air drainage, 128, 140
species richness, vs. in suburbs, 262 natural vs. human differences/ “cool island”, urban, 136
transformation patterns, 81 influences, 197–198 cooling
urban mosaic, 50 outer coastal areas, 201–204 green roofs, 311
ventilation, 127–128, 139 rocky, 202 green walls, 309
waterfront and harbors, 198 wetlands, 175, 176, 177, 200 greenspace effect, 137–138, 369
wildlife density, 261–262 Coleoptera, spatial pattern, 255 parks, 351
woodland in, 208–209 coliforms, 164, 167, 179 strategies in cities, 139
zones, plant species density, 213, 214 Colombo (Sri Lanka), 310 street trees, 139, 284

446
 Index

coral reefs, 201, 202 steel or wood surfaces, 288 along roadsides, 285
corridor(s), 11, 36, 43, 73 tarmac surfaces, 288 human, effect on urban soil,
back-space, 321 types/forms, 289 91–92, 96
characteristics, 44, 361, 364 vegetation roles/benefits, 291–292 resilience/resistance to, 74, 75
continuous vs. discontinuous, 294, vegetation sites, 290 wasteland, plant adaptation, 221
see also stepping stones in walls, 289–290 ditch networks, 364
electric powerline, 363, 364 created greenspace, definition, 7 diversity, see biodiversity; species
functions, 276 cropland (urban), 344 richness (diversity)
green, 240, 266, 342–370 near streams/rivers, 187, 194 diversity concepts (alpha, beta,
benefits/role, 363–364 plant adaptation, 221 gamma), 208
Boston’s Emerald Necklace, see also agricultural land docks, 200
84, 365 cultural perspectives, 26, 27 dog(s), 19–21
characteristics, functions, 361, 364 cyclones, 202 diseases, risk for wildlife, 21
land uses, 361–362, 364 feces/urine, 20, 21, 217
location and types, 361–362, 363 daylighting, streams, 186 home ranges, 19, 20
radial, 361, 364 DDT, in urban rivers, 189 on leashes, bird diversity and, 20
vegetation types, 342 dead zones, 167, 201 packs of, 20
house plots, 294, 321 decomposition, organic matter, 381 walking, impacts, 20, 21, 228
backline strip, 294, 295, 321 in dumps, 358 wildlife avoidance behaviors, 19–20
in interwoven land mosaic, flows human-made organic materials, 110 domain of scales, 33
and, 50 by invertebrates, 254 domestic animals, 19–23, see also cat(s);
narrow wooded, 227–228 in sanitary sewage pipes, 163 dog(s)
neighborhood, 361 sewage/wastewater, septic system, dominance of species, 14
networks, 45, 72, 364–365 168–169 donut model, 46–47
pipeline, 361, 363 in urban soil, 99, 106, 109, 110, 116 Dortmund (Germany), bird species/
plant species dispersal, 240 de-densification, 80 turnover, 268–269
remnant grassland, 240 deer, 246, 265 downtown, city, see city centers
of shade/shadow, 130, 131, 284 definitions, urban ecology terms, 6–8 drainage
transportation, 77, 276 deforestation, 236 house plots, 303–304
railways, see railways de-icing salt, 115, 117, 217–218 stormwater systems, 120, 121
roadsides, 363 delta, 200–201 urban soil, 103
types, 50, 240 demographics, 2, 4–5, 63 drainage connection, 171
urban-to-rural gradient, 42 low-income population, 316 drainage ditches, 172, 173, 180,
wide wooded, 228 megalopolis, 33 181–182
width, 367 see also entries beginning population drainfield, for septic systems, 168, 169
and wildlife movement, see wildlife dendritic networks, 45 dredging, 198
(urban), movement de-nitrification, 163, 168, 176–177 “dump favela”, 50, 319, 357
corridor-and-small-patch system, 366 densification, 7, 76, 79 dumps (tips), 109, 357–359
corridor-centered mosaic, 55–57 dependent pairs (dependencies), 52–54 groundwater pollution, 153
corridor-centered neighborhood, 56 detention basins/ponds, 180 wildlife habitat, 263
corridors per node (beta index), 72, diagonal patterns, 32 dunes, 201
122, 380 direct gradient analyses, 41 Dusseldorf (Germany), habitat types,
courtyard(s), 292, 319–322 disasters, 74, 76, 318, 375 205–206, 263
plants, 320–321 city centers and, 328 dust, street, 165, 281, 309
coyote (Canis latrans), 242, 243, 244, tree species/density affected by, 226
259, 261 dispersed development, 371–372 earthworms, 111–112
around dumps, 358 dispersed patches model, urbanization, East Kolkata (Calcutta, India)
characteristics and feeding patterns, 77, 78–79, 80, 324 wetlands, 177
244, 270 housing-unit plot sizes, 79 eco-city, 29
railways and, 278 see also sprawl ecological assays, 12–16
cracks (in hard surfaces), 287–292 dispersion model, 47 ecological change, rates/
animals/invertebrates, 291 dispersion of individual plants, 226 trajectories, 83–90
concrete surfaces, 288 dispersivity, groundwater, 156 habitat loss/degradation/
diagonal, zig-zag, 288 dissection (corridor formation), habitat fragmentation, 88–90
ecological succession, 290–292 changes, 88–89 soil, water and air, 83–84
formation, 288–290 “distance from source” of species, 261 urban land uses, 86–88
lengthening, network formation, 291 distance-decay pattern/model, 45 vegetation and biodiversity, 84–86
linear, 288 distribution of aggregated people, ecological community (natural
plants, 290–292 371–372 community), 14
repair, 289 disturbances, 73, 74 ecological economics, 18

447
 Index

ecological engineering, 68 ecosystem models, 47 latent heat in daytime, 132–133, 136,

ecological finiteness, 18 ecosystem services, 30, 225 143, 346
ecological footprint concept, 63 edge(s), 44, 70 reduction, increased stormwater
ecological gradients, 41–43 convoluted, house plots, 294 runoff, 171
ecological heterogeneity (diversity), 36 estuaries, 199, 200 evergreen ground cover, 293
ecological infrastructure, 365 filtration effect, 69 exponential growth, 381
ecological mosaics, 60–63, see also land habitat edges, 239 exurban area, 7, 39, 321
mosaic house plots, 294 adjacency effects, 52
ecological network, see network(s), natural habitats, 69 population density, 40
green/ecological parks, 69 residential area, 7, 321–327
ecological pattern models, 47–48 straight, in urban areas, 239 small agricultural sites, 344–345
ecological processes, urban soil affected types, 239, 294 spatial patterns, 324–327
by, 99 see also boundaries see also peri-urban area
ecological succession, 14, 85, 236–238 edge effect, 69, 239, 240
abandoned city building and, 86 edge (boundary) model, 48, 82, 83 facilitator patterns, 266
arrested, 237 “effective mesh size”, 89 farm animals, 19, 344, 345, 347–348
brownfields, 359 electric powerline corridors, 363, 364 farmlands, see agricultural land
cliffs and quarries, 355 electric-power generation, 66 “favela” dumps, 50, 319, 357
comparisons and positive/negative elephant hawk-moths (Deilephila fecal-coliform-bacteria level, 164,
roles, 14 elpenor), 219 167, 179
in cracks, 290–292 Emerald network, 48, 84, 89, 366, 368 feedback loops, 45
cyclic, 237 energy, 129–133 feral cats, see cat(s), feral
after disaster (Chernobyl), 268 flows, 131, 132, 133 feral dogs, 19
on dumps, 358 day–night, 133, 135–136 feralization, plants, over centuries,
examples, 237 urban heat due to, 135–136 235–236
floods and, 193 geothermal, 155 ferns, 210
forms/types, 14, 15 human need for, 17 fertilizers, 40, 114, 217
green walls, 309–310 solar radiation, 129–131 for growing food, 86, 346
on hard surfaces, 291 storage (QS), 131, 133, 136 for lawns, 300–301
“human-molded vegetation”, 86 surface energy balance of area, pollution, 40, 173–174, 301
industrial sites (post- 131–133, 136 urine recycling and, 169
production), 339 surface reflection (albedo), 131–132, fill, in soil, 92, 94, 95, 116–117
invertebrates, 269, 270 136, 139 Finland, wildlife movement,
plant categories (tolerants, inhibitors wavelength shifts, 132 greenspaces, 366
and facilitators), 236–237 see also heat fire, in large natural areas, 353
retrogressive, 237 energy-driven flow, 66 fire hazardous conditions, 52, 354
“sequence of patchy mosaics”, 237 engineering, 28, 104 “fire-stick” burning, 54
site conditions and plants engineering soil structure, 102, fish
affecting, 236 103, 104 adaptation to river flooding, 196
stages, 14, 85, 236 environment, concept and types, 3, 7 harbors and lagoons, 200
trees (urban), 226 environmental constraints, 48 urban rivers, 190
in UK, 85 environmental economics, 18 urban streams, 186
urbanization effect, 85–86 environmental gradient model, 47 water pollution and, 174, 190
vacant lots, 359 environmental gradients, 41–43 fish farms, 344
wildlife, 269 environmentalism, 8 flash flood, 153, 173, 194
ecology, xii, 3, 8–9, 11, 73–75 “ephemeral channels”, 183, 185 flat areas, large (landform), 98
areas involved in field of, 8–9 epiphytes, 210, 211, 308 flooding, 149–150, 153, 169, 173, 193
environment and, history, 8–9 equations/calculations, 380 causes/sources, 194
history of science/field, 8, 10, 11 estuaries, 198–201 combined sewer overflows, 189
overlapping subjects, 8 edges, 199, 200 ecological consequences, 194
subspecialties, 8 habitats, 199–200 flash, 153, 173, 194
economics, 18–19, 28, pollution, 201 human activities increasing, 194–195
see also specific types reconfiguration by flooding, 203 from land and floodplain, 194–195
ecopolis, 29 sediment-covered bottom, land use affecting runoff and, 194
ecoregions, 59 200–201 Los Angeles River, 187
ecosystem(s), ix, 7, 296, 377 eutrophication, 179, 201, 301, 355 risk, measurement, 193–194
analysis, 68 evaporation, 132, 150 from sea, 202, 203
development, 238, 296 evapo-transpiration, 132–133, 139, from upriver/upslope land, 194
response to disturbances, 74 143, 150 by urban rivers, 187, 188, 193–197
stability, 73 humidification of dry hot air, 370 adaptation to, 188, 196

448
 Index

management, 195–196 on/in buildings, 345, Garden City movement, 297

recurrence, 193 see also agriculture (urban) garden walls, 304–306
by urban streams, 193–197 human need, transported, 17, 36 gardening, 17, 296, 299
floodplain(s) wastewater aquaculture, 165–166 gases, in urban soil, 116
irrigation-and-drainage systems, 194 food security, 348 gasoline-powered lawn
urban rivers, 188, 190, 191, 195 “food shed”, 348 equipment, 302
urban streams, 182–185 food waste, 264, 328, 330, 332, 333 genetic adaptation, wildlife, 271
floodplain friction, 194 food web, in soil, 149 genetic change, 220, 270–273
flood-prone areas, 193, 194, 196 foraging guilds (bird), 248, 251, 257 genetic diversity, climate-related, 222
flood-pulse model, 188 forest(s) (urban areas), 352–354 genetic drift, 271
“floristic similarity”, 238 changes in Rome, 84–85 genetic variation, plants, 221
flower gardens, 299–300 city-to-natural forest gradient, 41 genetics, plants, 220–222
flowering plants, 210–211, 278 ecological succession, 85, 237 geographic information system (GIS)
flows, 11, 14–16, 65–90, 374–375 for forestry, and multi-use, 354 images, 45
air, see air flows layers/strata, 208, 230–231 geographic regions, 58–59
around boundaries, 69–73 logging patterns, outward urban geological processes/patterns, 97–99
biogeochemical, 68 expansion, 82, 83 geomorphic framework, 36–38
built structures/networks, 142, 374 sprawl development, 79, 80 geostatistical models, 46
changes-over-time, see changes- unplanned reforestation, land geothermal heat, 155
over-time principles recovery, 89 giant hogweed, 215, 219
chemical, in urban soil, 118–119, urbanization effects, Sydney, 84 Gini coefficient of inequality, 384
374–375 wildlife, 261 glades, 229
city center, 326, 327 see also tree(s); woodland global warming, 147–148, 235
coastal regions, 59, 202, 203 forestry, 354 golf courses, 353, 355–356
corridor networks, 72 Fort Collins (Colorado, USA), brown problems associated, 355
curvilinear, 65 bat roosts, 247 wildlife habitat, 263, 355–356
directionality, 56–57, 70–71, 72 fossil fuels, 17, 132, 143 government/politics, urban ecology
energy, see energy, flows fox, red (Vulpes vulpes), 244, 267, principles use, 29
gravity model and, 72–73 272, 278 gradient patterns, 12, 32
groundwater, see groundwater fractals, 34 gradients (ecological), 34, 41–43
heat, 133 fragmentation (habitats) see habitat(s), in cities, 41
horizontal, 65, 119 fragmentation city–suburb–rural, 41, 77, 262
human-driven processes, 65, 197 fragmentation (land/landscape), 89 city-to-natural forest, 41
land mosaics and, 50, 70–73 Frankfurt (Germany), green wall, 310 city-to-rural, 10, 12
land-and-sea, 59 “free-spirit” people, 121 urban–rural, see urban–rural
mapping, 55, 72 freeze–thaw cycles, 290 gradient
mineral nutrient, 68, 83, 323 frogs, 272, see also amphibians vertical, radial, circular, 12
nature of, 65–69 front-space strips, 321, see also under grain size, 32
network, see network flows house plots graph theory, models, 46, 49, 52
organisms, 15–16 fruits, 230, 270, 303 gravel, 349, 354
patterns, 65–66, 67 function (functioning), land mosaic, 45 gravity model, 72–73, 284, 380
primary routes, 72 fungi, 108–109, 110, 222 greater tit (Parus major), 266
rates/trajectories of ecological fungicides, lawns, 300 Greater Yellowstone Region, 54
change, 83–90 green architecture, 306, 307
recurrence interval, 383 gamma diversity, 208 green corridors, see corridor(s), green
rivers, see river(s) (urban) gamma index, see connectivity (gamma green cover, 7
spatial attributes affecting, 70, 71 index) green infrastructure, 365
system and ecosystem, 68–69 garbage green roofs, 310–313
typical distance, 54 cat food supply, 21, 264 agriculture on, 313
underground (urban), 122–124 wildlife food source, 264 air quality improvement, 311
urban coastal zone, 59, 197, 202, 203 see also dumps (tips); waste animals/invertebrates, 312, 313
across urban-region garden(s), 2, 292 birds, 312, 313
boundary, 62–63 community, 207, 237, 345 cooling, 311
urban–rural and rural–urban, 38 flower, 299–300 extensive vs. intensive, 311
vertical, 65 institutional, 345 goal/function and benefits, 311, 313
water, see water flows office centers and, 333 habitats and plants, 312–313
flushing, 20 public health issues related to, 25 irrigation, 312
food tiny, in little-used spaces in soils, 312
grown in urban areas, 343, cities, 345 stormwater runoff, 311–312
344–346, 347 vegetable, 86, 299–300, 344 types, 311

449
 Index

green walls, 309–310 effective, criteria for success, fine-scale within land uses,
skyscrapers, 310 368–370 207–208
streets, 281–282, 309 functionally linked greenspaces, house plots, see habitat(s), in
see also wall plants 366–368 house plots
green wedges, around London, 134 groups of greenspaces, 365–366 parks, 350
greenbelt(s), 362–363 greenway, 228, 361 plant diversity see plant(s) (urban)
greenbelt model, 48 greenway systems (USA), 366 rail corridor, 276, 277
greenhouse effect, 132 Grevillea macleayana, 221 semi-natural areas, 352
greenhouse gas, 147 grey-water recycling, 169 wildlife, see wildlife (urban)
greenhouse production, 345 groundwater, 151–157 edge, 70, 239, see also boundaries;
greenspace(s), 7, 342–370, 372–373 animals, 155–157 edge(s)
adjacent land, “species rain”, 368, aquifers, 151, 155 estuaries, 199–200
369, 372 cleaning, 154 fragmentation/fragments, 88–90,
changing with urbanization, drinking water source, 151, 157, 158 214, 235
84–85, 235 flooding, 149–150, 153 ecological effects, 240
cities, relative to population size, flows, 151–153, 382 plants and, 238–240
208–209 coastal cities, 153 reptiles/amphibian decline, 253
distance between, wildlife and, habitat conditions, 155–157 by roads, 280, 286
260, 261 heat in, 154–155, 158 spatial measures, 89
effective, criteria for and benefits, industrial uses/usage, 158 wildlife species richness, 260–261
368–370 microorganisms, 155, 156–157 groundwater conditions, 155–156
functionally linked, 366–368, 372 pollution, 153–154, see also water in house plots, 208, 293–295,
groups, 365–366 pollution 296–297
infill, 80 porosity, permeability and specialized structures, effect, 297
large, 351–352, 353 dispersivity, 156 at two scales, 208
airports and military bases, pumping, water-table lowering, 152, types, 293, 295
360–361 153, 196 industrial areas, 338
brownfields and vacant lots, “recharging”, 151 lagoons, 199–200
358–359 rise in, 140, 464153 loss, and degradation, 88–90, 214
cemeteries, 356–357 saltwater intrusion, 153 reptiles/amphibian decline, 253
cliffs, quarries and mines, surface water interaction zone, 156 urbanization causing, 88, 89–90,
354–355 urban agriculture effect, 346 322, 324, 348
dumps, 357–359 groundwater emergence zone, 153 low-income residential areas,
golf courses, 353, 355–356 groundwater wetlands, 176 318–319
institutions/municipal growth economics, 18 management, airports, 360
facilities, 357 office centers, 333
natural/semi-natural areas, habitat(s), 7, 11, 14, 205–240 patch–corridor–matrix model, 238
352–354 area/size, plant species and, selection, 55
urban forests, 354 232–233, 239 sink or source, 294
mammal predators in, 242, 243 arrangement, species dispersal, 240 small (roads), small populations, 280
planted vegetation, areas, 209, 210 artificial (built) structures as, spatial patterns, wildlife, see wildlife
semi-natural, 7 256–257 (urban)
size/area, 137, 353 breeding, for bird species species richness variations, 233
decrease in metro areas, 342 survival, 240 successional, greenspaces and
species richness (wildlife), 243, changes due to urbanization, 88–90 corridors, 342
260–261 agricultural and natural types, 205–207
species–area effect, 260 land, 89–90 underground, urban areas, 121–122
temperatures and, 137–138 loss/degradation/fragments, in urban sprawl, 86
smaller vs. large cities, 343 88–90, 322, 324, 348 habitat arrangement model, 47
stormwater runoff, 170–171 spatial processes causing, 88–89 habitat selection model, 47
time scale for urbanization city centers, 330 habituation of species, 350
change, 235 classification, 205–206, 207 hand test, soil texture type, 101
types, 342, 343 grouping-by-mechanism, harbor(s), 198, 200
urban heat and, 137–138 206–207 lakeside, 204
urban wildlife moving out of, 261 definition, 7 pollution, 201
uses, 372 diversity (heterogeneity), 36, harbor islands, 199, 263
vegetation on, change during 207–208, 373 hard surfaces, 287–292
urbanization, 81, 235 alpha, beta, and gamma, 208 commercial strips, 334
greenspace system, integrated, cemeteries, 356 cracks, see cracks (in hard surfaces)
365–370, 372 community gardens, 207 ecological succession, 291

450
 Index

types, 288 specific insects and trees, 219 house sparrows (Passer domesticus), 23,
see also impervious surfaces herpetofauna (herps), see amphibians; 252, 253, 330
hawks, 249–250, 256 reptiles genetic changes, 271, 272
headwaters, urban stream, 183–184 hierarchy of spatial scales, 12, 33 housing
healthy ecosystem, definition, ix high-rise buildings, 316, 326, 328 attached single-unit, 321
heat skyscrapers, 310, 327, 328 detached, house plot sizes, 79,
accumulation, greenhouse effect, 132 highway bypass, around city, 88 317, 324
airdome development, 128 highways, urban, 280 low-density, 324
airports and, 361 hills, air flow streamlining, 140 multi-unit high-/low-rise, 316, 328
amelioration in cities, 139 hillside development, flash floods public health issues related to, 25
anthropogenic (QF), 131, 132, 133, and, 194 single-family, location, 38
135, 332 hill-top, 98 single-unit, in cities, 79, 319–322
causes/sources, 135–137 Hiroshima City (Japan), 81, 87 spatial patterns, 321, 324–327
energy flow, 135–136 home range, 51, 67 housing development area, wildlife
groundwater heat, 155, 158 cats, 22 habitat, 263
surfaces and structures, 136–137 dogs, 19, 20 human(s)
emission, 132, 133 people, mixed use area and, 314, 371 inclusion/exclusion in urban
flows, 133 wildlife, 55, 264 ecology, 3
geothermal, 155 homes, see housing; residential areas social patterns, 17–18
global warming and, 147 horizontal flows, 65, 119 human activities, 16–26
greenspaces and impervious spaces horizontal natural processes, 34 biodiversity correlation, 233
effects, 137–139 horizontal patterns, 32, 34, 35 flooding increased by, 194–195
in groundwater, 154–155, 158 plant communities, 231 natural areas affected by, 354
intensity, of heat island, 134, 136 soil (urban), 92, 95–97 over decades, 235
latent (QE), 131, 132–133, 136 house mouse (Mus musculus), 245, 271 pests and public health, 23–26
net horizontal advection (QA), 131, house plots, 292–297 riverside area (urban), 190–191
133, 136 areas surrounding, effects, 306 social patterns, economics and
pollution, urban rivers, 190 biodiversity, 263, 295–297, 298, needs, 16–19
sensible (QH), 131, 132, 133, 136 306, 373 soil patterns associated, 92–94
storage (QS), 131, 133 designs and management, 292–293, urban beaches, 202
streets, 281, 282 297, 298 urban coastal zone, 198
transportation and buildings as detached houses, 317, 324 urban soil affected by, 99–100
sources, 132 features, 303–306 human needs, 16–17
urban air, 126, 131, 133–139, forms/types, 293, 295, 320 city location and, 36, 37
331–332 front-/back-space, 292, 297–299, 321 for village to become a city, 36
urban streams, 185 corridors, species movement, 321 human structures, 197, 275–313,
see also energy depth/width and proximity to see also buildings; built
heat island, 128–129, 133, 135, 148, 154 others, 293 structures; underground
characteristics, 134–135 habitat diversity, biodiversity, human structures
city centers, 134, 331–332 299, 321 human waste, see sewage
heat intensity, 134, 136 normal vs. large plots, 324 humidity, 126–127
hot dry and tropical areas, 135 row of front spaces, 292, 321 humus, 95, 105, 302, 346
heavy metals size and uses, 297, 324 hurricanes, 202
air pollution, 145 garden walls, 304–306 hydrocarbons, 115–116, 144, 174, 329
bioaccumulation, 115, 154, 167 internal structure, 293–297 hydrographs, stormwater runoff, 172
street dust, 281 biodiversity and wildlife, 263, hydrologic cycle, see water cycle
urban river pollution, 189 295–297, 306 hydrology, 175, 281
urban soil, 40–41, 114–115, 118 habitat diversity, 208, 293–295 Hymenoptera, spatial pattern, 255,
Hemiptera, 255 plant diversity, 295–297 259–260
herbaceous layer, 185–186, 231 spatial arrangement, 293–295, 306 hyporheic zone, 156
herbicides, 276, 277, 300 surroundings, role, 293
herbivores private outdoor spaces, 292, 297–299 igneous rocks, 97
invertebrate, see insect(s) side yards, 299, 325 impervious surfaces, 136, 170–173
mammal, 245–246, 346 sizes, 79, 297, 317, 324 city centers, 327
prevention in vegetable gardens, water-related structures, 303–304 connected (drainage
300, 346 wooded, 293 connection), 171
herbivory, 218–219 woody plants, 303, 304, 305 increase, effect on stormwater
distribution in woods, 219 yards, gardens and lawns, 297–306, discharge rate, 173
low levels in urban areas, 218 see also garden(s); lawn(s) stormwater runoff, 170–173
non-native species, 219 see also courtyard(s); patio(s) amount, 170–171

451
 Index

impervious surfaces (cont.) institutional gardens, 345 Kyoto (Japan), 237, 267, 268
urban heat and, 138–139 institutions, 263, 357
water flows and, 170–173 integrated pest management (IPM), lagoons, 198–201
see also hard surfaces 23, 301 bottoms and sediments, 200
inbreeding, 239 interdependent elements, 53 islands at edge, 199, 200
inbreeding depression, 221, 273 interdependent industries, concept, lakes, 203, 204
Indian balsam, 219 339–340 land cover, 7
indirect gradient analyses, 41 “interdigitation”/interface, natural and land fragmentation, causes, 89
indoor plants, 307 urban area, 52 land market value model, 48
industrial areas, 38, 314, 336–341 “intermittent channels”, 183 land mosaic, 32, 49–51, 371–372
alternative approaches, 339–341 intersection linkage (beta index), 72, city center, 50
forms/types, 340–341 122, 380 corridors in, 50
interdependent industries, “interspersion”, natural and urban dependencies between elements, 53
339–340 area, 52 flows, 50, 70–73
characteristics, 337 intertidal zone, 202 interaction strength, 50
contaminated soil, 118, 339 invertebrates, 254–255 interwoven, 50
ecological conditions, 337, 338 on/in buildings, 309 extent determination, 50–51
ecological succession, 339 in cracks in hard surfaces, 291 locality-centered, 51
groundwater usage, 158 ecological functions/roles, 254–255 patch-centered, 55–57
location, 340 ecological succession, 269, 270 patches in, 49
near rivers, flooding and, 195 gardens, 299 persistence/stability, 51, 73
plant and animal species, 338, 339, green roofs and walls, 257, 313 structure–function–change
340–341 house plots, 296 characteristics, 44, 45, 55, 56
power and water requirements, 336, light effect, 255 urban regions as, 51
340–341 spatial patterns (by class), 255, land mosaic model, ix, 43, 48
production/post-production, 259–260 land recovery/restoration, 88–89
336–339 species richness and habitats, land subsidence, 152
ecology of sites, 337–339 255, 296 land use, 7
post-production inputs/outputs species/types, 254, 269 airdome thickness and development,
and ecology, 339 underground, 121 128–129
production inputs/outputs, site urban soil, 111–112, 269 changes during urbanization, 80, 88
features, 336–337 urban streams, 184, 186 changes over centuries, 236
site requirements, 336–337 see also insect(s) habitat diversity (fine-scale),
stormwater runoff, 337, 339, invisibles, in urban ecology, 1, 2 207–208
340–341 importance?, 1 habitat groupings by, 206
wastewater, 162, 337 irrigation-and-drainage systems, 194 Kano (Nigeria), 40–41
woodlands succession, 237 island biogeography model, 47, 238 mapping changes in urban area, 81
industrial site vs. industrial city, islands “mixed-use patterns”, 5
340–341 barrier, 201–202 patterns, 38–39, 70–73
industrial symbiosis, 339 harbor, 199, 263 planning, principles/
industrial waste, water pollution, near lagoon edges, 199, 200 categories, 27–28
153, 189 ivy (Hedera), 309 time scale of changes, 235
infill, and infill threshold, 80, 359 tree species distribution, 226
infiltration, water penetration into Jakarta (Indonesia), wetlands, 177 urban soil types and, 96
soil, 103 Japanese knotweed, 215, 219 during urbanization, 86–88
informal squatter settlement, 316–319, “jaws-and-chunks” model, 82, 83 water runoff and floods
342, 348 journey-to-work model, 381 associated, 194
“dump favela”, 50, 319, 357 landfill site, 263, 357
habitats, plants and animals, Kalundborg (Denmark), interdependent landforms, 98
318–319 industries, 339–340 landscape architecture, 28
inhibitor patterns, 266 kangaroos, 246 “landscape complementation”, 55
input–output models, 46, 68, 69 Kano (Nigeria), 40–41, 225 landscape ecology, 10, 294, 306
insect(s) Kawasaki (Japan), interdependent landscape ecology models, 48, 238
diversity on non-native trees, 219 industries, 340 “landscape ecology revolution”,
genetic adaptation, 271 kestrel, 249, 262, 331 “landscape metrics”, 51, 89
green roofs, 312 keystone species, 259 “land-use flexibility”, 348
herbivores, 219, 254 koala, mortality by dogs, 20 Las Letras neighborhood, Madrid
on trees, 219 “K-selected” species, 216 (Spain), 57–58
insect pests, 23–24 Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), green latent heat (QE), 131, 132–133, 136
insecticides, 271, 300 wall, 310 latrines, 168

452
 Index

lawn(s), 300–303 mangrove swamps, 175, 176, 200, micro-nutrients, in urban soil, 114
in cemeteries, 356 203, 229 microorganisms, 24
characteristics, 300 manure, for growing food, 346 bioretention basins, 180
in greenspaces and corridors, 342 maps, as models, 45 groundwater, 155, 156–157
mowing, 300, 302–303 Marchetti constant, 5 groundwater pollution effect, 154
pesticides, fertilizers and water, market, 264 organic matter decomposition,
300–301 market gardening, 344, 347 see decomposition
fertilizers, 301 marketplace, 332–333 underground, 121
pesticides, 300–301 mass flow, 66 urban soil, 108–110
plant biodiversity without, “master-planned communities”, 326 distribution, 109–110
302–303 matrix, 43, 44 types, 108–109
watering, 301–302 meadows, 293, 312 water bodies after wastewater
“lawn specialists” (species), 302 megacities, 5, 63, 158 discharge, 167, 168
lead, air pollution, 145 mega-floods, 194 wetlands, 176
leaf area index, 217 megalopolis, 6, 33, 76, 87–88, 372 midges, 174
LEED system, 306 megalopolis ecology, 372 migration, animals, 67, 264
legacies of ecological conditions, 75 “mental models”, 45 military bases, 361
Leicester (UK), 211, 296 mercury, 189 millipedes, 112
Lepidoptera, spatial pattern, 255 Merseyside (UK), vegetation change Milwaukee (USA), tree distribution/
levees, 195 with urbanization, 81 species, 226
lichens, 211, 290–291, 307, 356 meso-predator release hypothesis, 243 mineral(s), 36
light(s), 255, 256 metamorphic rocks, 97 in industrial wastewater, 162
lignin, decomposition, 109, 110 metapopulation, urbanization phase, in soil, 91, 92, 95, 99
limestone-karst rock, 156 322–324 mineral nutrient(s)
linear growth, 381 metapopulation dynamics, 71–72, 380 flows, 68, 83, 323
litter (vegetation), 93, 94–95, 105 metapopulation models, 48 in urban soil, 99, 113–114
littoral zone, 153, 178 methane (CH4), 116, 358 in wastewater discharge, 166, 167
livestock, 19, 344, 345, 347–348 metro area (metropolitan area), 6 mineral nutrient cycles, 119
lizards (Anolis cristatellus), 266 agricultural land around, 60 mines, 354–355
logistic (sigmoid) growth, 381 convolution of border, 62 Minneapolis (Minnesota, USA), 366
London (UK) as ecological mosaic, 60–63 mites, 112
birds, 249, 253 examples, alternative forms, 60, 61 mixed-use areas/land, 268, 314, 315
green wedges around, 134 greenspaces, see greenspace(s) models, 38, see also specific models
groundwater flow, 152 land use change during moisture
heat island, 134 urbanization, 86–88 conditions, vegetation grouping,
Highgate Cemetery, 356–357 natural land around, wildlife 206, 207
long-wave radiation, 130, 131, 132, 133 movement, 265 in parks, 351
Los Angeles (USA), 259–260 perimeter-to-area ratio, 60 in urban air, 126–127, 351
Los Angeles River, 187, 188 planning, 82 see also rain; water
low-density housing, 324 population density, 60 Mongolian oak (Quercus
low-impact development, 182 types, negative/positive roles, 60 mongolica), 231
low-income areas, residential, 316–317, urban regions with, examples, 56, 60 Moran index for degree of
318, 319 urban–suburban–rural gradient, 262 clustering, 383
low-rise buildings, 316, 328, 331 metro area border models, 48 mosaic patterns, 12, 31–64
Mexico City (Mexico), 145, 203, spatial scales, 32–34
macroclimate, 58 342, 352 see also land mosaic; neighborhood
macro-fungi, 222 microclimate, 126–129 mosaics; spatial patterns
macro-nutrients, in urban soil, 113 air in/out of cities, 126–128 mosses, 211, 291, 307
Madrid (Spain), 260, 309, 310, 334 effects on plant growth, 216 motorcycles, 286
Las Letras neighborhood, 57–58 layers of air and airdome, 128–129 Mount Auburn Cemetery (Cambridge,
magnesium (Mg), 113–114 moisture in air, 126–127 USA), 356–357
mammals urban vs. non-urban areas, 128–129 mountain regions, 59
in natural area of Portland ventilation of cities, 127–128, 139 mountain top, 98
(USA), 353 microclimatic patterns, 37 movement(s), 14–16, 65–69
public health issues, 25 microhabitats across boundaries, see boundaries
tree canopy, 257 green roofs, 312 animal, see animal movements;
vegetable gardens, 300 house plots, 208 wildlife (urban)
see also herbivores; predators; specific informal squatter settlements, 319 coastal zones (urban), 197, 202, 203
mammals railways, 277, 278 commuting effects, change-over-
Manchester (UK), 40, 144 urban wildlife, 251–252, 257, 328 time, 75

453
 Index

movement(s) (cont.) nature’s services, 30, 225 Nishinomiya City (Japan),

energy-driven, 66 negative attributes, urban region, 378 257–258, 260
fish, in urban rivers, 190 neighborhood, 54 nitrogen (N), 113–114
habitat and land-use preferences residential, streets with small estuaries, 201
affecting, 72 shops, 332 excess, in wastewater discharge, 167
human-related, coastal zone, 197 sewage treatment facilities, 164 fertilizers, 301, 355
mapping, 72 neighborhood corridors, 361 runoff from gardens/lawns, 301
materials and objects, neighborhood ecology, city residential seawater pollution, 166
underground, 122 area, 322 stormwater pollution, 174
motor-powered, 66 neighborhood mosaics, 49–58, 87 urban agriculture effect on
nature of, 65–69 adjacencies, 51–52 groundwater, 346
patterns, 65–66, 122 central organizing force, 55, 57 urban streams, 185
plant, 15–16, 66–68 convergency points, 55 nitrogen dioxide (NO2), street tree
primary routes, 72 corridor-centered, 55–57 species and, 284
rate, 72 dependent pairs and nitrogen fixation, wetlands, 176–177
spatial attributes affecting, 70, 71 surroundings, 52–54 nitrogen oxides (NOx), air pollution,
species, corridors, 240, 265 interactions between, 54–55, 87 144, 145
urbanization, see urbanization land mosaic, see land mosaic node connection, 283, 380
see also flows patch-centered, 55–57 noise
mowing, lawns, 300, 302–303 tightness, strength of interactions, aircraft, 360
mud flats, 200–201 54–55, 57 railways, 276, 277
mulch, 302 two, tight interactions, 57–58 roads/traffic, 280
“multifunctional landscape neighborhood shopping malls, 335 non-native species, spread, 67, 68,
mosaic”, 347 nematodes, 112 368, see also plant(s) (urban);
multi-habitat species, 52, 55 neophytes, 213 wildlife (urban)
multi-modal transport system, 328 nests, parasitized, 266 “non-point sources”, pollution, 154
multiple nuclei models, 48 net radiation balance, 381 nursery plants, 210
municipal solid waste (MSW), 357, 358 nutrients, see mineral nutrient(s)
mushrooms, 222 The Netherlands, National Ecological
Network, 366 oak woods/species, 8, 218
Nanjing Region (China), outward netway-and-pod transportation, 285, “oasis effect”, 136
urbanization, 77 287, 374 office centers, 333–334
native species, 368–369, network(s) offshore breeze, 140
see also plant(s) (urban); ditch, 364 omnivores, 242
wildlife (urban) green/ecological, 45, 48, 72, 364– onshore breeze, 140
natural area/land, 7, 89–90, 352–354 365, 366, 373, 374–375 organic matter, 105–106
benefits, 352–353 broad-scale/regional, 364–365 decomposition, see decomposition,
habitat loss/degradation, dendritic/rectilinear organic matter
urbanization, 89–90 patterns, 365 sewage/wastewater, groundwater
native species of wildlife, ridge, 45 pollution, 154
movement, 265 road, see road networks; street urban soil, 102, 104, 105–106
“natural burial”, 356 networks carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, 110
natural community, plants, 231–232 underground, 123–124 organic wastes, 118, 346
natural environment, 3, 7 catacombs, 120, 123 organisms, 3, 12–14
natural habitats, 7 pedestrian walkways, 122–123 underground, 121–122
natural processes, time scales, 234 quarried limestone tunnels, 123 urban soil, see soil (urban)
natural structures, coastal zone, 197 sewage wastewater, 123 see also microorganisms; wildlife
natural systems, 7 urban streams, 365 (urban)
degradation, 2 network flows, underground, 122–124 orthogonal grid models, 48
wastewater treatment, 165, 173 city centers, 329–330 Osaka (Japan), 260–261, 262, 266, 269
natural vegetation, protection, materials and objects, 122 Ottawa (Canada), green corridors,
priorities, 34 transportation, 120, 122 361–362
naturalization, species, 213, 235 water, 120, 121, 122 outward expansion, see urbanization
“naturbanization”, 77 network forms, underground, 122 owls, 250, 262
nature, definition, 7 New England (USA), bird density in Oxford (Ohio, USA), songbirds and
nature reserve, “spillover effect” of birds city, 261–262 vegetation, 251
into adjacent area, 265 New Mexico (USA), commercial strips oxidation–reduction balance, 103
nature-and-people interaction model, and wildlife, 334 oxygen
38, 39 New York, Long Island (USA), water dissolved, low in wastewater
nature’s patterns, 34–36 cycle, 151 discharge, 166, 167

454
 Index

levels in groundwater, 156 porous, 172, 288 daily fluctuations in Venice, 268
root requirement for, 106 see also impervious surfaces pigeon species, urban areas, 253
ozone, 130, 218 peak flow, 172–173, 193–194, 382 pipe systems, see sewage system
ozone smog, 144, 147 pedestrian walkways, 122–123 Pizen (Czech Republic), 235
“pedon”, 96 planned built communities, 326
parasitism, by invertebrates, 254 people and activities, see human planning, urban/city and regional, 26,
Paris (France), 120, 123, 260, 309 activities; human needs 29, 62, 82
park(s) (city), 343, 348–351, 368 percolation and percolation test, cities, 31, 63–64, 81, 82–83
biodiversity, factors associated, 103, 169 metro area, 82
368, 369 peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), towns, 63
birds, 350, 351 249, 256–257, 270, 287, 331 urbanization, 82–83
connected, integrated system, 372 perforation, habitat change due plant(s) (urban), 205–240
development, “human-molded to, 88–89 adaptations, croplands vs. disturbed
vegetation”, 86 perimeter-to-area ratio, 60 wasteland, 221
distribution, 17 peri-urban, definition, 7, 39 boundaries (between communities),
edges, 69 peri-urban area, 13, 39–40 231, 239
functions/benefits, 348, 349 adjacency effects, 52 on buildings, 307–309
habitat diversity, 207, 350 built objects, 13 choice/selection, factors
large, 349–350 changing patterns, urbanization, considered, 210
models of urban people and 322–324 city centers, 330
nature, 28 description (European cities), 321 climate-related genetic diversity, 222
plants, 350, 351 land patterns, 35–36 colonization, cracks in hard surfaces,
scattered, as system, 365 residential area, 321–327 290–292
shape, and adjacent areas, 350 small agricultural sites, 344–345 community dominance, 232
sizes, 137, 348–350, 368 soil, fertilizer, and contamination, community structure and dynamics,
spatial patterns, 350–351 117–118 230–238
stormwater runoff control, 369–370 spatial patterns, 35–36, 324–327 change/dynamics, 234–238
temperature and moisture, 351 peri-urban development, compact, 321 spatial, see spatial structure below
trees, 348–349, 350 permeability, groundwater, 156 see also ecological succession; time
wildlife, 350–351 pest(s), 19, 23 scales
park system (unconnected parks), 365, plant/trees, 23, 219 cropland vs. built-area, 221
372–373 wildlife (urban), 23–24, 265 density, in city zones, 213, 214
“parkways”, walking, 365 pesticides, 23 diseases, 219
particulate matter (PM) see under air gardens, 299 dispersal, corridors, 240
pollutants/pollution golf courses, 355 dispersion, 226
pastureland, 344 growing food and, 346 distribution in urban areas, 213–214
patch(es), 11, 34, 43 lawns, 300–301 diversity see plant(s) (urban), species
characteristics, 44, 49 runoff into water bodies, 301 richness (diversity)
dispersed, urbanization model, in urban rivers, 189 emitters of chemicals, 218
see dispersed patches model in urban soil, 115 extinction rates, 236
edge effect, 239 pH, soil, elevated, 93 feralization, over centuries, 235–236
house plots, 294–295 phenotypic plasticity, 270 “floristic similarity”, 238
land mosaic, 49 Philadelphia (USA), 270 flowering, 210–211, 278
occupancy, 238 Phoenix (USA), 78, 88, 159–160 as generalists, 216
shape, 240, 380 phosphorus (P), 113–114 genetic variation, 216
species richness, 383 excess in wastewater discharge, 167 green roofs, 312
urban-to-rural gradient, 42 fertilizers, 301, 355 groupings, 210
patch-centered mosaic, 55–57 reduction, constructed basins grown for food in urban areas, 345
patch–corridor–matrix model, 43–45, effect, 181 growth inhibition by wastes, 216
48, 238 in runoff from gardens/lawns, 301 habitat fragments, 238–240
house plots, 294 stormwater pollution, 174 herbivory defenses/prevention, 218
uses, 44–45 urban agriculture effect on high plasticity, 222
pathogens, wastewater discharge, groundwater, 346 high uptake/assimilation, 217, 218
166, 168 urban streams, 185 indoor, 307
patio(s), 292, 319 wetlands, 176 industrial sites, 338, 339
plants, 320–321 physical environment, 4, 7, 14 informal squatter settlements,
pattern perception models, 48 phytoremediation, 181, 217, 359 318–319
patterns, urban ecology, 11–12 phytosociology, 205 invasive, 213, 215, 235
pavements pigeon (common) (Columba livia), 252, microclimate effects, 216
permeable, 172, 288 253, 263, 271, 331 movements, 15–16, 66–68

455
 Index

plant(s) (urban) (cont.) forest patches in city, 266 stormwater, see stormwater
native species, 213, 214, 218 forest size and adjacent land use urban agriculture and, 346
elimination, processes, 214 affecting, 51–52 water bodies, see water bodies
gene exchange, 221 habitat area/size, 232–233, 239 (urban/local)
house plots, 296 habitat type and, 233 wetlands, 177
time scale for change, 235 Harvard University (Boston), 233 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
natural community, 231–232 house plots, 295–297 189, 201
natural hybrids, 235–236 human design/maintenance polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
naturalized, 213, 235 efforts and, 232, 233 (PAHs), 115–116, 189, 218
non-native species, 212–213, 218 planted species, 295, 296 pond(s), 178–179
archaeophytes and neophytes, 213 on vacant lots, 359, 360 bioretention, 180
in cities, 213 taxonomic groups, 210–212 detention (catch basins), 180
herbivory/herbivores, 218, 219 tolerance to chemicals, 217 factors controlling
house plots, 295, 296 tolerants, inhibitors and facilitators, characteristics, 178
invasion over decades, 235 236–237 on golf courses, 355
mixtures with native species, transport by vehicles on roads, 286 house plots, 303
214–215 trees’ ecological roles for, 224 pollution, 178–179, 182
seed dispersal, 220 types, 208–210 stormwater pollution
time scale for change, 235 in urban soil, 105–108 management, 154
variation by habitat, 214 on walls, see wall plants stormwater runoff, 178
normal response curve, 215 see also tree(s) types, 179
nursery, 210 plant biology, 215–222, vegetation, 178
origins, 212–213 see also herbivory; pollination; pond-systems, wastewater
ornamental, 210 seed dispersal aquaculture, 166
in parks, 350, 351 plant ecology, physiological, 215–218 population density, 36
patios/courtyards, 320–321 plant responses to environment, exurban, 40
pests, 23 215–217 metro areas, 60
phrenology, 234 species functions, 217–218 rural, 40
in planted areas, species interactions, plant genetics and adaptations, suburban, 40
231–232 220–222, 235 urban, criteria/definition, 36, 40
preadaptations, 222, 227 factors favoring/limiting change, urban regions, 60
productivity, in house plots, 296 220–221 population genetics, 272
railways and, 277–278 plantations, in urban areas, 229 population size, of cities, 4–5, 76
resistance and resilience, 216, “point source”, 154 optimum and limits, 5, 76
217, 222 poles and pole arrays (docks), 200 USA cities, 5
response to urban stresses, 217–218 pollination, 219–220, 221, 234, 254 porosity, groundwater, 156
roots, see root(s) pollinators, 299, 345–346, 347 Portland (Oregon, USA), 353, 366
soil types effect, 216 pollutants positive attributes, urban region, 378
spatial structure, 230–233 air, see air pollutants/pollution potholes, 288
change over time, 234–236 estuaries, 201 Prairie dogs (Cynomys), 142–143
horizontal pattern, 231 stormwater, see stormwater preadaptation, 221–222, 227, 270
vertical stratification, 230–231 street dust, 281 predators
species urban rivers, 189 escape from, animal movement,
green roofs, 312–313 urban soil, 94, 100 264–265
industrial sites, 338 pollution invertebrates, 254
planted, in greenspace, 209, 210 air, see air pollutants/pollution mammal, 242–245
spontaneous, in greenspaces, cleansing processes of water bodies, daytime distance from shrub/
209–210 174, 189 forest, 261
species mixtures (native/non- coastal zones of cities, 198 mid-size predators, 242, 243–244
native), 214–215 commercial strips, 334 top predators, 242, 243, 244,
species patterns, 230 environmental economics and, 18 259, 261
species pool, 238 estuaries, 201 prime footprints, 30, 63
species resistance/assimilation groundwater, 153–154 private spaces, 292
variations, 218 harbors, 201 protozoa, in urban soil, 109
species richness (diversity), industrial areas, 337 public health issues, 23, 24–26
231–233, 266 neighborhood retail center, 332 air pollution, see air pollutants/
adjacency arrangement pattern, 56 ponds, 178–179, 182 pollution
adjacency effect, 238–239 railways, 277 home, plants and sprawl, 25
boundary type and, 239 rivers, see river(s) (urban) low-income residential areas, 318
city centers and, 330 seawater, nitrogen, 166 urban ecology principles use, 28

456
 Index

water-related, 24–25 changes over decades/centuries, 270 human activities along, 190–191
wildlife-related, 25 characteristics, habitat natural land uses, 191
public land, 38 requirements, 254 structures, 190–193, 195
public transport, 17, 286 decline with habitat changes/loss, types, positive/negative roles,
Puerto Rico, 90, 366 253, 260 191–193
diversity in arid areas, 253 riverside infrastructure, 190
Q* (net all-wave radiation), 131, reservoirs, 158, 159 road(s), 279–287
135, 381 sediment in, 157 as conduit for animal movement, 363
quarried limestone tunnels, 123 stormwater pollution, 203 extension of effects on sides,
quarries, 354–355 residential areas, 314 280–281
city see city residential areas moving objects, 285–286
rabbit species (Lepus, Sylvilagus), commercial area mixed, 268, noise from traffic, effects, 280
245–246 314, 315 pollution from, 281, 287
raccoons (Procyonlotor), 244 green networks, 364 related features, 286–287
radiation, 126, 129–133 low-income areas, 316–317, 318, 319 surfaces, 287, 288
heat in groundwater and, 154 resilience (to disturbances), 74, 75 types, 281
“sky” (diffuse), 131 resistance (to disturbances), 74 ring roads, 287
solar, 129–131, 154, 381 resolution, 32 streets, see street(s)
wavelength shift (short- to long- restaurants, 328, 331 urban highways, 280
), 132 retail business areas, 38, 334 urban/suburban, 280–281
radioactive isotopes, in air, 143 retail center, neighborhood, 332 widths, 281, 282
radius gradient, 12 retention basins, 179 wildlife crossing, mitigation
radon, 116 Rhododendron punticum, 219 structures, 280
rail beds, 276, 277 ribbon development, 286 wildlife population reduction, 280
rail yard, 276 ridge networks, 45 road ecology, 279
railways, 276–279 Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 340 road kill, 245, 246, 280, 286
barrier/filter effect on wildlife, 278 riparian vegetation, 193 road networks, 282–284
corridors, 276, 277, 278, 363 urban rivers, 187–188, 190–193 patterns/features, 282–284
land surrounding, 278–279 urban streams, 183, 185–186 types/forms, 283, 284
disused, walkways, 279 riparian wetlands, 176 “road-effect zone”, 56–57
ditches alongside, 276, 277 riparian zone, disconnected from roadsides, 284–285
ecological succession, 237, 277 groundwater, 196 rock(s), 97–98, 99
noise and vibration, 276, 277 ripple effects, 234 seawalls, 202
pollution, 277 river(s) (urban), 186–193 rock cliffs, 308, 309, 354–355
spores, seeds and species algae, herbivores and animals, 188 rocky coasts, 202
distribution, 278 benefits, 186, 189 rodents, 25, 245, 358
vegetation and plants, 277–278 bottom, 187–188 Roman cities, aqueducts for clean
wildlife and, 277, 278, 279 channel and water flow, 187–189, 195 water, 158
rain, 126, 150, 170, see also stormwater high flows, see flooding Rome (Italy), 84–85, 87, 348–349
“rain-garden”, 180–181 low flows, 187, 188–189, 196–197 roofs, green, see green roofs
rainwater runoff channelization, 187, 195 root(s), 105, 106–108
flooding, 194 close human interactions, 190, 191 functions, 108
green roofs, 311–312 fish, 190 growth and requirements for,
see also stormwater runoff groundwater animals around, 157 106, 107
rank-size rule for city population, 380 habitat heterogeneity, 190 nutrient/mineral absorption,
raptors, 247, 249–250 migration, 187 106, 114
artificial structures as habitats, 249, pollution, 189–190 sizes (large, fine), 107, 108
256–257 restoration, 187 root hairs, 107
rare species, 259–260, 361 sediment, 187–188, 200–201 root systems, sizes, 108
rats (Rattus), 245 species limited by water flow or “r-selected” species, 216
rectilinear networks, 45 pollution, 189 rubble, 116–117
recycling, 118, 357 vegetation, see riparian vegetation ruderal vegetation, 207, 221
urine, 169 vertical and horizontal dimensions,
water, 160, 165, 169 187–188, 190 salt marsh, 199, 201, 203, 235
regions (geographic), 58–60 water quantity/quality patterns, 188 saltwater, 76, 153, 166, 202
regulatory economics, 18 River Thames (London), 187 saltwater lagoons, 198
relative humidity, 126 riverbanks, 187, 190, 191 San Diego (California), 242–243, 260
religion, urban ecology principles riverside area, urban, 57, 191 sand, 37, 95, 100–101, 158
use, 29 changes during urbanization, 87 sand quarry, 354
reptiles, 253–254 environmental conditions, 192 Sao Paulo (Brazil), 328

457
 Index

saprophytes, 109 city centers, 331–332 compacted, 91, 93, 94, 329
satellite cities, 77, 78, 235, 324 green walls, 282 compaction, 95, 100, 101
scales, 32 streets, 281, 282 trees resistant to, 105
domain of, 33 from trees in cities, 216–217 composition, 91, 92
see also spatial scales shade corridors, 130, 131, 284 compressibility, 102
sea-grass beds, 200 shadow lengths, 381 contaminated
sea-level rise, 203 Shanghai (China), greenspaces, 85 brownfield sites, 358, 359
Seattle (USA), 41, 43 Sheffield (UK) detention basins and
seawalls, 202 flowering plants, 210–211 biofilters, 180
seawater, 76, 153, 166, 202 habitat diversity in parks, 350 industrial areas, 118, 339
sector models, 48 house plots, 293–294, 296, 297, 300 Kano (Nigeria), 40–41
security (defense), 36 shopping malls, 334–336 core characteristics, 92–94
sediment shops, 328, 332 degradation, 83, 105
estuary bottom, 200–201 shorebirds, changes over time, 269 designed-and-mixed, 92
lagoons, 200 short-wave radiation, 130, 131, 132 development, organic matter role,
reservoirs, 157 shrinkage, habitat change due to, 88–89 105–106
urban rivers/streams, 167, 187–188 shrub layer, 230, 258 drainage, 103
in wastewater discharge, 166, 167 shrubs, in urban areas, 229–230 under drainfield (septic system),
sedimentary rocks, 97 distribution (Barcelona), 230 168–169
Sedum, green roofs, 312, 313 diversity, 229 ecosystem development, 105
seed bank, 236 house plots, 303 energy and nutrients from, 106
seed dispersal, 219–220, 254, 278, 286 large wooded patches, 228 erosion (by water/wind), 18, 97,
self-locomotion, 66 roles, 229, 230 98–99, 118, 157–158
“self-organizing principles”, 51 spontaneous growth, 229, 230 fill, 92, 94, 95
semi-natural greenspace/area, 7, 8, wildlife and, 258 food web, 149
352–354 side-boundary vegetation strips, 325 functions, 91–92
habitat heterogeneity, 352 silt, 37, 95, 98, 100–101 gases in, 116
parks (city), 349–350 in reservoirs, 158 for green roofs, 312
resistance to disturbances, 74–75 silviculture, 354 horizontal pattern, 92, 95–97
woodland, 352 Singapore, 310, 368 human disturbance effect, 91–92, 96
septic systems, 168–169, 304 sinuosity ratio, 383 human structures/artifacts, 93
advantages/disadvantages, 169 skunks, striped (Mephitis mephitis), 244 identification of types, and maps, 96
wastewater treatment problems, 169 sky conditions, 126 impervious (hard) surface above, 94
septic tank, 168 “sky” radiation (diffuse radiation), 131 “improved”/”remediated”, 92
sewage, 118, 123, 150, 160–169, 304 sky view factor, 130, 381 key natural and human processes
back-yard outhouse toilets, 302 skyscrapers, 310, 327, 328 affecting, 97–100
city centers and, 327 slope of ground, 37–38, 98 ecological processes, 99
components and organisms, 162 sludge, sewage, 118, 164–165, 168 geological processes, 97–99
effectiveness of treatment, 163–164 slugs, 112, 297 human processes, 91–92, 96,
primary treatment, 164 slums, 316–317 99–100
secondary treatment, 164 snails, 112 loamy, 101, 102
septic systems, see septic systems social patterns (human), 17–18 minerals, 91, 92, 95
sludge, 118, 164–165, 168 societal goals, 376–377 “natural”, 91
tertiary treatment, 164, 166 sodium chloride (NaCl), 115, 117, organic matter, see organic matter
sewage system, 150, 160–166 217–218 organisms in, 104–112, 114, 121–122
combined with stormwater system, soil (urban), 91–124 animals, 110–112
162–163, 166 aeration, 92 large invertebrates, 111–112, 114
global availability, 160 agricultural “crop”, 91 microbes, see microorganisms
pipe systems, 160–163 agriculture effects on, 346 plants and roots, 105–108
access to and problems, 162 anaerobic conditions, 103, 104, 106 tiny invertebrates, 112, 114, 121
decomposition processes in, 163 biological/physical components, by vertebrates, 111, 121–122
separate from stormwater system, size, 107 patterns (associated with human
163, 166 boundaries between types, 96 activities), 92–94
septic systems vs., 169 bulk density, 102 permeability and percolation, 103
treatment facilities, 162, 163–165 buried compaction layer, 95 pH elevation, 93, 114
neighborhood, 164 chemicals in, see chemical(s) plant growth, effects on, 216
wastewater discharge effect on water city center, 329 plasticity and elasticity, 103
bodies, 165, 166–168 classification of types, 95–96, pore size distribution, 102
sewage wastewater network, 123 100–101 remediation, 181, 359
shade clay, 95, 100–101, 102 sandy, 101, 102

458
 Index

shear strength, 103 spatial patterns, 12, 26–28, 31–64, development in forests/woodland,
stormwater infiltration, 93 376, 381 79, 80
stratification (A, B, C layers), 94–95 geomorphic framework, 36–38 dispersed patches model, 77, 79
texture, 97, 100–101 greenspaces, 369 environmental effects/
texture, properties related to, horizontal, see horizontal patterns features, 78–79
101–104 house plots, 293–295 habitats and biodiversity, 86
relative importance (by human and nature’s, 34–36 springtails, 112
activity), 104 invertebrates, 255 squirrels (Sciurus, Tamiasciurus), 246
root growth and, 106 land-and-sea, 59 starlings, 252–253, 331
structural, 102–103 megalopolis, 33 stepping stones, 36, 72, 228, 266
water-/air-related, 103–104 oblique (diagonal), 32, 59 green roofs, for birds, 313
trees’ ecological roles for, 223, 224 parks (city), 350–351 house plots as, 293, 294
types, 91–92, 95–96, 100–101, 102 peri-urban (exurban) area, 35–36, plant species dispersal, 240
Washington, D.C., 96 324–327 wildlife movement and, 266–268
underground and, see underground plants, see plant(s) (urban) birds, 266, 267
(urban) scale and, see spatial scales Stockholm, golf courses, 355, 356
urbanization effect, 83 universality, 49 storks (Ciconia), 256, 257
vegetation and litter, 93 urban regions, metro areas and storms, 185, 188, 194
vertical layers (profiles), 92, 94–95 cities, 58–64, 327 stormwater, 84, 169–174
characteristics, 94, 95 urbanization, 76–83 discharge rates, 173
volume change (deformation), vertical, 31–32 drainage systems, 120, 121, 170–173
102–103 wildlife habitats, see wildlife (urban) flow patterns, 170–173
water drainage, 92 spatial planning principles, 26–28 groundwater pollution, 153
water infiltration, 103, 150, 185 spatial processes infiltration into urban soil, 93,
wetlands, 175, 176 habitat change due to, 88–89 170, 171
zones/layers (A, B), 91, 92, land recovery/restoration, 88–89 pollutants in, sources, 169–174, 180,
94–95, 105 spatial scales, 12, 32–34 198, 281
aerated, groundwater in, 151 fractals, 34 clean-water supplies, effect, 174
zones/layers (C), 94 hierarchy, 12, 33 USA vs. UK comparisons,
solar radiation, 129–131, 154, 381 stair-stepped interpretation, 33 173–174
solid waste, 118, 357 urbanization, 75 pollution management, 154
solid-waste dumps, see dumps (tips) spatial sequence models, outward pollution of water bodies, see water
songbirds, 248, 251–252 expansion, 82, 83 bodies
breeding/summer and winter species, 11 public health issues, 24
seasons, 251 changes, urbanization effect, 85–86 in sanitary sewage system, 162
crossing railways, 278 “tightness” of interactions, 231 streets and, 281
foraging guilds, 251, 257 species assemblage, 50, 231–232 structures to contain/absorb,
habitat affecting density/diversity, species continuum model, 47 180–181
248, 251–252 species dominance, 383 use on golf courses, 355
migration, parks and, 343 species pool, 238, 350 stormwater drain/basin, wildlife
roosting in trees, 252, 257 “species rain”, 61–62, 368, 372 habitat, 263
sensitivity to vegetation species richness (diversity), 14, 89, 232 stormwater pipe network, animal
structure, 251 birds, see bird(s) (urban) movement via, 67
in suburbs, 252 fine-scale habitats associated, 208 stormwater runoff, 170, 382
South Korea, 118, 195, 214, 231 habitat type and, 233 amounts (by surface type), 170–171
spatial arrangement lagoons, 199 into bioretention basins, 180
buildings, 306 patches, 383 carparks, 287
in cities, 38–39 plants, see plant(s) (urban) control by greenspaces, 369–370
house plots, 293–295, 306 species–area relationship, 232–233 estuaries, 201
spatial ecological gradients, 34 suburbs, see suburb first flush, pollution, 173
spatial models wildlife, see wildlife (urban) flashiness, 173, 184, 185
early models, 46, 60 see also biodiversity green roofs and, 311–312
land-use patterns, 38–39 species source, 265, 350 greenspaces and woods, 171
patch–corridor–matrix, see patch- species–area effect, 260–261 impervious surfaces, 171, 172
corridor-matrix model species–area relationship, 232–233, industrial areas, 337, 339, 340–341
random (stochastic), 45 260–261 low-income residential areas, 318
richness, and model types, 45–49 spiders, 112 neighborhood retail center, 332
simple, 45 “spillover effect”, 265 peak flow, 172–173, 382
urban-rural gradient, see urban– spores, dispersal by trains, 278 permeable pavements, 172
rural gradient, as spatial model sprawl, 6, 7, 39, 79, 324 ponds, 178

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stormwater runoff (cont.) suburb, 38, 39, 321 agriculture effects, 346, 347
porous pavements, 172 bird densities, 249, 250, 261–262 air pollution increase, 147
small water collectors, residential bird species richness, 262 increase and global warming,
areas, 172 definition, 7, 321 147–148
swales (drainage ditches), 172, 173, population density, 40 non-urban vs., 136–137
180, 287 songbirds, 252 urban streams, 185
urban streams, 182, 183–184 species richness, vs. in cities, 262 see also cooling; heat
stormwater system suburban area termites, 67, 112, 267
combined with sewage system, changing patterns, 39, 322–324 territory and territoriality, 67, 264
162–163, 166 development forms/types, 322, 323 tides, 76
separate from sewage system, expansion, 321 Tiete River (Sao Paulo), 189
163, 166 gradient from urban, to rural, 41, Tijuana (Mexico), bird species, 260
stream(s), 182–186 77, 262 time scales, 16
bottom of, 184 land patterns, 35–36 change-over-time principles,
channelization, 184, 195 seed dispersal in, 220 16, 75–76
daylighting, 186 small agricultural sites, 344–345 disasters, 76, 234
definition, and headwaters, 183, 206 spatial patterns, 324–327 natural processes, 234
density, 383 suburban residential area, 7, 321–327 outward expansion of urbanization,
extent in USA, 183 inner suburb, 38, 316 235, 322–324
fish, 186 types/forms, 316, 317 plant community structure change,
flooding, see flooding urban areas vs., 325–326 75, 234–236
flows, 151–152, 184, 185 suburbanization, 77, 321 centuries and millennia, 235–236
in storms, 185 succession, see ecological succession decades, 234–235
variations and flashiness, 173, successional habitats, 14, 15, 85 short (hours–seasons), 234
184, 185 Sudgelande Nature Park (Berlin), years, 234
velocity, 184–185, 324, 383 277, 279 range of (long to instantaneous), 75
herbaceous vegetation lining, sulfur dioxide, 144 shipping, bridges, cars, transport,
185–186 surface depression storaged, 382 16, 75
invertebrates, 184, 186 surface energy balance, 131–133 urban changes, 16, 75–76
networks, 365 surfaces wildlife changes, 268–270
nitrogen/phosphorus levels, 185 urban vs. non-urban, effect on centuries, 270
restoration, 186 heat, 136 daily/seasonal, 268
temperature, 185 see also hard surfaces; impervious decades, 269–270
urbanization effect, 87, 324 surfaces years, 268–269
wastewater discharge effect, 167–168 “surroundings”, importance, 53–54 see also ecological succession
water quantity/quality and biology, sustainability, urban, 29, 322 toilets, back-yard outhouse, 302
182–183, 185–186 swales (drainage ditches), 172, 173, 180, Tokyo (Japan), 81, 133
watershed, floodplain and, 182–185 181–182 topographic features, 97
streamline air flow, 65, 127, 140 street, 180, 287 topsoil, 91, 92, 94
isolated buildings effect, 142 swamps, 175, 176 Toronto (Canada), 122–123, 204, 217,
street canyons and, 141 Swindon (UK), 345 244, 333, 366
street(s), 281–282 swine encephalitis, 25 total nitrogen (TN), 164
green walls, 281–282, 309 sycamores (Acer pseudo-platanus), 219 total phosphorus (TP), 164
heat and shade, 281, 282 Sydney (Australia), 81, 84 total suspended solids (TSS), 164, 174
stormwater and, 281 synanthropic plant species, 51 town(s), 63–64
street canyons, 136, 141–142, 281 Syracuse (New York, USA), 259, centers, 333–334
air flows in, 141–142, 327 261, 365 ecology, 63
biodiversity, 282 systems ecology, 68 planning, 63
tree effects, 143 systems models, 46 toxic substances, in water bodies, 167
street dust, 146, 165, 281, 309 traffic calming, 286
street networks, 282–284 tarmac (asphalt) surface, 288 traffic circles, 287
“street swales”, 180, 287 cracks, 288–289 trains, see railways
street trees, see tree(s), street temperature trampling, 239
strip(s), see corridor(s) green roofs, 311 “transit-oriented development”,
strip development, 286 groundwater, 154–155 316, 372
stygobites, 157 inversion, 128, 129, 135 translocation of animals, to new
stygophiles, 157 parks, 351 sites, 265
subcanopy, 230 summer, shade from trees and, transpiration, 132, 150, see also evapo-
subsidence, 152 216–217 transpiration
subsoil, 91 urban air, 126, 135 transportation, 16, 17, 372, 374

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in city centers, 327, 328–329 patterns, in metro area during urban, definition, 6, 41
commuting and time scales for urbanization, 87 urban area(s), xii, 6, 41
change, 16, 75 resistance and resilience, 216 built spaces and greenspaces, 7
harbors and waterfront area, 198 response to urban stresses, 217–218 density, changes with
heat due to, 132 rows of, 227 urbanization, 79
human need for, 36 saplings in shrubby areas, 229, 230 ecological succession, 85
land use change during shade from, 216–217 economics, 18
urbanization, 87 single, arranging, 227 key concepts, 6–8
motor-powered movement, 66 single species in plantations, 229 mosaics, 3, 4
seed dispersal by, 220 in small wooded patches, 228, 229 social interactions, 17
time to neighborhood retail soil ecosystem development, 105 time scale for changes, 75–76
center, 332 species in Chicago, 213–214 varying terms in different
underground networks, 120, 122 species pool, 238 countries, 6
urban ecology principles use, 28 species resistance/assimilation urban attributes, 11–16
see also railways; road(s) variations, 218 urban backbone, 36, 37
transportation corridors, 77 street, 284–285, 287 urban boundary layer (UBL), 128, 135
transportation structures, stormwater benefits, 223 urban canopy layer, 128
runoff, 172 bird species and, 285 “urban chemical flows”, 68
travel time, city size and, 5 city centers, 330 urban cliff hypothesis, 331
tree(s), 125, 222–229 cooling by, 139, 284 urban ecology, 3
adjacency effect, 238–239 mortality, 226 books on, 10
around airports, 360 pollution affecting growth, breadth of field and uses, 4
assimilation/uptake, 217, 218 284–285 concept, 2–4, 6, 12
avoidance from dump sites, 358 relative to city population size, as contrasting concepts, 3
benefits in cities, 223, 225 208–209 ecology ‘in’ vs. ‘of ’ cities, 10
cooling, 139, 284 species related to NO2 levels, 284 history of, 4–11
Kano (Nigeria), 225 in street canyons, air flow, 143 cities and, 4–8
bird use in cities, 248, 285 urban-to-rural gradient, 226 current phase, 9–11
canopy, 227, 230, 257 vertical stratification, 230–231 early phases, 9
cover, 8, 30 birds and, 251, 257–258, 285 key areas to focus on, 11
in USA and Europe, 238 volatile organic compound major subjects, reflection on and
density, in small wooded emission, 218 future prospects, 371–377
patches, 228 wide wooded corridors, 228 principles, for society’s
diseases and pests, 219 see also forest(s) (urban areas); solutions, 26–30
distribution and arrangement, plant(s) (urban); woodland research areas and centers, 10, 11
225–229 tree swallow (Passer montanus), 251 for society’s solutions, 26–30,
arrangement, 226–229 tropical cities, wildlife and vegetation 376–377
environmental disasters layers, 258–259 for big solutions, 29–30
affecting, 226 trucks, 285–286 use in key disciplines/
time-related changes (years), 226 tsunami, 202 professions, 28–29
ecological roles, 222–225 turbulent air flow, 65, 127, 140 “urban energy flows”, 68
major roles, 223–224 turnover rate, 268–269 urban environment, cultural/regional
minimal roles, 224 aspects, 26, 27
minor roles, 224 UK, house plot biodiversity and “urban forest”, concept, 354
ecological succession, 226 coverage, 297, 373 urban form, 36, 62
in front/back outdoor spaces (house underground (urban), 119–124 urban form models, 48–49
plots), 297–299 in city centers, 329–330 urban greenspace system,
generalists, vs. specialist species, 229 network flows and forms, see greenspace system,
habitat diversity (Taiwan), 207 see network flows integrated
herbivores, 219 organisms and habitats, 121–122 urban growth boundary, 48, 363
house plots, 297–299, 303 rodents, 245 urban hierarchy, 33
isolated, urban air flow, 142–143 structures, see underground human urban metabolism, 68
land use affecting species, 226 structures urban objects of ecology study,
large wooded patches, 228–229, 239 underground human structures, 93, 3, 12–16
leaf area index, 217 116–117, 119–121 urban regions, 3, 56, 58–64
minimizing at airports, 360 layering/vertical distribution, agricultural land around metro
narrow wooded corridors, 227–228 120–121 area, 60
non-native species, 214, 229, 235 networks, 120 boundary, flows across, 62–63
PAHs assimilation, 218 types, 119–120 criteria for mapping/boundaries, 59
in parks, 348–349, 350 understory layer, 230 definition, 6, 7, 59

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urban regions (cont.) water and mineral nutrient flows, 83, planted, in urban greenspace,
as ecological mosaic, metro area and, 84, 323 209, 210
51, 56, 60–63 urban-region rings, 61–62, 261–262 ponds, 178
examples, 60 urban–rural gradient, 10, 40, 42, railways and, 277–278
inner ring, natural land, 61–62 48, 262 removal, flooding associated, 194
planning, see planning, urban/city challenges and end points, 43 riparian, see riparian vegetation
and regional characteristics measured, 42–43 songbirds and, 251
population density, 60 as spatial model, 38–43 stability, 234
regions surrounding, 60 city, suburb, peri-urb, farmland and succession, see ecological succession
spatial features, positive/negative natural land, 38–41 types, 205–207
effects, 62 ecological gradients, 41–43 urban areas, 84–86
“urban revolution”, urban–suburban–rural gradient, 41, increase, to ameliorate heat in
urban sprawl, see sprawl 77, 262 cities, 139
urban sustainability, 29, 322 urban-to-rural concept, 40, 41 on urban soil, 93, 105–108
urbanization, 2, 4, 6, 76–83, 372 urine, 169 ecosystem development, 105
air changes, 83–84 dog, 20, 21, 217 wetlands, 175
China’s Changjiang Region, 84 USA vehicles, 30, 285–286
definition, 7, 76, 321 air pollution from traffic, 146 types, 285–286
ecological change rates, bird mortality due to vertical built Venice (Italy), 152, 268
see ecological change, rates/ structures, 256 ventilation
trajectories cities and population size, 5 airport-surrounding areas, 361
ecological phases, 322–324 “food shed” and urban cities, 127–128, 139
altered wildlife pattern agriculture, 348 ground level, burrows, 142–143
phase, 322 golf courses, 355 vertebrates (urban), 241
metapopulation, disrupted water greenway systems, 366 diversity/abundance in large
phase, 322–324 tree cover, 238 greenspaces, 353
scattered habitat phase, 324 urban streams, 183 invertebrates as food source, 255
edge model, 82, 83 pests, 24
habitat loss/degradation and vacant lot ecosystem, 85 species richness, habitat fragments
fragmentation, 88–90, 322, vacant lots, 358–359 and, 261
324, 348 building on (infill), 359 underground, 121–122
history of concept, 8 plant diversity, 359, 360 in urban soil, 111
house plot sizes and, 324 valley bottom, 98 vertical gradient, 12
internal changes, 79–81 vectors, 66, 67 vertical pattern, 31–32
“jaws-and-chunks” model, 82, 83 vegetable gardens, 86, 299–300, 344 plants, see vegetation, layers
land use changes, 86–88 vegetables, growing, 345 soil, see soil (urban)
broad scale, 87–88 vegetation, 205–240 Vienna (Austria), 157, 281
natural land, 90 along rivers/streams, see riparian villages, city development, human
outward expansion, 7, 76–77, 82, vegetation needs, 36, 212, 371–372
322, 371–372 backline strip, 294, 295 vines, 230, 303, 308, 309, 330
distribution limits for species, 86 change during urbanization, violets, genetic variation, 221
highway bypass, effects, 88 81, 84–86 vireo, spatial habitat patterns, 260, 266
internal change affecting/affected changes after city abandoned, 268 viruses, in urban soil, 109
by, 80–81 in city centers, 327 visibles, in urban ecology, 1, 2
patterns and time scale, 235, classification, 206 volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
322–324 grouping-by-mechanism, 144, 146, 218, 287
spatial sequence models, 82, 83 206–207 volcano, 76
outward expansion models, 77–79, by origin, 206, 207 vortex air flow, 65, 140, 141
235, 324, 376 coastal, time scale of changes, 235
combination of models, 78 disturbed along roadsides, 285 Waitakere City (New Zealand), 366
environmental effects, 78 dynamics, see ecological succession walking, in city centers, 327, 328
planning and optimal environmental gradients and, 41, 42 walking routes, 286
expansion, 82–83 in greenspaces and corridors, 81, 342 walkways, 288
soil degradation, 83 herbaceous, along urban streams/ wall(s)
spatial patterns, 76–83 ditches, 185–186 cracks, 289–290
spatial scales and, 75 “human-molded”, development garden, 304–306
succession and species sequence, 86 green, see green walls
change, 85–86 layers/vertical structure, 230–231 wall plants, 304, 307–308, 309
transformation patterns, 81 birds and, 251, 257–258, 285 ecological functions/benefits, 309
vegetation change, 81, 84–86 wildlife and, 251, 255, 257–259 heights and wildlife values, 307, 308

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pollution reduction, 309 see also water, drinking waterbirds, 250

species, source and locations, content of urban air, 126–127 wetlands and ponds, see pond(s);
307–308, 309 drainage, soil types, 92 wetland(s)
see also green walls drinking, 154 water budget, 382
warehouse truck distribution center, contamination, 25 water cycle, 150–151
336, 337 groundwater, 151, 157, 158 key characteristics, 151
wars, 375 reuse, 160 water flows (urban), 14–15, 66,
Warsaw (Poland), wildlife, 259 sources, 157 150–151
Washington, D.C. (USA), 96, 365, 368 surface-water supply, 157 groundwater, 151–153
waste erosion of soils, 97, 98–99, 118, house plots, 303–304
city centers, 328, 330 157–158 non-urban vs. urban flows, 149
industrial, 153, 189, 338 groundwater, see groundwater rivers, 187–189
plant growth inhibition by, 216 for growing food, 346 stormwater, 170–173
waste site, groundwater pollution, 154 human need for, 16–17, 36 peak flow, 172–173, 193–194
wasteland, 207, 221 infiltration into soil, 103, 150, 185 stream, to groundwater, 151–152
wastewater, 150, 160–169 inter-basin/inter-regional transfers, streams, 151–152, 183, 184
aquaculture for food, 165–166 158–159 water pipes, 159, 160
commercial, 162 for lawns, 301–302 leaks, ecological effects, 159, 160
discharge, effects on water bodies, potable-water reuse, 160 water pollution, 19
165, 166–168 quantity/quality airports, 360
anaerobic conditions, 167 cities, 159 dog waste and, 21
estuaries, 201 urban rivers and, 188 groundwater, 153–154
microorganisms, 167, 168 urban streams and, 182–183, stormwater, see under water bodies
nutrient excess and algal 185–186 (urban/local)
blooms, 167 recycling, 160, 165 stormwater runoff and, 173–174
sediment excess, 167 runoff, house plots, 303–304 strategies for, 374
toxic substances, 167 “surface runoff ”, 150 water resource management, 28
groundwater pollution, 153 surface-water supply, 157 water systems, 149–174, 373–374
industrial, 162 trees’ ecological roles, 223, 224 tightening, future prospects,
in low-income residential areas, 318 underground networks, 120, 373–374
partially treated, in rivers, 189 121, 122 urban vs. non-urban, 149
public health issues, 24–25 urbanization effects, 83, 84 water tanks, 159
reused, for potable water, 160, 165 uses (household), 162 waterbirds, 247, 250–251
septic systems, 168 volume (average) used per habitat types, 250
sewage, see sewage household, 159–160 ponds on golf courses, 355
treatment waste, see wastewater water depth/salinity effect, 250
failure in septic systems, 169 water bodies (urban/local), 175–204 water-borne diseases, 168
natural systems, 165 constructed basins, ponds, wetlands, waterfront, city, 198, 204
partial, sludge from, 118 see constructed basins; pond(s); water-related changes, urbanization,
in water bodies, 167, 181 wetland(s) 322–324
treatment facilities, 162, 163–165 “not swimmable or fishable”, 168, water-related diseases, 168
types, 160, 162 189–190 water-related public health issues,
wastewater systems, 160–166 in parks, 350 24–25, 318
pipe systems, 160–163 pollution by wastewater water-related structures, in house plots,
water, 204 discharges, 166 303–304
absorption by roots, 106 rivers. see river(s) (urban) watershed, urban streams, 182–185
agriculture (urban) effect, 346 stormwater pollution, 173–174, 182 water-supply pipes/mains,
aquifer, uses, 151 constructed basins, 180, 181–182 see water pipes
capillary, 106 estuaries, 201 water-table, 151
city centers and, 327 lakes and reservoirs, 203 above/below, wastewater leakage
clean, supply (urban regions), 18, processes to reduce effects, 174 from pipes, 162
150, 157–160 quantity/quality effects, 174 groundwater pumping reducing,
aqueducts (Roman), 158 rivers, 189–190 152, 153, 196
infrastructure to provide, 159 streams, 182–183 land subsidence and, 152
low-income areas, 318 streams, see stream(s) rise in, 152–153, 196
stormwater pollutants effect, 174 toxic substances in, 167 urban streams and, 185
supply problems in cities, 159 urban ecology solutions, 30 water-treatment facilities, 159
transport of supplies, 158–159 wastewater discharge effects, weathering of rocks, 98, 99
from urban rivers, 190 see under wastewater weeds, 212, 296, 299, 346
users and usage, 158, 162 wastewater treatment/clean-up, 167 wells, 158, 304

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wetland(s), 18, 149, 175–177 ecological network, 366 wind, 140–141

bioretention, 180 facilitator/inhibitor patterns, 266 seed dispersal, 220
characteristics, 175–176, 177 road networks and, 284 soil erosion, 97, 98–99, 118
coastal, 175, 176, 177, 200 species sources and adjacencies, streamline, see streamline air flow
constructed, on golf course, 355 265–266 in street canyons, 141–142
freshwater tidal, 176 stepping stones, 266–268 ventilation of cities and, 127, 128
functions, 176–177 into urban areas, factors windbreaks, 140–141, 227
greenspaces and corridors, 342 affecting, 369 distance between, and location,
groundwater, 176 urban patterns, 265–268 141, 142
habitat heterogeneity, 177 see also animal movements; height and porosity, 140–141, 142
house plots, 303 bird(s) (urban) windspeed, 140, 142, 382
lagoons and estuaries, 199 native species, 243–244 wood fiber, 36
microorganisms, 176 loss, time since isolation in woodchucks (Marmota), 246
riparian, 176 greenspaces, 242–243 wooded corridors, 342
surficial, 175 natural areas/land, 265 narrow, 227–228
waterbirds, 250 needs/requirements, 241–242 wide, 228
wetland boundary, 175 non-native species, 265 woodland, 352–354
wild pigs, 244–245 in parks, 350–351 area, predictive of bird diversity, 249
wildfires, 353–354 pests, 265 in cities, 208–209
“wildland”, 52 population reduction by roads, 280 conversion to built land, floods
wildlife (urban), 241–273 protected species, 260 and, 194
avoidance behaviors to dogs, 19–20 public health issues associated, 25 ecological succession, 85, 237
changes and adaptations, 156–157, railways and, 277, 278, 279 foliage layers (2, 3, or 4), 231
268–273 noise and vibration effects, 276, 277 four-layer, 231
genetic adaptations, 270–273 spatial habitat patterns, 259–263 two-layer, 231
multi-scale changes, succession, animals of specific habitats, for forestry, 354
268–270 262–263 in greenspaces and corridors, 342
population density, 269 city, suburb, peri-urb, urban- herbivory distribution, 219
time scales, see time scales region ring, 261–262 large wooded patches, 228–229, 239
changing to new habitat, 20, 156–157 greenspace patch size, 260 layers/strata, 208, 230–231
city centers, 330 habitat fragments, 260–261 mixed-origin, Berlin, 215
commercial strips, crossing, 334 rare species, 259–260 regenerated, 231
cover for, 241–242 species richness, 259–260 seed dispersal, 220
disease risk from dogs, 21 species richness, 242, 243, 259–260 semi-natural areas, 352
dog walking impact, 20 mixed-use land, 268 small wooded patches, 228, 229, 266
ecological succession, 268–270 species source, and adjacencies, stormwater runoff, 171
feeding, 264 265–266 strips, wide wooded corridors, 228
garbage as food source, 264 species types, 242–255, see also forest(s) (urban areas);
geographic range of species, 265 see also individual species and tree(s)
habitat heterogeneity and, 259, animal groups Woodlands, The (Texas), 63
see also wildlife (urban), spatial streets, 282 woody plants
habitat patterns suburban, 39 bird feeding, 303, 304
home range, 264 territories, 264 ecological succession in cracks, 291
house plots, 295–297 traffic noise effects, 280 house plots, 303, 304, 305
mortality urban ecology solutions, 30 Wye Valley (UK), cliffs and
railways, 278 vegetation layers, 251, 255, 257–259 succession, 355
road kill, 245, 246, 280, 286 vertical built structures, 255,
movement, 264–268 256–257 xeroscaping, 292
airports and, 360 as habitats, 256
along corridors, 240, 265, 363, as hazards, 256 yard waste, 118, 300, 302
366, 367 see also animal(s) yards, 292
altered patterns, urbanization wildlife underpasses/overpasses,
phase, 322 280, 286 zones of influence model, 46
distance, 367 Wilmington (Delaware, USA), 90, 352 zoonotic diseases, 25

464