BP 206 T.

Environmental Sciences (Theory)

Unit-2

Ecosystems

 Concept of an ecosystem.
 Structure and function of an ecosystem.
 Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the ecosystems:
Forest ecosystem; Grassland ecosystem; Desert ecosystem; Aquatic ecosystems (ponds,
streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)

Ecosystem:

🔍 Definition

 An ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with

their physical environment. It's a self-sustaining unit of nature where energy flows and
nutrients cycle.
 An ecosystem is a natural unit where living organisms interact with each other and with
the non-living parts of their environment (like air, water, and soil) in a balanced way.
 It includes everything — plants, animals, microorganisms, and physical elements —
all working together in a system where energy flows and nutrients cycle.

🧩 Main Components of an Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components (Living parts)

These include all living organisms in an ecosystem:

 Producers (Autotrophs):
o Make their own food using sunlight (via photosynthesis).
o Example: Plants, algae, phytoplankton.
 Consumers (Heterotrophs):
o Primary Consumers: Herbivores (e.g., deer, grasshopper)
o Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that eat herbivores (e.g., snakes, foxes)
o Tertiary Consumers: Top predators (e.g., lions, eagles)
o Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans, bears)
 Decomposers and Detritivores:
o Break down dead material, recycle nutrients.
 o Examples: Bacteria, fungi, earthworms

2. Abiotic Components (Non-living parts)

 Sunlight – energy source

 Temperature – affects metabolic rates
 Water – essential for all life
 Soil – provides nutrients to plants
 Air – oxygen and carbon dioxide for respiration and photosynthesis
 Minerals – support plant and animal life

🔄 Ecosystem Processes

A. Energy Flow

 Energy flows one way: Sun → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers.

 Energy is lost as heat at each step (trophic level).

B. Nutrient Cycling

 Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, water, and phosphorus cycle between organisms and
the environment.

🏞Types of Ecosystems

1. Natural Ecosystems

 Terrestrial Ecosystems: Forests, grasslands, deserts, tundras

 Aquatic Ecosystems:
o Freshwater: Rivers, lakes, ponds
o Marine: Oceans, coral reefs, estuaries

2. Artificial Ecosystems

 Man-made environments like:

o Farms
o Aquariums
o Urban parks
🧠 Ecosystem Examples

🌳 Rainforest Ecosystem

 High biodiversity
 Lots of rainfall, tall trees
 Producers: Large trees
 Consumers: Monkeys, jaguars, insects
 Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria

🐠 Coral Reef Ecosystem

 Found in warm, shallow oceans

 Producers: Algae in corals
 Consumers: Fish, sea turtles
 High sensitivity to pollution and temperature change
⚠Human Impact on Ecosystems

 Deforestation
 Pollution (air, water, soil)
 Climate Change
 Overfishing and hunting
 Urbanization

These actions can cause biodiversity loss, climate imbalance, and ecosystem collapse.

✅ Why Ecosystems Matter

 Provide oxygen, clean water, food, medicine

 Regulate climate and disease
 Support pollination, decomposition, and soil fertility

Structure and Function of an Ecosystem

1. Structure of an Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem refers to how it is organized—the different components and

their physical arrangement. It includes:

A. Biotic Components (Living things):

1. Producers (Autotrophs)
o Green plants, algae
o Convert solar energy into food (photosynthesis)
2. Consumers (Heterotrophs)
o Primary Consumers: Herbivores (e.g., deer, rabbit)
 Secondary Consumers: Carnivores (e.g., snake)
o
Tertiary Consumers: Top predators (e.g., tiger, eagle)
o
Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans)
o
3. Decomposers (Saprotrophs)
o Bacteria, fungi
o Break down dead organisms, return nutrients to the soil

B. Abiotic Components (Non-living things):

 Sunlight
 Temperature
 Water
 Air (oxygen, carbon dioxide)
 Soil and minerals
 Climate

These components are interconnected — changes in one can affect the whole ecosystem.

2. Function of an Ecosystem

The function of an ecosystem refers to the natural processes and interactions that allow it to
operate smoothly and sustainably.

A. Energy Flow

 Energy flows one-way through the ecosystem:

o Sun → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers
 At each level, energy is lost as heat.

B. Nutrient Cycling (Biogeochemical Cycles)

 Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and water are recycled through the environment and
organisms.
 These cycles help maintain ecosystem balance.

C. Ecological Productivity

 Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): Total energy captured by producers.

 Net Primary Productivity (NPP): Energy left after plants use some for their own needs
(available to consumers).

D. Decomposition

 Decomposers break down dead material, releasing nutrients back into the environment.
  Essential for soil health and new plant growth.

E. Regulation and Stability

 Ecosystems help regulate climate, disease, and water purification.

 A balanced ecosystem is resilient to changes.

✅ Summary

Structure Function

 Biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)

Energy flow and nutrient cycling
parts

Supports life, maintains ecological

 Producers, consumers, decomposers
balance

 Soil, water, sunlight, air Decomposition and self-regulation

 Forest Ecosystem

1. Introduction

A forest ecosystem is a community of living organisms, including trees, plants, animals, and
microorganisms, interacting with their physical environment in a forest area.

Forests cover a large part of the Earth's land and play a critical role in maintaining ecological
balance by producing oxygen, storing carbon, and providing habitat to a vast diversity of life.

2. Types of Forest Ecosystems

 Tropical Rainforest
o Found near the equator
o Hot and humid climate
o High rainfall (over 200 cm/year)
o Very high biodiversity

 Temperate Forest
o Found in temperate regions
o Moderate climate with distinct seasons
o Moderate rainfall (75–150 cm/year)
o Mixed deciduous and coniferous trees
  Boreal Forest (Taiga)
o Located in subarctic regions
o Cold climate with long winters
o Dominated by coniferous trees like pine, spruce
o Lower biodiversity compared to tropical forests

3. Characteristic Features

 Dense growth of trees forming different layers: canopy, understory, and forest floor.
 High biodiversity, especially in tropical forests.
 Significant carbon storage and oxygen production.
 Presence of various animal species adapted to forest habitats.
 Complex food chains/webs.
 Soil rich in organic matter from decaying leaves and plants.
4. Structure of a Forest Ecosystem

Layer Description

Emergent Layer Tallest trees rising above the canopy (mainly in tropical forests)

Canopy Dense layer of trees that captures most sunlight

Understory Smaller trees and shrubs growing beneath the canopy

Forest Floor Ground layer with decomposers, seedlings, leaf litter

o Components:

 Biotic
o Producers: Trees, shrubs, grasses, mosses
o Consumers: Herbivores (deer, insects), carnivores (wolves, birds), omnivores
o Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, earthworms
 Abiotic
o Sunlight, soil, air, water, temperature, minerals

5. Functions of Forest Ecosystems

  Oxygen Production: Trees produce oxygen through photosynthesis.
 Carbon Storage: Forests absorb and store large amounts of carbon dioxide, helping
mitigate climate change.
 Habitat: Support millions of plant and animal species.
 Water Cycle Regulation: Influence local and global rainfall patterns through
transpiration.
 Soil Protection: Roots prevent soil erosion; leaf litter enriches soil fertility.
 Source of Resources: Timber, medicine, food, and raw materials for humans.

Aspect Details

Types Tropical, Temperate, Boreal

Climate Varies: hot/humid (tropical), moderate (temperate), cold (boreal)

Vegetation Trees dominate, with shrubs and herbs

Animals Diverse species adapted to different layers

Structure Emergent, canopy, understory, forest floor layers

Function Oxygen & carbon cycling, habitat, water regulation, soil protection

Grassland Ecosystem

1. Introduction

A grassland ecosystem is a large open area dominated primarily by grasses rather than large
trees or shrubs. Grasslands support a wide variety of animals and plants adapted to moderate
rainfall and seasonal droughts. They play a vital role in soil conservation and are important
grazing lands for herbivores.

2. Types of Grassland Ecosystems

 Tropical Grasslands (Savannas)

 o Located near the equator (e.g., African savannas)
o Warm climate with seasonal rainfall
o Scattered trees and shrubs among grasses

 Temperate Grasslands
o Found in temperate regions (e.g., North American prairies, Eurasian steppes)
o Experience cold winters and warm summers
o Mostly grasses, very few trees

3. Characteristic Features

 Dominated by grasses, with very few trees or large shrubs.

 Moderate rainfall, usually between 25-75 cm annually.
 Fertile soil rich in organic matter.
 Distinct seasons, often including drought and fire periods which help maintain grass
dominance.
 Support large populations of grazing herbivores and their predators.
 Typically open landscapes with rolling plains or plateaus.
4. Structure of Grassland Ecosystem

Component Description

Producers Grasses (e.g., buffalo grass, blue grama), herbs

Primary Consumers Herbivores like bison, zebras, antelope, rabbits

Secondary Consumers Carnivores such as wolves, lions, foxes

Decomposers Fungi, bacteria, earthworms

Abiotic Factors Soil, water, sunlight, temperature, wind

 Grass roots are extensive and help prevent soil erosion.

 The lack of dense trees allows sunlight to reach the ground directly.

5. Functions of Grassland Ecosystem

 Soil Conservation: Deep roots bind the soil and prevent erosion.
 Support Herbivores: Provide grazing grounds for large herbivores, important in food
chains.
 Nutrient Cycling: Decomposers break down dead matter returning nutrients to soil.
 Carbon Storage: Grasses capture carbon dioxide, contributing to carbon cycling.
 Fire Adaptation: Periodic fires maintain grass dominance by removing woody plants.
 Economic Importance: Grazing for livestock, agriculture, and wildlife habitat.

Aspect Details

Types Tropical (Savanna), Temperate Grasslands

Climate Moderate rainfall, seasonal drought

Vegetation Grasses, few scattered shrubs

Animals Grazing herbivores (bison, antelope), carnivores (wolves, lions)

Abiotic Factors Soil, sunlight, water, temperature

Functions Soil protection, support grazing animals, nutrient cycling

 Desert Ecosystem

1. Introduction

A desert ecosystem is an arid region characterized by very low rainfall (less than 25 cm per
year), extreme temperatures, and sparse vegetation. Despite harsh conditions, deserts support
specially adapted plants and animals that survive with minimal water.

2. Types of Desert Ecosystems

 Hot and Dry Deserts

o Examples: Sahara (Africa), Thar (India/Pakistan), Sonoran (USA/Mexico)
o Very high daytime temperatures, cool nights
o Very sparse vegetation

 Cold Deserts
o Examples: Gobi Desert (Asia), Antarctica
o Low precipitation, cold temperatures especially in winter
o Sparse vegetation mainly consisting of hardy shrubs and grasses
3. Characteristic Features

 Very low and unpredictable rainfall.

 Extreme temperature variations hot days and cold nights.
 Sparse vegetation adapted to conserve water (xerophytes).
 Soil is sandy or rocky with low organic content.
 Animals are often nocturnal to avoid daytime heat.
 Wind erosion shapes the landscape with sand dunes and rocky outcrops.

4. Structure of Desert Ecosystem

Component Description

Producers Xerophytic plants like cacti, succulents, thorny bushes

Primary Consumers Herbivores such as camels, rodents, insects

Secondary Consumers Carnivores like snakes, foxes, scorpions

Decomposers Bacteria, fungi, and insects that break down organic matter

Abiotic Factors Sand, rocks, very little water, intense sunlight, temperature extremes

 Vegetation is sparse and patchy.

 Animals have adaptations to minimize water loss and survive heat.

5. Functions of Desert Ecosystem

  Water Conservation: Plants and animals have adaptations to store and conserve water.
 Soil Formation and Stabilization: Sparse vegetation helps reduce soil erosion by wind.
 Nutrient Cycling: Though slow due to low biomass, decomposers recycle nutrients.
 Habitat: Supports unique biodiversity adapted to arid conditions.
 Energy Flow: Sunlight powers photosynthesis in hardy plants, supporting food chains.

Aspect Details

Types Hot & Dry, Cold Deserts

Climate Very low rainfall, extreme temperature variations

Vegetation Xerophytes: cacti, succulents, thorny bushes

Animals Nocturnal, adapted to water scarcity (camels, lizards)

Abiotic Factors Sandy/rocky soil, intense sunlight, scarce water

Functions Water conservation, soil stabilization, nutrient cycling

Aquatic Ecosystems

1. Introduction

An aquatic ecosystem is a water-based environment where plants, animals, and microorganisms

interact with their physical environment. These ecosystems cover about 75% of the Earth’s
surface and are vital for supporting biodiversity, regulating climate, and providing resources like
food and water.

2. Types of Aquatic Ecosystems

A. Freshwater Ecosystems

 Found in rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, and wetlands.

 Low salt concentration.
 Examples:
o Lentic systems (still water): lakes and ponds.
o Lotic systems (flowing water): rivers and streams.
o Wetlands: areas where water covers the soil or is present near the surface.
B. Marine Ecosystems

 Found in oceans, seas, coral reefs, and estuaries.

 High salt concentration.
 Cover about 70% of Earth’s surface.
 Examples:
o Oceans: the largest aquatic ecosystem.
o Coral reefs: diverse underwater structures formed by coral.
o Estuaries: where freshwater meets saltwater, highly productive.

3. Characteristic Features
Ecosystem Type Features

Ponds Shallow, still water, sunlight reaches bottom, supports rooted plants

Lakes Deeper than ponds, thermal stratification in summer, diverse aquatic life

Streams Fast-flowing, oxygen-rich water, rocky or sandy beds, fewer plants

Rivers Large, flowing water bodies, support diverse fish and plant species

Oceans Saline water, vast biodiversity, distinct zones (intertidal, pelagic, benthic)

Mix of fresh and salt water, nutrient-rich, high productivity, nursery for many
Estuaries
species

4. Structure of Aquatic Ecosystems

Component Description

Producers Phytoplankton, algae, submerged aquatic plants

Consumers Zooplankton, fish, amphibians, aquatic insects

Decomposers Bacteria, fungi

Water (fresh or saline), sunlight, dissolved gases (O₂, CO₂), temperature,

Abiotic Factors
minerals

5. Functions of Aquatic Ecosystems

 Oxygen Production: Phytoplankton produces oxygen through photosynthesis.

 Habitat: Support diverse aquatic life forms, including commercially important fish.
 Nutrient Cycling: Cycling of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus critical for ecosystem
health.
 Water Purification: Natural filtration processes through sedimentation and microbial
action.
 Climate Regulation: Oceans regulate global climate through heat absorption and carbon
storage.
 Food Source: Provide fish and other aquatic resources for human consumption.
Ecosystem Type Key Features Functions

Ponds Small, shallow, still water Habitat for amphibians, plants

Lakes Larger, stratified water layers Biodiversity hotspot

Streams Fast-flowing, oxygen-rich Support specialized aquatic life

Rivers Large flow of freshwater Transportation, nutrient transport

Oceans Vast, saline, zoned ecosystems Climate regulation, biodiversity

Mix of fresh & saltwater, nutrient- Nursery for many species,

Estuaries
rich productivity