DTEL (Department for Technology Enhanced Learning)

The Centre for Technology enabled Teaching & Learning , N Y S S, India

Teaching Innovation - Entrepreneurial - Global 1

 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS &
TELECOMMUNICATION ENGG.

VII-SEMESTER
ET2432: Biomedical Instrumentation

Unit No.3
Measuring Instrumentation

2
 UNIT-3:- Measuring Instrumentation
1 Blood pressure measurement

2 Heart sound measurement oximetry

3 Pulse Oximeter

4 Electromagnetic Blood Flowmeter

Ultrasonic Blood Flowmeters

5

6 Coulters Counters

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 UNIT-3 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

1 Understand Functioning of BP measuring Instrument

2 Understand Functioning of Oximeters

3 Understand Functioning of Flowmeters

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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Blood pressure (BP) is a measure of the force that the circulating blood exerts
against the arterial wall.
Blood pressure is the most often measured and the most
intensively studied parameter in medical and physiological practice.
SYSTOLIC PRESSURE
Systolic pressure is the maximum pressure exerted by the
blood against the arterial walls. It results when the ventricles contract (systole )
DIASTOLIC PRESSURE
Diastolic Pressure is the lowest pressure in the artery. It result when the ventricles
are relaxed (diastole )
Blood pressure Systolic BP (mmHg) Diastolic BP (mmHg)
<120 <80 Optimal
<130 <85 Normal
130-139 85-89 High normal
Hypertension
140-159 90-99 Grade 1 (mild)
160-179 100-109 Grade 2 (moderate)
>180 >110 Grade 3 (severe)
Isolated systolic hypertension
140-159 <90 Grade 1 5
>160 <90 Grade 2
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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Devices

Aneroid. Mercury. Electronic.

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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Blood is pumped by the left side of the heart into the aorta, which supplies it to
the arterial circuit.
it loses most of its pressure in the arterioles and precapillaries, and returns to the
heart at a low pressure via highly distensible veins.
The right side of the heart pumps it to the pulmonary circuit, which operates at a
lower pressure.
The heart supplies blood to both circuits as simultaneous intermittent flow pulses
of variable rate and volume.
The maximum pressure reached during
cardiac ejection is called systolic pressure
and the minimum pressure occurring at the
end of a ventricular relaxation is termed as
diastolic pressure.
The mean arterial pressure over one
cardiac cycle is approximated by adding
one-third of the pulse pressure (difference
between systolic and diastolic values) to
the diastolic pressure.
All blood pressure measurements are
made with reference to the atmospheric 7
pressure.
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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The most frequently monitored pressures, which have clinical usefulness in medium
and long term patient monitoring, are the arterial pressure and the venous pressure.
There are two basic methods for measuring blood pressure—direct and indirect.
1. The direct method of pressure measurement
The direct method of pressure measurement is used when the highest degree of
absolute accuracy, dynamic response and continuous monitoring is required.
For direct measurement, a catheter or a needle type probe is inserted through a vein
or artery to the area of interest.
Two types of probes can be used.
One type is the catheter tip probe in which the sensor is mounted on the tip of the
probe and the pressures exerted on it are converted to the proportional electrical
signals.
The other is the fluid-filled catheter type, which transmits the pressure exerted on
its fluid-filled column to an external transducer.
This transducer converts the exerted pressure to electrical signals.
The electrical signals can then be amplified and displayed or recorded.
Catheter tip probes provide the maximum dynamic response and avoid acceleration
artifacts whereas the fluid-filled catheter type systems require careful adjustment of
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the catheter dimensions to obtain an optimum dynamic response.
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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Before inserting the catheters into the blood vessel it is important that the fluid-filled
system should be thoroughly flushed.
In practice a steady flow of sterile saline is passed through the catheter to prevent
blood clotting in it.
Figure shows a simplified circuit diagram commonly used for processing the
electrical signals received from the pressure transducer for the measurement of
arterial pressure.
The transducer is excited with a 5 V dc excitation.
The electrical signals corresponding to the arterial pressure are amplified.
The modern preamplifier for processing pressure signals are of the isolated type
and therefore comprise of floating and grounded circuits similar to ECG amplifiers.

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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The input stage is a differential circuit, which amplifies pressure change, which is
sensed in the patient connected circuit.
The gain of the amplifier can be adjusted depending upon the sensitivity of the
transducer.
After RF filtering, the signal is transformer-coupled to a synchronized demodulator
for removing the carrier frequency from the pressure signal.
For the measurement of systolic pressure, a conventional peak reading type
voltmeter is used.
When a positive going pressure pulse appears at A, diode D3 conducts and
charges C3 to the peak value of the input signal, which corresponds to the systolic
value.
Time constant R3C3 is chosen in such a
way that it gives a steady output to the
indicating meter.

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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The value of diastolic pressure is derived in an indirect way.
A clamping circuit consisting of C1 and D1 is used to develop a voltage equal to the
peak-to-peak value of the pulse pressure.
This voltage appears across R1. Diode D2 would then conduct and charge
capacitor C2 to the peak value of the pulse signal.
The diastolic pressure is indicated by a second meter M2 which shows the
difference between the peak systolic minus the peak-to-peak pulse pressure signal.
The mean arterial pressure can also be read by using a smoothing circuit when
required.

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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Central venous pressure (CVP)
Central venous pressure (CVP) is the blood pressure in the venae cavae, near
the right atrium of the heart.
CVP measurements possible with needle cannulation techniques.
CVP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart
to pump the blood back into the arterial system.
CVP is often a good approximation of right atrial pressure (RAP), although the two
terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the
venae cavae and the right atrium. CVP and RAP can differ when arterial tone is
altered.
This can be graphically depicted as changes in the slope of the venous
return plotted against right atrial pressure (where central venous pressure
increases, but right atrial pressure stays the same; VR = CVP − RAP).
12

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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Central venous pressure (CVP)
CVP has been, and often still is, used as a surrogate for preload, and changes in
CVP in response to infusions of intravenous fluid have been used to predict
volume-responsiveness (i.e. whether more fluid will improve cardiac output).
It is useful in the acute circulatory failure management and in the maintenance of
blood volume in difficult fluid balance problems.
Development of the Swan-Ganz catheter- a balloon tipped, flexible catheter that
can be flow-directed from a peripheral vein into the pulmonary artery, has made
routine clinical monitoring of pulmonary artery pressure possible.
Minute leaks in the stopcocks permit a small quantity of blood to enter the catheter
where it clots The clotting at the catheter tip can be avoided by using the
continuous flush system.
Pressure transducers presently available incorporate a continuous flush
arrangement.
The source of fluid for the flushing system is a plastic bag (600 ml), which is filled
with normal saline and kept at a pressure of 300 mmHg.
Venous pressure measurement can
be made by using a strain gauge
transducer and a similar
electronic signal processing circuitry. 13

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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
2 Indirect Method
The classical method of making an indirect measurement of blood pressure is by
the use of a cuff over the limb containing the artery.
Initially, the pressure in the cuff is raised to a level well above the systolic pressure
so that the flow of blood is completely terminated.
Pressure in the cuff is then released at a particular rate.
When it reaches a level, which is below the systolic pressure, a brief flow occurs.
If the cuff pressure is allowed to fall further, just below the diastolic pressure value,
the flow becomes normal and uninterrupted.
The method given by Korotkoff and based on the sounds produced by flow
changes is the one normally used in the conventional sphygmomanometers.
The sounds first appear when the cuff pressure falls to just below the systolic
pressure.
They are produced by the brief turbulent flow terminated by a sharp collapse of the
vessel and persist as the cuff pressure continues to fall.
The sounds disappear or change in character at just below diastolic pressure
when the flow is no longer interrupted.
These sounds are picked up by using a microphone placed over an artery distal to
the cuff.
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 LECTURE 1:- BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
2 Indirect Method
Types of Automatic BP measurement
A. Automatic BP measuring aperatus using Korotkoff Method
B. Rheographic Method
C. Differential auscultatory technique
D. oscillometric method
E. Ultrasonic Doppler Shift Method

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 LECTURE 2:- OXIMETRY
Oximetry is a procedure for measuring the concentration of oxygen in the blood.
The test is used in the evaluation of various medical conditions that affect the
function of the heart and lung.

This is done using an oximeter, a photoelectric device specially designed for this
purpose.
A reusable probe can be placed on the finger or a single use tape probe is
placed on the earlobe or finger.
The plasma (liquid part of the blood) is a very poor carrier of oxygen.
At the pressures available, only 0.3 ml of oxygen can dissolve in 100 ml of plasma,
which is quite insufficient for the needs of the body.
The red blood cells contain hemoglobin which can combine with a large volume of
Oxygen.
In the lungs saturation level reaches upto 97% then a compound form is called
oxyhaemoglobin.
The actual amount of oxygen with which the hemoglobin combines depends upon
the partial pressure of oxygen. 16

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 LECTURE 2:- OXIMETRY
1. In vitro Oximetry
In this method, the blood is withdrawn from the subject and measurement of
oxygen saturation is made at a later in the laboratory.
For discrete blood samples, a spectrophotometric measurement of oxygen
saturation can be made by either a transmission method or a reflection method.
A. Transmission Oximetry:
Measurement of the degree of oxygen saturation of the blood can be made by
spectrophotometric method.
In spectrophotometry, the concentrations of substances present in solution are
measured by determining the relative light attenuations (absorption).
Applying Beer-Lambart’s model of a light absorbing medium of concentration C and
thickness b, the intensity of transmitted light I is related to the incident light Io, as
follows:
Where, K is known as the extinction coefficient and
varies as a function of the substance and the
wavelength of light.
The quantity KCb is called the absorbance A.

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 LECTURE 2:- OXIMETRY
The spectral transmission characteristics of
oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) and reduced hemoglobin
(Hb) in the visible and infrared regions of the spectrum
are shown in Fig
The best suitable wavelength for the measurement of
oxygen saturation of blood is between 600 and 700 nm
where the difference between the extinction coefficients
of oxidized and reduced blood is the greatest.
The result does not depend only on the extinction
coefficient but also upon the total hemoglobin content
and the thickness of the blood quantity to be found in
the tissues.
The extinction coefficient for hemoglobin and
oxyhaemoglobin, when plotted against wavelength in the
visible and near infrared regions of the spectrum.
It is observed that at 805 nm, the molecular extinction
coefficient for fully saturated and fully reduced blood, are
equal.
This point is vital to the design and principle of operation
of oximeters 18

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 LECTURE 2:- OXIMETRY
Two measurement has been made out of that One is made at a wavelength of 650
nm (red) and the second at 805 nm (infrared).
The red channel provides a signal which is based on amount of oxygen in the
blood and the amount of blood and tissues in the optical path.
The infrared channel signal is independent of oxygen saturation and carries
information on the amount of blood and tissue in the optical path.

B. Reflection Oximetery:
Reflection oximetry is based on the scattering of light by the erythrocytes.
For the light scattered from the unhaemolyzed blood sample, oxygen saturation is
given by:

There is a linear relationship exists between Ir(λ2)/Ir(λ1) and oxygen saturation.

The computed relationship is as follows

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 LECTURE 2:- OXIMETRY
The schematic arrangement of a reflection oximeter is shown in Fig
Light from a tungsten filament lamp (E) is condensed on the plane bottom of a
cylindrical cuvette (F).
The cuvette has a 15 mm internal diameter and contains about 2 ml of whole blood.
A portion of the light scattered by the sample at an angle of about 1350 with respect to
the impinging light is condensed on two matched photoconductors (A and B).
Two interference filters (C and C’) limit the light reaching each cell to a narrow band
centered at λ1 = 650 nm and λ2 = 805 nm, respectively.
The ratio of the resistance of the photocells is
measured by means of a conventional Wheatstone
bridge.
The ratio of the light intensity scattered by the
sample is obtained as the inverse of this ratio.
2. In Vivo Oximetry
In vivo oximetry, the oxygen saturation of blood
while the blood is measure when it flowing through
the vascular system or it may be flowing through a
cuvette directly connected with the circulatory
system by means of a catheter.
The blood in this case is unhaemolyzed. Both 20
techniques, reflection and transmission, are utilized
for in vivo oximetry.
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 LECTURE 2:- PULSE OXIMETR

An oximeter is a device used to transmit radiation at a known wavelength(s)

through blood and to measure the blood oxygen saturation based on the amount of
reflected or scattered radiation.
Pulse oximetry monitoring is considered a standard physiological measurement
and is used by clinicians in everyday situations to estimate arterial oxygen
saturation.
Because an arterial sample of blood is not required to make the measurement, the
pulse oximeter can provide non-invasive real time information.
Pulse oximetry is based on the concept that arterial oxygen saturation
determinations can be made using two wavelengths, provided the measurements
are made on the pulsatile part of the waveform.
The two wavelengths assume that only two absorbers are present; namely
oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) and reduced haemoglobin (Hb).
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 LECTURE 2:- PULSE OXIMETR
These observations, proven by clinical experience, are based on the following:
(i) Light passing through the ear or finger will be absorbed by skin pigments, tissue,
cartilage, bone, arterial blood, venous blood.
(ii) The absorbance are additive and obey the Beer-Lambert law:
A = –log T = log lo/I = e DC
where Io and I are incident and transmitted light intensities, e is the extinction
coefficient, D is the depth of the absorbing layer and C is concentration.
(iii) Most of the absorbance's are fixed and do not change with time.
Even blood in the capillaries and veins under steady state metabolic
circumstances is constant in composition and flow, at least over short periods of
time.
(iv) Only the blood flow in the arteries and arterioles is pulsatile.
By measuring the changing signal we measures the absorbance due to arterial
blood and Also determine arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2).
This is uninfluenced by all the other absorbers which are simply part of the
constant background signal.

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 LECTURE 2:- PULSE OXIMETR
Figure (a) shows a typical finger tip oximeter probe
in use whereas Fig.(b) shows the construction of a
typical pulse oximeter probe.
This has two LEDs (light emitting diodes), one that
transmits infrared light at a wavelength of
approximately 940 nm and the other transmitting
light at approximately 660 nm.
The absorption of these select wavelengths of light
through living tissues is significantly different for
oxygenated haemoglobin (HbO2) and reduced
haemoglobin (Hb).
The absorption of these selected wavelengths of
light passing through living tissue is measured with
a photosensor.
The red and infrared LEDs within the probe are
driven in different ways, depending on the
manufacturer.
Most probes have a single photodetector (PIN-
diode), so the light sources are generally sequenced
on and off. 23

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 LECTURE 2:- PULSE OXIMETR

A typical pulsing scheme of the LEDs is

shown in Fig
To compensate for ambient light during
the time when both LEDs are off, the light
level is measured and then subtracted
from each light channel between cycles.
This minimizes the effects due to ambient
conditions which may vary during
monitoring.
Depending on the make and model of
pulse oximeters, the drive currents of
LEDs, pulse widths, off and on cycles
between pulses and cycle times can all
24
vary..
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 LECTURE 2:- PULSE OXIMETR
Oxygen saturation is estimated from
the ratio (R) of pulse-added red
absorbance at 660 nm to the pulse-
added infrared absorbances at 940
nm.

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 LECTURE 2:- PULSE OXIMETR
The analog signal processing technique used in pulse oximeters.
To simplify the diagram, the circuitry required to drive the LEDs in the sensor are
omitted, and only the analog signal processing blocks between the sensor and the
digital processing circuitry are shown.
The signal from the sensor is a current. The first amplifier stage is a current to
voltage converter.
The voltage signal then goes through the following circuits: amplifiers to further
amplify the signal; noise filters to remove different kinds of interference, a
demultiplexer to separate the interleaved red and infrared signals; bandpass filters
to separate the low frequency (dc) component from the pulsatile, higher frequency
(ac) component; and an analog–digital converter to convert the continuously varying
signal to a digital representation.

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 LECTURE 2:- PULSE OXIMETR
Advantages
The pulse oximeter offers the following advantages:
• It removed the requirement of arterializing blood flow. No heating or rubbing is
necessary. The measurement requires that pulsatile activity should be present,
but the level is not critical.
• Since a change in signal is measured, it is not necessary to store any initial light
intensity values, simplifying operational procedures.
• The instrument can be empirically calibrated. Subject variability (skin
pigmentation, thickness, tissue, sensor location, etc.) has no significant influence
on the measurement.
• True arterial saturation is measured because the pulsatile signal comes from the
arterial blood.

Disadvantages
• Ambient lights have been shown to interfere with the measurement. Therefore,
covering the cuff with an opaque material is necessary to prevent such
interference.
• Motion artifact is also a potential problem. This is because the information
containing pulse activity is in the same frequency range as motion artifact.
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 LECTURE 3:- ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
With this type of instrument, blood flow can be measured in intact blood vessels
without cannulation and under conditions
As the fluid passes, an emf, is produced which is proportional to the velocity of
flow. According to Faraday’s law.
e = BLV
where, B = flux density in tesla
L = length of conductor ( diameter of Vessel)
V = Velocity of fluid
e = emf generated.
In the flowmeter, an electromagnetic assembly provides the magnetic field placed at right
angles to the blood vessel

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 LECTURE 3:- ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
The Volumetric flow rate Q through a tube is given by
Q =VA
therefore,
V = Q/A
Where, A is the area of cross-section of the tube,
e = C1 \ Q/A = C2 \ Q
Where,C2 is a general constant and is given by C1/A.
This equation shows that the induced voltage is directly proportional to the flow rate
through the blood vessel.
The induced voltage picked up by the electrodes is amplified and displayed/
recorded on a suitable system.
The system is calibrated in terms of volume flow as a function of the induced
voltage.
The diameter of the blood vessel is held constant by the circumference of the hole
in the probe that surrounds it.
It is naturally more difficult to construct flow heads suitable for use with very small
blood vessels.
The average flow velocity appears to be 20 to 25 cm/s in arteries and 10 to 12 cm/s
in veins.
For designing the probe, velocity for the cardiovascular system is taken as 15 cm/s.
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 LECTURE 3:- TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
All modern flowmeters consist of a generator of alternating current, a probe
assembly, a series of capacitance coupled amplifiers, a demodulator, a dc amplifier
and a suitable recording device.
The shape of the energizing current waveform for the electromagnet may be
sinusoidal or square.
A. sine wave flowmeter
The probe magnet is energized with a sine wave and consequently the induced
voltage will also be sinusoidal in nature.
The major problem encountered with the sinusoidal type of magnetic field is that the
blood vessel and the fluid contained in it act as the secondary coil of a
transformer when the probe magnet is excited.
As a result, in addition to the induced flow voltage, there is an induced artefact
voltage generally referred to as ‘transformer voltage’.
The ‘transformer voltage’ is much larger than the signal or flow induced voltage and
is 90o out of phase with it.
This resulted in drift which necessitates high phase stability in the amplifier and
demodulator circuits.
An alternative method to eliminate the transformer induced voltage in sinewave
flowmeters is by using a gated amplifier.
It perform amplification of the signals only when flow induced voltages are
30
maximum and the transformer induced voltages are minimum.

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 LECTURE 3:- TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
B. Square wave Electromagnetic Flowmeter
The square wave flowmeter has less requirements of phase stability than the sine
wave.
Also, it is easier to control the magnitude and wave shape of the energizing current
in the case of a square wave system.
Figure shows the block diagram of a square wave electromagnetic blood flowmeter
Transducer:
The flow transducer consists of an
electromagnet, which provides a
magnetic field perpendicular to the
direction of flow and lying within the
field are a pair of pick-up electrodes
whose axis is perpendicular to both
the field and the flow axis.
The electrodes may be in contact
with either the flowing blood or the
outer surface of the blood vessel
carrying the flowing blood.
The former is called ‘Cannulating
flowmeter’ and the latter ‘Cuff 31
flowmeter’.
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 LECTURE 3:- TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
B. Square wave Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Preamplifier:
The induced voltage picked up by the electrodes is given to a low noise differential
amplifier through a capacitive coupling.
The preamplifier must have a very high common-mode rejection ratio and input
impedance.
The preamplifier also must
incorporate the facility for ‘probe
balance’ by which signals in phase
with the magnet current can be
selected to balance background
voltages in phase with flow voltages.
A calibrating signal of 30 mV
amplitude can be connected to the
preamplifier with an input selector
switch.

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 LECTURE 3:- TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
B. Square wave Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Gating Circuit:
A gating amplifier helps to remove spurious voltages generated during magnet current
reversal.
The gating action is controlled by the circuit which provides an excitation current to the
electromagnet.
Bandpass Amplifier:
Active RC bandpass amplifier is used to
pass selective amplified square wave
signal.
The gain of this amplifier is typically 50.
The shape of the wave after this amplifier
is a distorted sinusoid.
Detector:
A phase sensitive detector is used to
recover the signal, which is an analogue
of the flowrate being measured.
This type of demodulator not only offers
maximum signal-to-noise ratio but also
helps in the rejection of interfering
voltages at frequencies well below the
carrier frequency. 33

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 LECTURE 3:- TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
Low-Pass Filter and Output Stage:
The demodulated signal is given to an active RC low-pass filter, which provides a uniform
frequency response and a linear phase shift from 0–30 Hz.
This is followed by an integrator circuit to provide an output corresponding to the mean flow.
The output signal thus obtained can be put to a recorder to read the blood flow rate from the
calibrated scale.
Magnet Current Drive:
The excitation current supplied to the
electromagnet is a one ampere peak square
wave current generated by Multivibrator.
It is given from a source of high impedance
to ensure that it remains constant for
variations in magnet winding resistance of
up to 5 W.
Zero-Flow Reference Line:
Before measurement can be made for blood
flow with electromagnetic flowmeters, it is
essential to accurately establish the signal
corresponding to zero-flow.
Although de-energizing the magnet should
produce a zero reference line, unfortunately
this line does not always coincide with the
physiological zero-flow line. 34

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 LECTURE 3:- ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. No obstruction is created to flow. 1. Cost is high.
2. Ability to measure reverses flow. 2. Not suitable for low velocity
3. Provides wide linear range.
4. Output is unaffected by variation in viscosity, density,
temperature, pressure or conductivity.
5. Gives rapid response to flow changes.

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 LECTURE 3:- ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER NUMERICAL

12. Determine the velocity of flow in an electromagnetic flow meter for the
following condition. The flux density in liquid has an average value of 0.08
wb/m2. The diameter of the pipe is 10 cm. The induced voltage of
electromagnetic flow meter is recorded as 0.02 mV.
Solution:
Given Data:
B= 0.08 wb/m2
L=D= 10 cm= 10X10-2m
E=0.02 mv= 0.02X10-3 v
V= ?

E=BLV
0.2X10-3= 0.08x10x10-2x V
V= 0.025 m/s 36

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 LECTURE 3:- ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER NUMERICAL
13. An electromagnetic flow meter is used to measure a average flow rate of an
effluent in diameter of 50 mm. A velocity profile is symmetrical and can be
assumed uniform. The flux density in liquid has peak value of 0.1 wb/m2 ,the
output from flow meter electrode is taken to be an amplifier of gain 1000
and impedance between the electrode is 250 KΩ and input impedance of
meter is 2.5 MΩ.
a) Determine effluent average velocity when peak to peak average voltage at
the amplifier is 0.2v.
b) Given that effluent conductivity decreased by 20% with the same flow rate ,
determine percentage change in reading at amplifier output ?
Solution:Given data :
B=10.1 wb/m2
L=50mm=0.05 m ,
G =1000,
Zo=250kΩ ,
ZL=2.5MΩ,
Vpp(amplifier) =0.2v
(taking mean value ) Vm=0.1v
Eo=( Z0+ZL)I1 --------------1
EL=ZLI1-----------------------2 37

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 LECTURE 3:- ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER NUMERICAL
a) Epp(amplifier) =0.2v
(taking mean value ) Em=0.1v
Eo=( Z0+ZL)I1 --------------1
EL=ZLI1-----------------------2
Divide equation 1 by 2

E0=0.11 v

E=BLV

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 LECTURE 3:- ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER NUMERICAL
b) The effluent conductivity is decreased by 20 % it means its impedance increased
by 20 %

Peak voltage under loaded condition

Peak to peak voltage at amplifier stage

ELpp ’=2 x 0.0988 = 0.1964

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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
There are basically two types of ultrasonic blood flow-velocity meters.
1. Time difference / Transit time type
2. Doppler type
1. Time difference / Transit time type
The ultrasonic transducers are either mounted on at an angle or parallel to the
pipe wall.
The velocity of ultrasonic waves increased or decreased by the fluid velocity
which depends on the direction of fluid flow.
Receiver B Receiver A

Flow

Transmitter A Transmitter B

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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
1. Time difference / Transit time type
• When the liquid flow through the pipe, the velocity of ultrasonic waves transmitted
from Tx-A to Rx-A is increased to ( C + v cosθ ) and the velocity of ultrasonic
waves transmitted from Tx-B to Rx-B is decreased to ( C - v cosθ ) .
• Repetition Frequency of the received pulses i.e fA & fB are –

Where , C-velocity of sound through the fluid in the pipe

l - Distance between transmitter and receiver.
θ - Angle of inclination between path of sound wave & pipe
The difference of frequency is given by-
Δf = fA- fB = 2 v cosθ / l
Δ T = 1/ Δf
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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
Advantages:
1. Obstruction less flow
2. Pressure drop equal to an equivalent length of straight pipe
3. Unaffected by changes in temperature, density or viscosity
4. Bi-directional flow capability
5. Low flow cutoff
6. Corrosion-resistant
7. Accuracy about 1% of flow rate
8. Relative low power consumption
9. Output is unaffected by variation in viscosity, density & temperature

Disadvantages:
1. Cost is high.
2. Circuit is complex.
3. The operating principle for the ultrasonic flowmeter requires reliability high frequency
sound transmitted across the pipe.
4. Liquid slurries with excess solids or with entrained gases may block the ultrasonic pulses.
5. Liquids with entrained gases cannot be measured reliably. 42

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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
2. Doppler type
Doppler Ultrasonic Flow meters is based on the Doppler Effect.
It is a non-invasive technique to measure blood velocity in a particular vessel from
the surface of the body.
It is based on the analysis of echo signals from the erythrocytes in the vascular
structures. It measured the frequency shifts of acoustic waves to the flow velocity.
It useful for liquid having some suspended solid particles or bubbles.
The Doppler frequency shift is a measure of the
size and direction of the flow velocity.

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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
2. Doppler type
• To measure the flow rate, transducer transmits the wave toward flow with an
angle of θ. Then the waves are reflected back from the dispersed particles
which received by receiver.
• Due to an angle θ with the flow direction, the velocity V should be replaced by
the projected velocity V cos θ.
• The acoustic waves traveling upstream and downstream will have the observed
frequencies
The difference in frequency is

Where, fu – Upstream frequency.

fd – downstream frequency

44

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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
2. Doppler type
The piezo-electric crystal A is electrically excited to generate ultrasonic waves,
which enter the blood.
Ultrasound scattered from the moving blood cells excites the receiver crystal.
The electrical signal received at B consists of a large amplitude excitation
frequency component, which is directly coupled from the transmitter to the
receiver, plus a very small amplitude Doppler-shifted component scattered from
the blood cells.
The detector produces a sum of the difference of the frequencies at D.
The low-pass filter selects the difference frequency, resulting in audio frequencies
at E.

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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
2. Doppler type
Each time the audio wave crosses the zero axis, a pulse appears at G.
The filtered output level at H will be proportional to the blood velocity.
The maximum Doppler shift has been calculated as about 15 kHz.
The wall motion signal can be significantly reduced by filtering out frequencies
below 100 Hz.

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 LECTURE 4:- ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
Advantages:
1. Obstruct less flow
2. Can be installed outside
3. Low flow cut off
4. Corrosion resistant
5. Relative low power consumption

Disadvantages:
The following two pitfalls are encountered in Doppler ultrasonic blood flowmeters.
1. High frequency response is usually inadequate which introduces a non-linearity
into the input-output calibration curve.
2. Also, the low frequency gain is normally too high, resulting in wall motion
artefacts.

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 LECTURE 5:- COULTERS COUNTERS
A wide range of particle counting instruments designed to meet a wide variety of
needs in the haemotology laboratory.
These instruments range from the small counters used primarily for red and white
cell counts to the multi-parameter microprocessor controlled instrument featuring
fully automatic diluting of samples and printing of results.
A platinum electrode is placed inside the orifice tube and a second electrode is
submerged into the beaker containing the cell dilution, creating an electrical circuit
between the two electrodes.
Current will flow from one electrode to the other through the orifice.

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 LECTURE 5:- COULTERS COUNTERS
When the cell suspension is drawn through the orifice, cells will displace their own
volume of electrolyte and cause a resistance change, which is converted to a
voltage change, and is amplified and displayed.
In practice, the cell suspension is drawn through the orifice by means of a
mercury manometer.
This manometer includes two platinum wire contacts (A and B) set through the
glass walls.
Contact A will start the count and contact B will stop it when precisely 0.5 ml of the
dilution has passed through the orifice tube. Thus, it provides a count of the
number of particles in a fixed volume of suspension.

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 LECTURE 5:- COULTERS COUNTERS
To enable the instrument to count only those pulses, which fall within certain
preset size limits, the threshold facility is required.
The Coulter counters are usually provided with an oscilloscope monitor to display
the pulse information, which has passed through the amplifier, and acts as a
visible check on the counting process indicating instantaneously any malfunctions
such as a blocked orifice.
In particular, it provides information regarding
(i) relative cell size,
(ii) relative cell size distribution,
(iii) Settings of the threshold level control, and
(iv) means to check the performance of the instrument for reliability of counts.
The voltage pulses produced each time a cell passes through the orifice are
displayed on the oscilloscope screen as a pattern of vertical spikes.
Coulter counters also help to give an idea of the size distribution of various types
of cells.

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 THANK YOU

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 References Books:
1. Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation by [Link], TMH.
2. Introduction to Biomedical Instrumentation by Mandeep Singh, PHI
3. Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurement , by By Leaslie Cromwell,
Fred Weibell, Erich A Pfeiffer, PHI.

References Web:
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]

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