RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Received: March 27, 2025 e-ISSN: 2602-3733

Accepted: May 24, 2025 Copyright © 2025
[Link] June 2025  9(1)  5-28

Research Article [Link]

Brain Rot: A Scale Development Study

Ercan Yılmaz1 Abdullah Aktürk2
Necmettin Erbakan University Ministry of National Education
Abstract

In this research, it was aimed to develop a valid and reliable measurement tool to determine the brain rot levels of
individuals. The research study group was formed by selecting among the Alpha generation individuals who are
accepted to use social media more intensively. In the scale development process, draft scale development, EFA,
CFA, test-retest, and known group validity methods were used. Cronbach's Alpha and McDonald's Omega
coefficients were calculated for the reliability analyses of the scale. According to the findings obtained as a result of
the analyses, the scale consists of four dimensions and 18 items. The scale dimensions are cognitive load, cognitive
fatigue, emulation, and depersonalization. The fit indices of the structure obtained with CFA are acceptable and good
fit level. Cronbach's Alpha and McDonald's Omega coefficients calculated for the reliability of the scale are above
0.70. According to the methods of test-retest and known group validity methods, the developed scale makes
measurements that are stable and can distinguish different groups. As a result of all analyses, it was determined that
the developed brain rot scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool.

Key Words

Brain rot • Cognitive load • Scale development

1
Correspondance to: Ahmet Keleşoğlu Faculty of Education, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Türkiye. E-
mail: ercanyilmaz70@[Link] ORCID: 0000-0003-4702-1688
2
Ministry of National Education, Konya, Türkiye. E-mail: abdulahakturk2@[Link] ORCID: 0000-0003-1104-
2655
Citation: Yılmaz, E. & Aktürk, A. (2025). Brain rot: A scale development study. Research on Education and
Psychology (REP), 9(1), 5-28.
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Introduction

The widespread use of digital media in recent years can be considered as the beginning of a transformation that
pushes the limits of the brain's processing capacity and requires a continuous flow of information. The fact that
individuals are confronted with intense content through the use of social media has negative cognitive, affective, and
social effects on individuals. Carr (2010) associates this process with the fact that social media platforms, news
alerts, and the flow of digital content demand constant interaction from individuals, distracting attention and making
issues more superficial. This intense demand for interaction causes the brain to have difficulty in prioritizing
information effectively, leading to cognitive overload. In addition, the lure of instant gratification, such as likes,
shares, and instant feedback offered by digital interactions conditions individuals to seek quick rewards through likes
by reducing their patience and critical thinking skills instead of deep and reflective learning (Hari, 2022; Twenge,
2019). In particular, the intense screen time that individuals are exposed to, together with a sedentary lifestyle, affects
mental acuity, leading to an increase in problems such as mental fatigue and weakness. These factors create an
environment in which continuous intellectual engagement becomes increasingly difficult for individuals, developing
a dirty consumption habit that affects processes such as concentrating, analyzing, and retaining information
effectively. This behavior leads to a situation that can be defined as brain rot (Ratey & Loehr, 2007; Özpençe, 2024).

Increasing digitalization brings with it an intensive use of screens, especially among younger generations. As a
result of this screen use, digital media has become an indispensable element of daily life for young people, causing
almost one in two young people to spend a large part of their day in front of the screen (Yılmaz & Aktürk, 2021;
Yılmaz et al., 2024). Stankovska et al. (2016) also state that this usage can be associated with social media addiction,
mental disorders, and feelings of loneliness. This situation leads to problems such as weakening social relations,
decreasing social commitment, and preferring a more isolated life with excessive use of digital media (Keser, 2015).
From another perspective, as cognitive functions decline due to neurodegenerative processes, individuals may
experience significant difficulties in social cognition, emotional regulation, and general social participation. One of
the various effects of brain rot is the impairment of social cognition, which involves the ability to understand and
interpret details in social relationships. According to Yang et al. (2021), this impairment leads to a reduced capacity
to engage in and benefit from social interactions and increased social regression and isolation. Even individuals with
high social activity may face brain rot and a decrease in cognitive abilities, lack of participation in social activities,
social isolation and loneliness (Kelly et al., 2017).

While brain rot is commonly tried to be explained by the effects of social media and internet addiction, the
information obtained in recent years shows that brain rot has a different structure (Dolan, 2025; Scanlan, 2024). It is
important to describe this differentiated structure. If these descriptions are validly measured the results of these
measurements can be better explained concerning the different qualities of individuals. Since Brain Rot is a new
phenomenon in the field, there are no measurement tools to measure this feature. However, some scales measure
different constructs related to Brain Rot.

For example, the social media fatigue scale developed by Zhang et al. (2021) measures cognitive burnout and
emotional fatigue that individuals feel due to digital media use. Researchers such as Fırat and Barut (2018),

6
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

Çömlekçi and Başol (2019), Andreassen et al. (2016), Chen et al. (2003), Sondhi and Joshi (2024) conducted studies
to measure social media and internet addiction. In addition, different studies on social media and digital consumption
have found that they harm brain functions (Horoszkiewicz, 2022). For example, Nivins et al. (2024) examined the
effects of social media use on children's brains with an experimental approach. According to this study, intensive
social media use causes a decrease in children's cognitive levels. Spritzer (2012) also conducted studies to determine
the deterioration in people's cognitive functions as a result of the overuse of digital technology and developed the
concept of digital dementia. As can be seen, there is no scale study in the literature that deals with brain rot on a
conceptual basis and determines the level of brain rot of the individual. Most of the studies focus on addiction,
cognitive processes or brain activities. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a measurement tool for the concept of
brain rot.

Brain Rot

While brain rot is not an officially recognized medical term, it is often used colloquially to describe a range of
cognitive impairments and neurodegenerative conditions, particularly those associated with oxidative stress and
neurotoxicity (Doll, 1985). The term can be associated with the effects of neurotoxins such as rotenone, which has
been extensively studied for its role in triggering Parkinson's disease symptoms and other neurodegenerative
processes (Niedzielska et al., 2015). Rotenone (ROT) is a potent neurotoxin that selectively affects dopaminergic
neurons, leading to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. The enzyme complex 1 triggers Parkinson's
disease (Kaur et al., 2011; Mader et al., 2012).

Studies show that ROS inhibits mitochondrial complex 1, which is critical for cellular respiration and energy
production (Alqurashi, 2024; Xin et al., 2022; Witucki et al., 2022). ROS-induced oxidative stress has been shown to
cause significant impairments in dopaminergic neurons, which are particularly vulnerable to oxidative damage due to
their high metabolic activity and low antioxidant defenses (Javed et al., 2019; Javed et al., 2016). The neurotoxic
effects of ROS are not limited to dopaminergic neurons; they also spread to other brain regions, causing widespread
neurodegeneration and functional impairments. Several studies on the living brain have shown that chronic exposure
to ROS in animal models results in behavioral deficits, including motor and cognitive impairments, similar to those
observed in Parkinson's disease. This process is, therefore, critical in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases
as it contributes to a cycle of damage and dysfunction within the brain (Tatulli et al., 2018; Manjunath and
Muralidhara, 2013). Another factor that triggers these diseases is cognitive overload. The amount of information
generated by the intensive use of social media can push the limits of the brain's processing capacity and cause a
decrease in cognitive performance. Thus, the ability to process and retain information, which is considered important
for maintaining cognitive health in individuals, can be inhibited (Horoszkiewicz, 2022; Xu et al., 2022). These
diseases are considered likely to be triggered, especially in individuals of advanced age with intense screen time (Wu
et al., 2023).

Brain rot can not only have neurodegenerative effects on individuals but can also affect an individual's ability to
interact effectively in social contexts. Often associated with neurodegenerative diseases, cognitive decline, and
structural changes in the brain, brain rot can lead to impairments in social cognition, emotional regulation, and

7
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

interpersonal communication. These impairments can severely affect an individual's social skills, which are essential
for maintaining relationships and functioning in society. Social cognition, which encompasses the processes of
understanding and interpreting social interactions, is particularly vulnerable to the effects of brain rot (Hari, 2022;
Sasson et al., 2019). This suggests that with a decrease in cognitive function, the ability to be in social life and
interpret the clues offered by life may be impaired, and the individual may experience difficulties in social
interaction. Because the interaction between cognitive abilities and the individual's motivation in social life plays an
important role in predicting social skills (Itskovich et al., 2020). This relationship suggests that brain rot, which
usually leads to a decrease in cognitive abilities, may hinder social motivation and, thus, social skills. Individuals
with impaired cognitive functioning may have difficulty interacting socially, leading to isolation and further
cognitive decline (Albee et al., 2022; Lee and Kim, 2016).

Brain rot may cause a decline in executive cognition functions such as planning, organization, time management,
goal orientation, task initiation, reaction restraint, control of behaviors, regulation of emotions and cognitive
flexibility skills as a result of internet and social media use. This decline in executive function may hinder the
individual's ability to process information effectively, manage tasks and make sound judgments, which is one of the
basic components of intelligence (Öğüt et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2023). In addition, cognitive flexibility, which
refers to the ability to adapt one's thinking to new and unexpected conditions, is also affected by brain rot. Because
individuals with low cognitive flexibility may be more prone to addictive behaviors. (Chang et al., 2023; Çekiç et al.,
2024; Tanhan et al., 2023). This suggests that social media use may create a feedback loop in which cognitive
flexibility decreases, leading to further entrenchment of addictive behaviors, which may impair cognitive
performance (Tanhan et al., 2023). In addition, brain rot can affect an individual's intellectual abilities by
exacerbating cognitive deficits with internet and social media addiction. This process has the potential to blunt the
ability to think quickly and efficiently by causing delays in cognitive responses (Mahato et al., 2023; Mishra et al.,
2021). In fact, with this process, which can be expressed as a cognitive decline, functional impairments can be
observed in neural structures that affect the individual's cognitive abilities, including memory, attention, and
executive functions. As the cognitive load increases, the individual may have difficulty managing the demands
placed on cognitive resources. Moreover, as the cognitive load of the individual increases with brain rot, the ability
to retain and manipulate information in working memory may be further compromised, leading to greater difficulties
in daily tasks (Roberts et al., 2012; Fisher, 2023). In order to avoid this effect of brain rot, it becomes important for
the individual to identify cognitive load management strategies to protect cognitive function. Individuals should be
able to reduce the cognitive load they are exposed to with basic strategies such as filtering unnecessary information
received through social media, trying to use time effectively, or reducing the emotional factors they face (Bannert,
2002; Castro-Alonso et al., 2021; Howie et al., 2023).

8
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

Figure 1. Brain rot effects and prevention strategies

As our rapid content consumption increases with the advancement of technology, symptoms of brain rot are
becoming more common, especially among younger demographic groups who are constantly engaged with social
media and instant messaging platforms. Basically, brain rot can be seen as the cause of negative conditions such as
cognitive load, distraction, memory problems, decreased intelligence level, disconnection in social ties, and inability
to perceive social interactions in these groups. As a result of the overstimulation faced by the individual with
intensive digital media use, significant losses occur in the quality of life by experiencing one or more of these
negative situations at the same time. Strategies such as digital detox, information control, time management, offline
family or friend meetings, and awareness activities are considered as effective strategies to prevent or reduce the
effects of brain rot (See Figure 1).

Method

The method of this study, which was conducted to measure the brain rot levels of individuals, includes the stages
of the scale development process. The scale development process includes determining the study group, creating the
item pool, obtaining expert opinions about the items, talking about the application, and analyzing the data obtained.

Working Group

Brain rot is perceived as a possible situation that individuals may encounter as a result of intensive use of digital
media and spending long periods in front of the screen (Özpençe, 2024). Considering the time individuals spend in
front of the screen, the Alpha generation is considered as a generation that stands out with its intensive screen use
(McCrindle & Fell, 2021; Yılmaz et al., 2024). Due to this feature, the Alpha generation constituted the study group
of this research. In determining the sample size of the study group, the number of items in the draft scale form was
taken into consideration. Bryman and Cramer (2012) stated that the number of items should be five times the number

9
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

of items in the draft form, while Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) stated that it should be fifteen times the number of
items. Regarding the sample size, Kline (2023) emphasized that the sample should be formed with twenty times the
number of participants to obtain accurate factor results. According to Tabachnick and Fidel (2019), at least 150
participants should be included in the research for factor analysis to take place. Considering these statements
regarding the sample size for the research to provide accurate factor results, it was decided to include fifteen times
the number of participants in the draft scale form for exploratory factor analysis (EFA). In this context, the EFA
process of the research was conducted with 473 Alpha generation participants. After the completion of the EFA
phase, a different study group with the same qualifications was formed for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The
study group formed for CFA consisted of 358 Alpha generation participants. In addition, another study group
consisting of 20 participants was formed to determine the comprehensibility of the draft scale form. Finally, test-
retest procedures to determine the consistency of the results obtained were carried out with a study group including
35 Alpha generation participants.

Development of the Draft Scale

In the development phase of the draft scale, an item pool was first created. The process of creating an item pool is
a critical stage for a comprehensive and accurate assessment of the construct to be measured. In this process, the
characteristics of the concept or construct to be measured are determined and the construct is defined. In this
definition process, the theoretical foundations and dimensions of the construct are examined through a literature
review. Then, the most appropriate measurement unit for the prepared item pool should be determined and the
prepared item pool should be reviewed by experts (DeVellis & Thorpe, 2021; Rattray & Jones, 2007). To determine
the item pool of the Brain rot draft scale, the relevant literature was reviewed (Albee et al., 2022; Bannert, 2002;
Hari, 2022; Horoszkiewicz, 2022; Howie et al., 2023; Nivins et al., 2024; Spritzer, 2012), and the item pool created
to ensure content validity was presented to 4 researchers who are experts in their fields. The field experts read the
items in the draft scale and evaluated each item in terms of representing the construct, scope, and comprehensibility
with the criteria of 1= not at all appropriate, 2= should be corrected, 3= should be partially corrected, 4= very
appropriate. Kendall analysis was used to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between
the evaluation results of the experts. The analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between the expert
opinions (Kendall=0,037; p>0,05)

The draft scale prepared in the scale development phase should be presented to language experts (Erkuş, 2012).
According to the expert opinions on the draft scale, necessary corrections were made on the items, and the items
were sent to two different language experts to determine the linguistic appropriateness of the items and evaluated in
terms of spelling and language errors. After the language evaluation, the draft scale was finalized and the response
style was determined. In the evaluation of the items of the scale, which was decided to be answered as a 5-point
Likert scale, the participants were asked to evaluate each item as 1= not at all similar to the changes in me, 2= not
similar to the changes in me, 3= neither similar nor dissimilar to the changes in me, 4= similar to the changes in me,
5= very similar to the changes in me.

10
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

As the final stage in the development of the draft scale, the prepared scale form was applied to a group of 20
participants to be evaluated in terms of comprehensibility. During the application process, the participants were
asked to evaluate each item in terms of comprehensibility, and necessary corrections were made with the feedback
received. In this process, it was determined that the participants read the items in approximately 10 minutes.

Data Analysis

In this study, the validity and reliability analyses of the scale were conducted comprehensively. To examine the
construct validity of the scale, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was first applied. EFA was conducted to determine
the sub-dimensions of the scale and to examine the factor loadings (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). Before factor
analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity were applied to assess the suitability of
the data for factor analysis (Field, 2018). The fact that the KMO value was 0.60 and above and the Bartlett test result
was significant indicates that the data were sufficient for factor analysis. The factor structure obtained according to
the EFA results was tested with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA was used to determine the extent to which
the proposed scale structure is compatible with the data by evaluating the fit indices of the model (Kline, 2015). The
fit indices included Chi-square (χ²/df), Root Mean Square Error Squared (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI),
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), and Incremental Fit Index (IFI). A RMSEA
value below 0.08 and CFI and TLI values above 0.90 were accepted as indicators of good model fit (Schumacker &
Lomax, 2016)

The reliability of the scale was evaluated by internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach's Alpha), McDonald's
Omega and item total correlations. A Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.70 and above indicates that the scale has high
reliability (DeVellis, 2017). Item total correlations were examined and the scale was structured by removing items
below 0.30. In addition, the consistency over time was also evaluated with the test-retest method. The findings were
supported by descriptive statistics, correlation analyses and factor loadings to explain the psychometric properties of
the scale in detail.

Findings

Findings Regarding Construct Validity

Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis methods were used to test the construct validity of
the brain rot scale, respectively.

Exploratory Factor Analysis

In this study, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was applied to determine the factor structure of the Brain Rot
scale. EFA is a technique used to explore the sub-dimensions of the scale and examine the factor loadings of the
items (Costello & Osborne, 2005). Before the analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) sampling adequacy test and
Bartlett Sphericity Test were applied to determine whether the data were suitable for factor analysis. According to the
findings, the KMO value of the scale was calculated as 0.809. The Chi-Square value obtained as a result of the
Barlett Sphericity Test was statistically significant (X2= 1898,457; p<0.01). The fact that the KMO value is above
0.60 and the result of Bartlett's Test of Sphericity is statistically significant is one of the indicators that the data are

11
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

sufficient for factor analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). Another important statistical indicator that evaluates the
suitability of the data for factor analysis in EFA is the Anti-Image Correlation Matrix. This matrix contains anti-
image correlation values that measure the common variance of each variable with other variables. In particular, anti-
image diagonal values are used to determine whether each item is suitable for factor analysis. An anti-image diagonal
value above 0.50 indicates that the item is suitable for factor analysis, while items below 0.50 are recommended to
be removed from the scale (Hair et al., 2019; Pet et al., 2003). All of the anti-image diagonal values obtained from
the data are greater than 0.50. According to all these findings, it is seen that the data of the Brain rot scale are suitable
for factor analysis.

Exploratory Factor Analysis can be performed with methods such as Principal Component Analysis and Principal
Axis Factoring. In this study, the principal component analysis method was preferred to determine the factor
structure more accurately. Eigenvalues above 1 and the ratio of total variance explained were taken into
consideration in determining the factors. In addition, scree plot (See Figure 2) and parallel analysis methods were
used to determine the number of factors (Horn, 1965)

Figure 2. Slope accumulation plot of the brain rot scale

For factor loadings to be interpretable, item loadings should not be below 0.30, and there should not be a high
correlation between items (Field, 2018). High loading of items on a single factor and cross-loadings below 0.32 were
taken as criteria (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). To provide a clearer separation of the factors, Varimax rotation
methods were applied, and the factor structure was evaluated. Varimax is one of the orthogonal rotation methods
used in factor analysis and ensures that the factors are independent of each other (Kaiser, 1958). This method aims to
maximize the variance of the squares of the factor loadings so that each item loads high on a single factor and low on
other factors as much as possible. In this way, a clear separation between factors is achieved, and the structure
becomes more easily interpretable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019). The main reason for choosing the Varimax rotation
method is that the sub-dimensions of the scale are theoretically expected to be independent of each other. This is
especially appropriate in cases where the dimensions of the scale are assumed to be unrelated to each other. For
example, if each dimension of the scale represents a different conceptual construct and these constructs are not
expected to correlate with each other, the Varimax rotation method is an ideal option (Field, 2018). The Varimax
rotation method makes the factor loadings sharper and more prominent, making it clear to which factor the items

12
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

belong. This is of great importance in terms of increasing the construct validity of the scale and testing the
compatibility of factors with theoretical foundations (Hair et al., 2019). The data obtained as a result of the analysis
were examined to evaluate whether the scale was suitable for the factor structure determined. Items that were not
suitable for the factor structure or had low factor loadings were removed from the scale. The fact that the total
variance explained is above 50% is considered as an important criterion in ensuring the construct validity of the scale
(Hair et al., 2019). In this context, the factor loadings of the items of the brain rot scale were examined and the items
with factor loadings below 0.30 and items loaded on more than one factor (M21, M15,) were removed and the
analyses were repeated. In determining the items removed, the answers given by the experts during the expert
opinion were also taken into consideration.

Table 1
Expert opinions on the items removed
Removed
Expert Opinion Decision Item factor loadings
Article
U3- The concept in the article has Since the item loaded on
a scope on social media addiction more than one factor, it was F1: ,415
M21
instead of Brain Rot. Should be removed based on expert F3: ,398
corrected opinion.
U4- There is another similar Since the item loaded on
article. One of the two may be more than one factor, it was F2: ,392
M15
preferred or the scope of the article removed based on expert F3: ,428
may be re-evaluated. opinion.
Two of the 22 items in the brain rot scale were removed in line with expert opinion and the scale was reduced to
20 items. After each item was removed, the analyses were conducted again. The analyses showed that the 20-item
structure explained 51.655% of the total variance. The factor loadings of the items belonging to this structure
consisting of four factors are given in Table 2.

Table 2
Brain rot scale rotated component matrix (varimax) and item total correlations

COMPONENTS
1 2 3 4
BR12 ,779
BR5 ,680
BR18 ,651
BR9 ,628
BR14 ,551
BR4 ,692
BR13 ,613
BR8 ,563
BR20 ,505
BR7 ,496
BR3 ,475
BR1 ,771

13
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

BR22 ,709
BR16 ,676
BR10 ,524
BR2 ,421
BR6 ,754
BR17 ,708
BR11 ,559
BR19 ,419
Total Factor: 51.655%; Factor 1: 28.840; Factor 2: 10.733; Factor 3: 6.601; Factor 4: 5.

When Table 2 is examined, it is seen that the factor loadings of the brain rot scale items vary between 0.475 and
0.779. The factor loadings after EFA show that the scale measures the desired structure. In the naming of the
components of the four-factor structure that emerged after EFA, the literature on brain rot and the contents of the
items collected into the components were taken into consideration. The first factor of the brain rot scale consists of
items numbered BR12, BR5, BR18, BR9, and BR14. This factor was named "Cognitive Load". The second factor of
the scale consists of items numbered BR4, BR13, BR8, BR20, BR7 and BR3. This factor was called "Cognitive
Fatigue". The third factor of the scale consists of items numbered BR1, BR22, BR16, BR10, and BR2. Considering
the item contents, this factor was named as "Emulation". The fourth and last factor of the scale consists of items
numbered BR6, BR17, BR11, and BR19 and is called "Depersonalization".

The correlation coefficients between the four factors of the Brain Rot scale were found to be positive and
significant. According to Hair et al. (2019), correlations between factors below 0.70 indicate that the factors in the
scale are separated from each other and that the scale has construct validity (See Table 3).

Table 3
Correlation coefficients between factors

FACTOR 1 FACTOR 2 FACTOR 3 FACTOR 4

FACTOR 1 r 1 ,438** ,272** ,185**
FACTOR 2 r 1 ,416** ,348**
FACTOR 3 r 1 ,360**
FACTOR 4 r 1
p<0,01

In scale development studies, confirmatory factor analyses should also be performed to verify a structure tested
with EFA (Kline, 2015). Confirmatory factor analyses were also conducted for the four-factor and 18-item brain rot
scale obtained after EFA.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the extent to which the factor structure of the scale is
compatible with the data. CFA is a model validation technique used to evaluate the fit of the hypothesized factor
model with the observed data (Brown, 2015). In the analysis process, confirmatory analyses of the scale were

14
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

conducted based on the factor structure determined in the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) stage. Whether the
sample size was sufficient for CFA was evaluated in line with Kline's (2016) recommendation of "at least 5 to 10
participants per factor". In addition, the applicability of CFA was confirmed by examining the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) value and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity.

The goodness of fit of the model was evaluated by considering basic fit indices such as χ²/df, RMSEA, CFI, GFI,
AGFI, and IFI. Model fit criteria were interpreted based on the criteria proposed by Hu and Bentler (1999) and
Schreiber (2021). Accordingly, a χ²/df value less than 5 indicates an acceptable fit and a χ²/df value less than 3
indicates a good fit. An RMSEA value of less than 0.08 indicates acceptable, and less than 0.05 indicates perfect fit
(Steiger, 2007). In addition, fit indices such as CFI, AGFI, and GFI above 0.90 indicate that the model shows a good
fit (Kline, 2016).

The 20-item factor structure determined as a result of the Exploratory Factor Analysis was re-tested with CFA.
During the analysis process, it was determined that item BR2 and BR19 showed high error variance and low
regression weight. Therefore, to improve the model, the relevant item was removed, and the analysis was conducted
again. To evaluate the effect of the removal of the item on the content validity of the scale, field experts were
consulted, and the experts stated that the scope did not narrow when the item was removed (See Table 4). After the
modification, the model was tested again, and the targeted fit index values were reached (See Table 5).

Table 4
Items removed as a result of confirmatory factor analysis and expert opinions
Removed Item Regression
Article wording Decision
Article Weight
I believe that the content I Item removed due to low
BR2 ,428
encounter a lot is real. regression coefficient
Item removed due to low
BR19 I care less about social values ,452
regression coefficient

15
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Figure 2. Standardized Path Diagrams According to the First and Second Level CFA Results of the Brain Rot
Scale
Table 5
Fit index values of the brain rot scale after first and second level CFA

Compliance Compliance
Level 1 CFA Level 2 CFA Compliance Level
Criteria Criteria
x²/df 3,085 3,303 <5 Acceptable fit
GFI ,945 ,937 ≥ 0,90 Good fit
CFI ,921 ,911 ≥ 0,90 Good fit
IFI ,922 ,912 ≥ 0,90 Good fit
AGFI ,925 ,915 ≥ 0,90 Good fit
RMSEA ,053 0,056 0,05 - 0,08 Acceptable fit

When the first level Confirmatory Factor Analysis results for the Brain Rot Scale are examined, it is seen that the
x²/sd ratio is 3.085. This value is within the acceptable fit limits and shows that the model provides an adequate fit to
the data (Kline, 2015). GFI (0.945), CFI (0.921), IFI (0.922) and AGFI (0.925) values are the indices that evaluate
the overall goodness of fit of the scale. Since values of 0.90 and above are accepted as good fit criteria in the
literature (Hu & Bentler, 1999), these values reveal that the model shows a good fit with the data. In particular, GFI
and AGFI values support that the overall structure of the model is at an acceptable level. The RMSEA value is 0.053
and is in the range of 0.05 to 0.08. An RMSEA value of less than 0.05 indicates a perfect fit, while an RMSEA value
between 0.05-0.08 indicates an acceptable fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1992). The obtained value of 0.053 reveals that the
model has an acceptable level of fit.

16
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

After the first level CFA, the Brain Rot Scale was re-tested using the CFA method with 4 latent 18 indicators. The
GFI (.937), CFI (.911), IFI (.912) and AGFI (.915) values obtained as a result of the second-level CFA show that
cognitive load, cognitive fatigue, emulation, and depersonalization dimensions can be accepted as components of the
scale and these components together can form a superstructure for the brain rot scale (See Table 5).

Test-Retest Analyses

Whether the brain rot scale makes consistent measurements over time was tested with the test-retest method. The
relationship between the data obtained as a result of the application made to the study group formed for this method
with a two-week interval was determined using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficient. It was observed
that there was a positive and highly significant relationship between the two applications made to test the validity of
the brain rot scale according to the test-retest method. Accordingly, the scale can make stable measurements. Values
related to test-retest analyses are given in Table 7.

Table 7
Test retest results
2. Application
[Link] ,835

Known Group Validity

Known group validity analysis was also conducted to determine whether the brain rot scale was able to
distinguish between different groups. The difference between the answers of the participants with low social media
usage time and the answers of the participants with high social media usage time taken from the current sample was
analyzed by ANOVA test (See Table 8). The total brain rot score of the participants differed significantly according
to the duration of social media use (p<0.01). According to the pairwise comparisons made to determine the duration
of this differentiation, the average score of the participants whose social media usage time is more than 5 hours per
day is significantly higher than the average scores of the participants who use social media between 1-2 hours, 2-3
hours and 3-4 hours per day (p<0.05). On the other hand, the mean score of the participants whose daily social media
usage time is 4-5 hours is significantly higher than the mean scores of the participants who use social media between
1-2 hours and 2-3 hours daily (p<.05). Participants' daily social media usage time variables explain 11% of the total
variability in brain rot in the sample dimension and 10% in the population dimension. The tests conducted for the
differentiation of social media usage time in the level of brain rot showed that the brain rot scale has the ability to
distinguish different groups.

17
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Table 8
ANOVA analysis of known group validity

Between
𝜂2
Duration of Social Levene's Groups
n X ss F /
Media Use Test; p Difference
𝛺2
(Tukey)

A. 1-2 HOURS 28 37,75 10,20

Brain Rot Total

B. 2-3 HOURS 47 41,31 9,25 A-D

C. BETWEEN 3- A-E 0,11
68 44,21 10,70 ,620
4 HOURS 8,318 B-D /
p>0,05
B-E 0,10
D. 4-5 HOURS 62 48,82 10,85
C-E
E. MORE THAN
49 51,32 11,32
5 HOURS

Criterion Validity

The social media addiction scale for adolescents developed by Özgenel et al. (2019) was used to ensure the
criterion validity of the study. The brain rot scale and the social media addiction scale for adolescents were
administered to a different group of 126 participants. The correlation value between the total scores from both scales
was examined and a high level of positive significance was discovered (r= 0.667; p<0.01). In addition, in another
criterion validity study conducted to determine the effect of brain rot on cognitive level, a different group consisting
of 21 participants diagnosed with dementia over the age of 65 was formed. At this stage, the brain rot scale was
applied to individuals with high social media use and to individuals diagnosed with dementia over the age of 65 with
no social media use. Some of the statements in the scale items for older individuals were removed and the same
items were applied to younger individuals. Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficient was used to determine
the relationship between the two different applications. As a result of the analyses, it was seen that there was a
positive moderate level relationship between both groups. Data on criterion validity are shown in Table 9.

Table 9
Findings related to criterion validity of the Brain Rot Scale
Application to individuals with high social media use
Application to elderly people r ,438

Reliability Analyses

Within the scope of the reliability analysis of the scale, an independent samples t-test was applied for the
significance of the difference between the upper and lower 27% groups (See Table 6). In addition, McDonald's
Omega (ω) and Cronbach's Alpha (α) coefficients were calculated to assess internal consistency. According to the
results of the independent samples t-test, statistically significant differences were found between the upper and lower
27% groups in terms of the scores of the four factors of the scale (p<.001). This result shows that the sub-dimensions
of the scale distinguish individuals in terms of low and high-scoring groups. McDonald's Omega (ω) and Cronbach's
Alpha (α) coefficients were calculated to evaluate the internal consistency of the scale. As a result of the analysis,

18
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

Cronbach's Alpha and McDonald's Omega coefficients were found to be above 0.70 in all sub-dimensions of the
scale and in the total scale. According to Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), Cronbach's Alpha and McDonald's Omega
coefficients of 0.70 and above, indicate that the scale is reliable. In line with the results obtained, it can be said that
the scale has sufficient internal consistency at both general and factor levels and exhibits a reliable structure.

Table 10
Brain Rot Scale reliability and convergent validity analysis values

Internal consistency coefficients

t value for upper and lower group Cronbach's Alpha (α) / McDonald's
Dimensions Article
difference Omega (ω)

BR13 16,593**
BR16 16,421**
Cognitive Load
BR9 15,353**
BR1 17,502** .758 / .757
BR5 15,049**
BR2 16,807**
BR6 14,379**
Cognitive Fatigue BR10 14,403**
BR14 21,561** .751 / .742
BR17 16,318**
BR18 22,033**
BR3 12,038**
Emulation BR7 13,996**
BR15 12,785** .718 / .712
BR11 11,133**
BR4 10,414**
Depersonalization
BR12 10,309** .709 / .704
BR8 13,138**
Brain Rot Scale .858 / .843
(**: p<.01; *: p<.05)

Scoring of the Scale

The brain rot scale is a 5-point Likert-type scale. Considering the analyses, it was decided to score the scale with
the rating sums technique. This method has advantages in terms of creating a homogeneous structure in the scale
development process and determining the tendencies of individuals towards the intended concept (Nunnally &
Bernstein, 1994). The main basis of the rubric scoring method is that the developed scale as a whole shows internal
consistency and the items are meaningfully related to each other (Kline, 2015). The total score obtained from the
brain rot scale shows individuals' levels of brain rot. High scores from the scale indicate that brain rot is more intense
in individuals, while low scores indicate that it is seen less frequently.

19
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Table 11

Brain Rot Scale Scoring Table

Subdimensions of the The lowest possible The highest possible

Items
brain rot scale score score
Cognitive Load 1-5-9-13 and 16 5 25
Cognitive Fatigue 2-6-10-14-17 and 18 6 30
Emulation 3-7-11 and 15 4 20
Depersonalization 4-8 and 12 3 15

The lowest score of 5 and the highest score of 25 can be obtained from the cognitive load factor of the four-factor
brain rot scale. The lowest score of 6 and the highest score of 30 can be obtained from the cognitive fatigue factor.
While the lowest 4 and highest 20 points can be obtained from the emulation dimension, the lowest 3 and highest 15
points can be obtained from the depersonalization factor. Considering the whole scale, a minimum score of 18 and a
maximum score of 90 can be obtained.

Discussion

The current century can be considered as a period in which behaviors in which people intensively consume
digital media and various elements related to these media are frequently exhibited. This intensive consumption
process can lead to distraction, mental fatigue, weakening of social ties, and vulnerability to manipulation (Rogers &
Niederer, 2020; Yeung et al., 2022; Zheng & Ling, 2021). Intensive consumption of digital media elements causes
problems in individuals' cognitive levels, mental health and social relationships, causing a condition known as brain
rot (Özpençe, 2024). Determining the level of brain rot in terms of supporting both the cognitive and psychological
health of individuals can support the development of preventive strategies to prevent the aforementioned negativities.
Therefore, in this study, the validity and reliability analyses of the scale developed to determine the level of brain rot
of individuals were carried out, and the psychometric properties of the developed scale and the analyses performed
were explained in detail.

The factor structure revealed by the analysis of the data obtained in the study shows that the scale has good
validity. The four-factor structure obtained with EFA revealed that each subcomponent obtained was compatible with
the literature and could reflect the individual's level of brain rot comprehensively. The first of the four factors
obtained by EFA, the component named as cognitive load, consists of 5 items. "I have difficulty focusing when
learning new information." "I have difficulty focusing on my daily tasks." This factor, which includes items such as "I
have difficulty focusing on my daily tasks.", is associated with a decrease in the cognitive reactions of the individual
as a result of the content to which the individual is exposed and the atrophy of the efficient thinking capacity due to
the extra load on the cognition level (Mahato et al., 2023; Mishra et al., 2021). The second factor of the scale is
cognitive fatigue. This factor consists of 6 items. Cognitive fatigue is generally seen as a psychobiological condition
that occurs after long-term cognitive functions and leads to a decrease in cognitive processing performance. It leads

20
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

to the observation of attitudes such as fatigue, depression, and procrastination in individuals (McMorris et al., 2018).
The items in this factor, such as "I experience problems such as headaches and difficulty falling asleep" and "I forget
my tasks that I am responsible for" were evaluated as compatible with the name of the factor in terms of scope. The
third dimension of the scale is "I make jokes that are common in social media in my relationships with people." The
emulation dimension includes statements such as "I enjoy exhibiting popular behaviors (trends) on social media".
Consisting of 4 items, this dimension was named as emulation because it is related to the psychological phenomenon
(Dinh & Lee, 2021) that develops as a result of individuals' desire to gain social acceptance and more interaction
with the identities they imitate with the intensive use of social media. The last factor of the brain rot scale is
depersonalization consisting of 3 items. Depersonalization is a condition associated with the weakening of social ties,
which is seen as an important factor of brain rot. This process, which starts to be observed with the feeling of
detachment from the environment as a result of the weakening of social ties and the decrease in emotional ties,
negatively affects the affective skills of individuals (Bokase, 2023). The items in the dimension such as "I cannot
distinguish the differences between virtual life and real life" and "I get warnings saying 'Go back to the real world!

The validity of the scale whose dimensions were determined by EFA was tested by confirmatory factor analysis.
As a result of confirmatory factor analysis, it was determined that the standardized path coefficients of the items
were .50 and above. This value shows that the items have a strong predictive power. In addition, as a result of the
analysis, the four-factor structure was preserved and the fit indices of the scale were determined to be at an
acceptable level. The CFA process of the brain rot scale was carried out in two levels. After the first level CFA, x²/df,
GFI, CFI, IFI, AGFI and RMSEA values showed that the scale had values between acceptable and good fit. The
second level CFA conducted after the first level CFA also presented similar values. Both levels of CFA showed that
the scale has a valid structure that can measure the desired phenomenon. In the reliability analysis of the brain rot
scale, McDonald's Omega (ω) and Cronbach's Alpha (α) coefficients were taken into consideration. The coefficients
obtained with the analyzes showed that the scale has a valid structure. The results of the independent sample t-test
conducted to test the validity of the scale also revealed that the sub-dimensions of the scale distinguished individuals
in terms of low and high score groups. The reliability of the scale was also tested in terms of stability. The results
obtained with the test-retest application showed that the scale was stable by making similar measurements at
different times. In addition, a known group validity analysis was conducted to determine the scale's ability to
measure the desired phenomenon in different groups. In this context, the mean scores of the study group categorized
according to the level of social media use were compared and a significant difference was found between the mean
scores of people with high social media use and those with low social media use. Accordingly, the brain rot scale can
measure the known characteristics of different groups.

The brain rot scale can measure the concepts in the literature that are associated with brain rot with sufficient
content validity. The literature review conducted during the study showed that there was no similar scale. However,
in the literature review, measurement tools focusing on concepts related to brain rot were found. For example, the
scale developed by Tutgun Ünal and Deniz (2015) consists of four factors (busyness, mood regulation, repetition,
and conflict) and 41 items. The scale, referred to as the Social Media Addiction Scale, aims to determine students'
social media addiction levels. Similarly, Liu and Ma's (2018) study, which developed a measurement tool on social

21
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

media addiction according to Chinese culture, consists of 6 dimensions and 28 items. The study states that social
media use is positively associated with smartphone addiction, pathological internet use and narcissism and negatively
associated with self-esteem. Abel et al. (2016) developed a measurement tool that associates social media use with
fear. Consisting of 3 dimensions and 10 items, this scale has an approach based on the effects of social media use and
fear of missing something on decision-making.

In conclusion, considering all the analyses and the related literature, it can be said that the brain rot scale is a
valid and reliable scale that can be used to determine the brain rot levels of individuals. Testing the scale on a sample
formed with a certain age group is accepted as a limitation of the study. Therefore, the brain rot scale can be tested
on samples of different structure and size.

Ethic

This research was approved by necmettin erbakan university social sciences ethics committee. (2025/188)

Author Contributions

The research was written with the joint contributions of the authors

Conflict of Interest

There is no conflict of interest between the authors.

Funding

There is no funding for this study.

22
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

References

Abel, J. P., Buff, C. L., & Burr, S. A. (2016). Social media and the fear of missing out: Scale development and
assessment. Journal of business & economics research, 14(1).

Albee, M., Allende, S., Cosgrove, V., & Hocking, M. (2022). A prospective study of social competence in survivors
of pediatric brain and solid tumors. Pediatric Blood & Cancer, 69(9). [Link]

Alqurashi, M. (2024). Protective effect of sterubin against neurochemical and behavioral impairments in rotenone-
induced parkinson's disease. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 57.
[Link]

Andreassen, C. S., Billieux, J., Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., Demetrovics, Z., Mazzoni, E., & Pallesen, S. (2016).
The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders:
A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychology of addictive behaviors, 30(2), 252.

Bannert, M. (2002). Managing cognitive load—recent trends in cognitive load theory. Learning and
instruction, 12(1), 139-146.

Bokase, M. (2023). Exploring the transformative impact of social media on behavior in contemporary society.
Interdisciplinary Journal Papier Human Review, 4(1), 10-19. [Link]

Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford publications.

Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological methods &
research, 21(2), 230-258.

Bryman, A., & Cramer, D. (2012). Quantitative data analysis with IBM SPSS 17, 18 & 19: A guide for social
scientists. Routledge.

Carr, N. (2010). The shallows: How the internet is changing the way we think, read and remember. Atlantic Books
Ltd.

Castro-Alonso, J. C., de Koning, B. B., Fiorella, L., & Paas, F. (2021). Five strategies for optimizing instructional
materials: Instructor-and learner-managed cognitive load. Educational Psychology Review, 33(4), 1379-1407.

Chang, H., Meng, X., Li, Y., Liu, J., Wen, Y., Ni, J., … & Li, C. (2023). The effect of mindfulness on social media
addiction among chinese college students: a serial mediation model. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14.
[Link]

Chen, S. H., Weng, L. J., Su, Y. J., Wu, H. M., & Yang, P. F. (2003). Development of a Chinese Internet addiction
scale and its psychometric study. Chinese Journal of Psychology. 45(3), 279–294.

Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for
getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 10(1), 1-9.
[Link]

23
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Çekiç, A., Öz, T. A., Yılmaz, Ü., & Yıldırım, A. (2024). The mediating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship
between social media addiction and mental well-being in young adults. International Journal of Progressive
Education, 20(20), 26-37. [Link]

Çömlekçi, M. F., & Başol, O. (2019). Gençlerin sosyal medya kullanım amaçları ile sosyal medya bağımlılığı
ilişkisinin incelenmesi. Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 17(4), 173-188.

DeVellis, R. F. (2017). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Sage Publications.

DeVellis, R. F., & Thorpe, C. T. (2021). Scale development: Theory and applications. Sage publications.

Dinh, T. C. T. and Lee, Y. (2021). “i want to be as trendy as influencers” – how “fear of missing out” leads to buying
intention for products endorsed by social media influencers. Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 16(3),
346-364. [Link]

Dolan E.W. (2025). Does TikTok really cause brain rot? New study links short video addiction to brain
abnormalities. [Link]
to-brain-abnormalities/?utm_source=[Link]

Doll, R. (1985). From Our Corresponents. Bristol Medico-Chirurgical Journal. 100(3):77–79

Erkuş, A. (2012). Psikolojide ölçme ve ölçek geliştirme. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayınları.

Fırat, N., & Barut, Y. (2018). Development of social media addiction scale: Validity and reliability study. Journal of
Human Sciences, 15(4), 2266-2279.

Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). Sage Publications.

Fisher, J. (2023). Cognitive and perceptual load have opposing effects on brain network efficiency and behavioral
variability in adhd. Network Neuroscience, 7(4), 1483-1496. [Link]

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

Hari J. (2022). Çalınan Dikkat. Neden Odaklanamıyoruz? Metis Yayınları

Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30(2), 179-185.
[Link]

Horoszkiewicz, B. (2022). Digital dementia and its impact on human cognitive and emotional functioning. Journal of
Education, Health and Sport, 12(11), 290-296.

Howie, E. E., Dharanikota, H., Gunn, E., Ambler, O., Dias, R., Wigmore, S. J., ... & Yule, S. (2023). Cognitive load
management: an invaluable tool for safe and effective surgical training. Journal of Surgical Education, 80(3),
311-322.

24
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

Itskovich, E., Zyga, O., Libove, R., Phillips, J., Garner, J., & Parker, K. (2020). Complex interplay between cognitive
ability and social motivation in predicting social skill: a unique role for social motivation in children with autism.
Autism Research, 14(1), 86-92. [Link]

Javed, H., Azimullah, S., Haque, M., & Ojha, S. (2016). Cannabinoid type 2 (cb2) receptors activation protects
against oxidative stress and neuroinflammation associated dopaminergic neurodegeneration in rotenone model of
parkinson's disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10. [Link]

Javed, H., Azimullah, S., Meeran, M., Ansari, S., & Ojha, S. (2019). Neuroprotective effects of thymol, a dietary
monoterpene against dopaminergic neurodegeneration in rotenone-induced rat model of parkinson’s disease.
International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(7), 1538. [Link]

Kaur, H., Chauhan, S., & Sandhir, R. (2011). Protective effect of lycopene on oxidative stress and cognitive decline
in rotenone induced model of parkinson’s disease. Neurochemical Research, 36(8), 1435-1443.
[Link]

Kelly, M., Duff, H., Kelly, S., Power, J., Brennan, S., Lawlor, B., … & Loughrey, D. (2017). The impact of social
activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older
adults: a systematic review. Systematic Reviews, 6(1). [Link]

Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications.

Lee, S. and Kim, Y. (2016). Which type of social activities may reduce cognitive decline in the elderly?: a
longitudinal population-based study. BMC Geriatrics, 16(1). [Link]

Mader, B. J., Pivtoraiko, V. N., Flippo, H. M., Klocke, B. J., Roth, K. A., Mangieri, L. R., … & Shacka, J. J. (2012).
Rotenone inhibits autophagic flux prior to inducing cell death. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 3(12), 1063-1072.
[Link]

Mahato, A., Gayen, P., & Mahato, R. (2023). Relationship between cognitive failure and internet addiction of higher
secondary students of purulia district of west bengal: a study. Innovare Journal of Education, 15-19.
[Link]

Manjunath, M. and Muralidhara, (2013). Effect of withania somnifera supplementation on rotenone-induced

oxidative damage in cerebellum and striatum of the male mice brain. Central Nervous System Agents in Medicinal
Chemistry, 13(1), 43-56. [Link]

McCrindle, M., & Fell, A. (2021). Generation Alpha. Hachette Australia.

McMorris, T., Barwood, M., Hale, B. J., Dicks, M., & Corbett, J. (2018). Cognitive fatigue effects on physical
performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Physiology & Behavior, 188, 103-107.

Mishra, G., Gupta, M., & Vaney, N. (2021). Effect of internet addiction on cognition - an event related potential
(p300) study. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Physiology, 8(3), 122-125.
[Link]

25
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Niedzielska, E., Smaga, I., Gawlik, M., Moniczewski, A., Stankowicz, P., Pera, J., … & Filip, M. (2015). Oxidative
stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Molecular Neurobiology, 53(6), 4094-4125. [Link]
015-9337-5

Nivins, S., Giesbrecht, G. F., Tomfohr-Madsen, L., & Lebel, C. (2024). Prenatal maternal diabetes, comorbidities,
and risk for neurodevelopmental impairment in the first two years. Pediatric Research, 1-11.

Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw.

Öğüt, D. K., Özbaran, N. B., Köse, S., & Kesikçi, H. (2020). Okul öncesi dikkat eksikliği hiperaktivite bozukluğunda
yürütücü işlevler. Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi, 21(4), 423-428.

Özgenel, M., Canpolat, Ö. ve Ekşi, H. (2019). Ergenler için Sosyal Medya Bağımlılığı Ölçeği (ESMBÖ): Geçerlik ve
güvenirlik çalışması. Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions, 6, 629–662.
[Link]

Özpençe, A. İ. (2024). Braın rot: Overconsumptıon of onlıne content (an essay on the publıcness socıal medıa).
Journal of Business Innovation and Governance, 7(2), 48-60.

Ratey, J. J., & Loehr, J. E. (2011). The positive impact of physical activity on cognition during adulthood: a review
of underlying mechanisms, evidence and recommendations. Reviews in the Neurosciences 22(2):171-85

Rattray, J., & Jones, M. C. (2007). Essential elements of questionnaire design and development. Journal of clinical
nursing, 16(2), 234-243.

Roberts, W., Milich, R., & Fillmore, M. (2012). Constraints on information processing capacity in adults with adhd.
Neuropsychology, 26(6), 695-703. [Link]

Rogers, R., & Niederer, S. (2020). The politics of social media manipulation (p. 257). Amsterdam University Press.

Sasson, N., Morrison, K., Kelsven, S., & Pinkham, A. (2019). Social cognition as a predictor of functional and social
skills in autistic adults without intellectual disability. Autism Research, 13(2), 259-270.
[Link]

Scanlan R. (2024). Warning issued over ‘brain rot’, the 2024 habit that’s ‘on the rise’.
[Link]
on-the-rise/news-story/e1205ce0ddd91c63749c8d2bba47a078

Schreiber, J. B. (2021). Issues and recommendations for exploratory factor analysis and principal component
analysis. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 17(5), 1004-1011.

Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2016). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Routledge.

Sondhi, N. ve Joshi, H. (2024). İnternet bağımlılığının çok boyutlu değerlendirilmesi: Ölçek geliştirme ve
doğrulama. Global Business Review , 25 (1), 85-98.

26
Yılmaz, Aktürk / Brain rot: A scale development study

Spitzer, M. (2012). Digitale Demenz: Wie wir uns und unsere Kinder um den Verstand bringen. München: Droemer
Knaur GmbH & Co. KG.

Stankovska, G., Angelkovska, S., & Grncarovska, S. P. (2016). Social Networks Use, Loneliness and Academic
Performance Among University Students. Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Sciences and
Humanities, 255-264.

Steiger, J. H. (2007). Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modeling.
Personality and Individual differences, 42(5), 893-898.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2019). Using multivariate statistics (7th ed.). Pearson.

Tanhan, F., ÖZOK, H. İ., Kaya, A., & Yıldırım, M. (2023). Mediating and moderating effects of cognitive flexibility
in the relationship between social media addiction and phubbing. Current Psychology, 43(1), 192-203.
[Link]

Tatulli, G., Mitro, N., Cannata, S., Audano, M., Caruso, D., D’Arcangelo, G., … & Aquilano, K. (2018). Intermittent
fasting applied in combination with rotenone treatment exacerbates dopamine neurons degeneration in mice.
Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 12. [Link]

Twenge, J. M. (2019). More time on technology, less happiness? Associations between digital-media use and
psychological well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(4), 372-379.

Witucki, Ł., Kurpik, M., Jakubowski, H., Szulc, M., Mikołajczak, P., Jodynis-Liebert, J., … & Kujawska, M. (2022).
Neuroprotective effects of cranberry juice treatment in a rat model of parkinson’s disease. Nutrients, 14(10),
2014. [Link]

Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations
for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806-838. [Link]

Wu, H., Gu, Y., Du, W., Meng, G., Wu, H., Zhang, S., ... & Niu, K. (2023). Different types of screen time, physical
activity, and incident dementia, Parkinson’s disease, depression and multimorbidity status. International Journal
of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 20(1), 130.

Xin, C., Yang, N., Ding, Y., Han, L., Zhou, Z., Guo, X., … & Lin, L. (2022). Mitochondrial‐targeting vitamin b3
ameliorates the phenotypes of parkinson's disease in vitro and in vivo by restoring mitochondrial function.
Advanced Therapeutics, 5(12). [Link]

Xu, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, Q., Yue, X., & Ye, Y. (2022). Effect of social media overload on college students’ academic
performance under the covid-19 quarantine. Frontiers in Psychology, 13.
[Link]

Yang, L., Cheng, J., & Wang, H. (2021). Place of residence and cognitive function in older adults in china: the
mediating role of social participation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1),
13. [Link]

27
RESEARCH ON EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY (REP)

Yeung, A., Ng, E., & Abi-Jaoude, E. (2022). TikTok and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a cross-sectional
study of social media content quality. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 67(12), 899-906.

Yılmaz, E., & Aktürk, A. (2021). Z kuşağı bir nesli anlamak. Konya: Palet Yayınları.

Yılmaz, E., Aktürk, A., ve Yıldırım, R. (2024). Dijital dünyanin insanı: Alfa Kuşaği. Nobel Akademik Yayınları

Zhang, K., Li, P., Zhao, Y., Griffiths, M., Wang, J., & Zhang, M. (2023). Effect of social media addiction on
executive functioning among young adults: the mediating roles of emotional disturbance and sleep quality.
Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Volume 16, 1911-1920. [Link]

Zhang, W., Vidaurre, D., & Bijsterbosch, J. (2021). Mental health explains individual deviations from normative
range in cognition-associated brain states.. bioRxiv, 2021-03. [Link]

Zheng, H., & Ling, R. (2021). Drivers of social media fatigue: A systematic review. Telematics and informatics, 64,
101696.

28