WHAT CREATES AERODYNAMIC FORCES?
• Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow comes from only two sources
• Pressure, p, distribution on surface
– Acts normal to surface
• Shear stress, w, (friction) on surface
– Acts tangentially to surface
• Pressure and shear are in units of force per unit area (N/m2)
• Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic force
“No matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the shape of
the body, the only way nature has of communicating an aerodynamic force to a
solid object or surface is through the pressure and shear stress distributions that
exist on the surface.”
“The pressure and shear stress distributions are the two hands of nature that reach
out and grab the body, exerting a force on the body – the aerodynamic force”
RESOLVING THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE
• Relative Wind: Direction of V∞
– We used subscript ∞ to indicate far upstream conditions
• Angle of Attack, Angle between relative wind (V∞) and chord line
• Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved into two force components
• Lift, L: Component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to relative wind
• Drag, D: Component of aerodynamic force parallel to relative wind
RESOLVING THE AERODYNAMIC FORCE
• Aerodynamic force, R, may also be resolved into components perpendicular and
parallel to chord line
– Normal Force, N: Perpendicular to chord line
– Axial Force, A: Parallel to chord line
• L and D are easily related to N and A
• For airfoils and wings, L and D most common
• For rockets, missiles, bullets, etc. N and A more useful
L = N cos − A sin
D = N sin + A cos
HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
• Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom surfaces of
airfoil (or wing)
– If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated
– Why is pressure lower on top surface?
• We can understand answer from basic physics:
– Continuity (Mass Conservation)
– Newton’s 2nd law (Euler or Bernoulli Equation)
Lift = PA
HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
1. Flow velocity over top of airfoil is faster than over bottom surface
– Streamtube A senses upper portion of airfoil as an obstruction
– Streamtube A is squashed to smaller cross-sectional area
– Mass continuity AV=constant: IF A↓ THEN V↑
Streamtube A is squashed
most in nose region
(ahead of maximum thickness)
A
B
HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
2. As V ↑ p↓
1
– Incompressible: Bernoulli’s Equation p + V 2 = constant
2
– Compressible: Euler’s Equation
dp = − VdV
– Called Bernoulli Effect
3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom surface,
airfoil feels a net force in upward direction → Lift
Most of lift is produced
in first 20-30% of wing
(just downstream of leading edge)
Can you express these ideas in your own words?
EVEN A FLAT PLATE WILL GENERATE LIFT
• Curved surface of an airfoil is not necessary to produce lift