22MCA421 IT Project management

Module-5 : STAFFING IN SOFTWARE PROJECTS

Managing people – Organizational behavior – Best methods of staff selection – Motivation – The
Oldham – Hackman job characteristic model – Stress – Health and Safety – Ethical and
Professional concerns – Working in teams – Decision making – Organizational structures –
Dispersed and Virtual teams – Communications genres – Communication plans – Leadership.

Book :Bob Hughes, Mike Cotterell and Rajib Mall: Software Project Management – Fifth
Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, NewDelhi, 2012.

Module-5: STAFFING IN SOFTWARE PROJECTS

5.1 Managing People

5.1.1 Organizational Behaviour:

Historical Roots of OB:

 Frederick Taylor (Late 19th - Early 20th Century):
o Objective: To analyze and determine the most productive methods for manual
tasks.
o Key Actions:
 Select the best people for the job.
 Instruct them in optimal methods.
 Provide financial incentives to high performers.
o Taylorism: Criticized as mechanistic but valuable for identifying best practices.
The focus on financial incentives is debated, particularly in the context of modern
management.
Modern Implications:
 Software Development: Examples of structured and agile methods emphasize best
practices.
 Motivation Beyond Financial Rewards: Amanda and Brigette, though having limited
control over financial incentives, should focus on broader motivational strategies.
The Hawthorne Studies (1920s):
 Findings:
o Improvement in working conditions led to increased productivity among workers.

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o A control group (with unchanged conditions) also showed increased productivity.

o Highlighted the impact of worker perception and attention on productivity.
Theory X and Theory Y (Donald McGregor):
 Theory X:
o Assumes workers inherently dislike work.
o Requires coercion, direction, and control.
o People avoid responsibility.
 Theory Y:
o Work is as natural as rest or play.
o Effort can be directed through means other than coercion.
o Commitment to goals is linked to the rewards for achieving them.
o Workers can learn to seek and accept responsibility.
o Creative potential is widely distributed.
Observing Theory X vs. Theory Y:
 Theory X Environment: Staff relax or show less effort when the boss is absent.
 Theory Y Environment: Staff maintain productivity even in the boss's absence.

Influence of Expectations:

 Managerial or educational expectations significantly impact worker behavior and

performance. High expectations can lead to better outcomes and higher quality work.

5.2 Selecting the Right Person for the Job in Software Development
 Importance of Right Personnel:
o Frederick Taylor emphasized the significance of hiring the right person for each
job.
o In software development, individual performance differences can be substantial,
affecting productivity significantly.
 Performance Variability:
o A 1968 study highlighted dramatic differences in performance among
experienced programmers:
 Coding time ratio: 1:25

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 Debugging time ratio: 1:28

 Key Characteristics for Programmers:
o Experience vs. Education:
 Experience is often more influential on productivity than academic
qualifications, such as a mathematics degree.
 Cheney’s research indicated that experience is crucial for programmer
productivity, while mathematical aptitude has a lesser impact.
 Communication Skills:
o Effective communication with team members and users is essential.
o IS professionals traditionally reported weaker social needs and preferences for
solitary work.
o Despite this, recent surveys suggest that IS professionals now show similar social
needs to those in other fields.
 Changing Trends:
o The field of Information Systems (IS) has evolved, becoming broader and less
technical, which may influence the social dynamics of its professionals.

5.2.1 The Recruitment Process

Challenges in Recruitment:
 Limited Choice: Project leaders often have limited control over team composition and
must work with available candidates.
 Organizational Recruitment: Recruitment is typically handled at an organizational
level, with recruits potentially working across various departments over time.

Eligible vs. Suitable Candidates (Meredith Belbin):

 Eligible Candidates: Meet formal criteria (e.g., years of experience, qualifications) but
may not be well-suited for the role.
 Suitable Candidates: Possess the actual skills needed for the job and may be more loyal
and effective if trained to fill minor gaps.

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Recruitment Steps:
 Create a Job Specification:
o Define the role’s requirements and tasks clearly.
o Ensure the job specification complies with legal standards and is documented.
 Develop a Job Holder Profile:
o Based on the job specification, outline the necessary qualities, qualifications,
education, and experience required for the role.
 Obtain Applicants:
o Advertise the position through appropriate channels (internal, trade, or local
press) based on the job holder profile.
o Provide sufficient information (salary, location, qualifications) to attract suitable
candidates and allow for self-elimination.
 Examine CVs:
o Review CVs against the job holder profile.
o Avoid inviting candidates who clearly do not meet the eligibility criteria to avoid
wasting time.
 Conduct Interviews and Assessments:
o Use various selection methods: aptitude tests, personality assessments, and
evaluation of previous work samples.
o Conduct interviews with a focus on both technical skills and general
qualifications.
o Employ a formal scoring system for consistent evaluation and avoid excessive
interviewers to maintain focus and effectiveness.
o Address discrepancies in CVs and explore the candidate's background thoroughly.

Additional Considerations:
 Training and Development: Consider providing training to fill minor skill gaps in
suitable candidates.
 Non-Discriminatory Policies: Adopting policies that avoid discrimination based on race,
gender, age, or disabilities can be socially responsible and beneficial for recruitment.

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By following these steps, organizations can enhance their recruitment process, focusing on
finding the most suitable candidates for each role while ensuring a fair and effective selection
process.

5.3 Motivation
The third of Taylor’s concerns was that of motivating people to work. We are going to look at
some models of motivation.
5.3.1 The Taylorist Model
Taylorist Model Overview:
 Piece-Rates and Sales Bonuses:
o Manufacturing: Taylor’s principles are evident in piece-rate systems where
workers are paid per unit produced, and in sales bonuses based on performance.
o Challenges: Piece-rates can become problematic with technological changes that
increase productivity, requiring adjustments in payment systems. Radical changes
often lead to a shift from piece-rates to day-rates to accommodate new practices.

Issues with Piece-Rates:

 Work Practice Changes: When work practices evolve or technology advances,
adjusting piece-rates to reflect new productivity levels can be sensitive.
 Group Norms: Output may be limited by informal group norms rather than individual
effort, as workers often adhere to unspoken agreements about production levels.
 Team Dynamics: In fields like software development, where tasks are collaborative,
isolating individual contributions for piece-rate rewards is challenging. A team-focused
approach is essential for successful outcomes.

Alternative Reward Systems:

 Team-Based Bonuses: To address the limitations of piece-rates in team environments,
organizations often use bonuses for successful projects, especially when team members
have contributed significant unpaid overtime. This approach helps maintain morale and
productivity by recognizing collective efforts rather than individual output.

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Overall, while Taylor's piece-rate model has historical significance, its limitations in team-based
and evolving work environments have led to alternative reward systems that better suit modern
organizational structures.

5.3.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
 Concept: Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, proposed a hierarchy of needs,
suggesting that as lower-level needs are satisfied, individuals become motivated by
higher-level needs.
 Hierarchy Levels:
1. Basic Needs: Includes physiological needs such as food, shelter, and personal
safety.
2. Safety Needs: Protection from harm and security.
3. Social Needs: Belongingness, love, and relationships.
4. Esteem Needs: Self-esteem, recognition, and respect from others.
5. Self-Actualization: The highest level, where individuals seek personal growth,
self-fulfillment, and achieving their full potential.

Application and Individual Differences:

 Changing Motivators: As individuals progress through different stages of their lives and
careers, their primary motivators shift. For example, salary increases might be more
significant for less experienced or lower-paid employees compared to those who are
already well-compensated.
 Job Satisfaction: Older or more experienced employees may value job qualities such as
autonomy and recognition over financial rewards. They may seek roles that offer respect
for their judgment and sense of responsibility.
 Personality Differences: Individual motivations also vary based on personality. Some
employees are driven by growth needs and career development, while others view their
job primarily as a means of earning a living.

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Overall, Maslow’s hierarchy illustrates how people’s motivations evolve from basic survival
needs to more complex desires for personal growth and self-fulfillment. Understanding these
varying needs can help tailor motivational strategies effectively.

5.3.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:

 Concept: Frederick Herzberg's research identified two distinct sets of factors that
influence job satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
 Hygiene Factors:
o Definition: Factors that prevent dissatisfaction but do not necessarily lead to
increased job satisfaction.
o Examples: Pay level, working conditions, company policies, and job security.
 Motivators:
o Definition: Factors that lead to higher levels of job satisfaction and motivate
employees by providing a sense of achievement and personal growth.
o Examples: Opportunities for achievement, recognition, the nature of the work
itself, and personal development.

Application Example:
 Brigette at Brightmouth College:
o Challenge: Competing with larger organizations like IOE, which may offer better
hygiene factors (e.g., higher pay, better working conditions).
o Opportunity: Brightmouth College, being a smaller organization, might not
match the hygiene factors but could excel in providing strong motivators through
closer contact with users and a more personalized work environment.

In summary, Herzberg’s theory suggests that while addressing hygiene factors is essential to
prevent dissatisfaction, true job satisfaction and motivation come from enhancing motivators that
make the job feel meaningful and fulfilling.

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5.3.4 Expectancy Theory of Motivation:

Amanda and Brigette should understand how system development ups and downs affect
motivation. The expectancy theory of motivation, developed by Vroom, identifies three key
influences:

 Expectancy: Belief that hard work leads to better performance. If success is impossible
due to issues like a bug, motivation drops to zero.
 Instrumentality: Belief that better performance will be rewarded. If the effort seems
pointless, like when a user switches to another package, motivation drops.
 Perceived Value: The value of the reward. If users complain instead of showing
gratitude, motivation decreases.

Motivation is high when all three factors are high. If any factor is zero, motivation can be
completely lost.

5.4 The Oldham–Hackman Job Characteristics Model

Managers should design tasks to be meaningful and satisfying. According to Oldham and
Hackman, job satisfaction is influenced by:
 Skill Variety: Use of different skills.
 Task Identity: Identifiable work and outcomes.
 Task Significance: Impact on others.
 Autonomy: Control over how the job is done.
 Feedback: Information on work results.
Employee growth needs and work environment also affect job perception. To enhance
satisfaction, design tasks so staff can follow a product's progress and feel personally connected.

Methods of Improving Motivation

To improve motivation, managers can:
 Set Specific Goals: Goals should be challenging yet achievable and involve staff in their
creation to ensure acceptance.
 Provide Feedback: Regular updates on progress are essential to keep staff motivated.

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 Consider Job Design: Making jobs more interesting and increasing responsibility can
boost motivation.

Two methods to enhance job design are:

 Job Enlargement: Expanding the variety of activities a person performs. For instance, a
software developer might handle both coding and specifying amendments.
 Job Enrichment: Allowing staff to perform higher-level tasks usually reserved for
managers. For example, programmers might be authorized to approve minor changes
without manager approval.

A comprehensive survey on software developer motivation is available in a 2008 paper by Sarah

Beecham and colleagues.

5.5 Stress in Project Management

Projects create pressure for managers and team members. Key points include:
 Healthy Pressure: Moderate pressure prevents boredom, but excessive pressure reduces
work quality and harms health.
 Overtime: Necessary at times, but constant overtime lowers productivity and increases
health risks. Over 40 hours a week is detrimental.
 Unpaid Overtime: Common in software development but decreases productivity.
 Good Management: Reduces reliance on overtime through realistic planning and
learning from past projects, minimizing unnecessary crises.
 Stress Sources:
o Role Ambiguity: Unclear objectives and responsibilities cause stress.
o Role Conflict: Competing demands from different roles increase stress.
 Management Tactics: Avoids bullying and crisis creation, focusing on rational and
orderly project management.

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5.6 Health and Safety in Project Management

Health and safety are critical in construction and can also apply to ICT projects involving
physical infrastructure. Key points include:
 Legislation: Organizations with more than five employees must have a written safety
policy. Project managers should be familiar with this document.
 Integration: Safety objectives should be integrated into overall project management.
 Responsibilities: Clearly define safety responsibilities at all levels:
o Commitment from top management.
o Clear delegation and acceptance of safety responsibilities.
o Inclusion of safety duties in job descriptions.
o Deployment of safety officers and expert support.
o Consultation on safety.
o Adequate budgeting for safety costs.
 Training: Ensure safety procedures are communicated and appropriate training is
provided.
For more detailed information, consult specialized literature on health and safety.

5.7 Ethical and Professional Concerns in ICT

 Legal and Moral Obligations: Ethical duties exist to prevent harm, alongside legal
requirements for health and safety.
 Ethical Responsibilities: Apply to everyone, with specific duties for organizations and
professionals like software engineers.
 Organizational Ethics:
o Organizations have significant ethical responsibilities.
o Milton Friedman argued for prioritizing stockholders, but ethical actions can
benefit business.
 Competitive Ethics: Competition can benefit consumers but may lead to monopolies.
 Mission Statements: Often include public good objectives.
 Decision-Making Hierarchy:
o Strategies are implemented through a hierarchy.

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o Decisions must balance organizational needs and risks.

 Technical Expertise and Ethics:
o ICT practitioners must not misrepresent their expertise.
o They should communicate risks and ensure decisions are unbiased and technically
sound.
 Risk Management:
o Professionals must highlight risks.
o Organizations need processes to address technical concerns.
 Professional Standards:
o Bodies like BCS, IEEE, and ACM provide ethical codes and certification.
o ICT is evolving as a recognized profession.

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Working in teams

5.8 Decision Making

Decisions can be categorized based on their nature and complexity:
 Structured Decisions: Simple, routine decisions where rules can be applied
straightforwardly.
 Unstructured Decisions: Complex decisions requiring creativity and judgment.
 Risk and Uncertainty: Decisions can also be categorized by the level of risk and
uncertainty involved.

5.8.1 Mental Obstacles to Good Decision Making

While a structured, rational approach is ideal, real-world decisions often rely on intuition under
pressure. Key mental obstacles include:
 Faulty Heuristics:
o Based on limited or misleading information.
o Rely on stereotypes (e.g., assuming all Welshmen are great singers).
 Escalation of Commitment: Difficulty in changing a decision even when evidence
shows it's wrong.
 Information Overload: Excessive information can hinder the ability to make clear
decisions.
5.8.2 Group Decision Making
 Consulting the Team: Amanda at IOE might consult her project team to incorporate
diverse expertise and viewpoints.
 Acceptance: Decisions made collectively are more likely to be accepted by the team.
 Problem Solving: Groups are effective at solving complex problems when members
have complementary skills and expertise.
 Creativity: Groups struggle with poorly structured problems needing creative solutions.
Brainstorming helps, but individuals often generate more ideas alone.
 User Involvement: For engaging end-users, prototyping and participatory approaches
like JAD (Joint Application Development) can be effective.

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[Link] Obstacles to Good Group Decision Making

 Time-Consuming: Group decision making can be slow.
 Conflict: Can stir up conflicts within the group.
 Influence of Dominant Personalities: Decisions may be swayed by dominant members.
 Conformity: People may conform to group norms, reducing conflict but potentially
leading to riskier decisions (risky shift).

[Link] Measures to Reduce Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

One effective method is the Delphi Technique, which involves the following steps:

 Enlist Experts: Gather a group of experts.

 Present the Problem: Provide the problem to the experts.
 Record Recommendations: Experts submit their initial recommendations.
 Collate Responses: Compile and share all recommendations.
 Recirculate Responses: Share compiled responses with experts for further comments.
 Modify Recommendations: Experts adjust their recommendations based on others'
input.
 Achieve Consensus: Repeat the process until a consensus is reached or stop if consensus
is detected.

This technique allows for geographically dispersed experts to participate but can be time-
consuming.

5.8.3 Team Heedfulness

Teams can excel when members work together with awareness and support for each other,
known as team heedfulness. This concept is akin to a "collective mind," characterized by shared
understanding, familiarity, and good communication. Examples in software development
include:

 Egoless Programming: Promotes collaboration by minimizing individual ego.

 Chief Programmer Teams: Utilize a lead programmer to guide the team while ensuring
team cohesion.

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 Scrum: An agile methodology that enhances team communication and collective

problem-solving.

[Link] Egoless Programming

Egoless programming emerged to counter the early tendency of programmers to view their code
as personal extensions. Gerald Weinberg proposed that:
 Program Sharing: Programmers and team leaders should read each other’s programs.
 Common Property: Programs become the collective property of the programming
group.
 Peer Code Reviews: Items produced by individual team members are reviewed by
selected colleagues, enhancing maintainability and collaboration.

[Link] Chief Programmer Teams

Chief programmer teams enhance productivity and consistency in large, time-critical projects by
having a central figure supported by a structured team. Key aspects include:
 Chief Programmer: Leads by defining specs, designing, coding, testing, and
documenting.
 Support Team: Includes a co-pilot (assistant coder), editor (documentation), program
clerk (code maintenance), and tester (quality assurance).
 Advantages: Streamlined communication and unified design direction.
 Challenges: Requires exceptional chief programmers, risks information overload, and
potential support staff dissatisfaction.

Used effectively in projects like the New York Times data bank, this structure centralizes control
under a highly capable leader.

[Link].1 Extreme Programming (XP)

Extreme Programming (XP) promotes a "collective mind" through informal communication and
coordination, contrasting with conventional methods that rely on extensive documentation. Key
practices include:

 Code Refactoring: Continuous rewriting of code to improve clarity and functionality.

 Coding Standards: Ensuring code clarity and uniformity.

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 Test-Driven Development: Writing test cases and expected results before coding.
 User Involvement: Having a user representative available to clarify needs.
 Continuous Integration: Regularly testing the integration of software components.
 Pair Programming: Developers work in pairs, similar to the chief programmer/co-pilot
model.
XP enhances internal team coordination but may still face challenges with inter-team
coordination.

[Link] Scrum
Scrum is an agile development method focusing on teamwork and iterative progress. Key
features include:
 Planning: A chief architect sets the overall design and priorities.
 Sprints: Short, 1-4 week cycles for developing prioritized features.
 Daily Meetings: 15-minute check-ins to discuss progress and obstacles.
 Sprint Reviews: Post-sprint meetings with stakeholders to adjust features and priorities.
 Final Closure: Tasks like testing and documentation complete the product.
Scrum emphasizes flexibility and adaptation, with teams sometimes modifying practices as
needed.

5.9 Organization and Team Structures

Large software companies are divided into departments based on specialization or geography.
Smaller companies often operate with a single department. Each department handles multiple
projects with separate teams.
Key considerations for effectiveness:
 Department Structure: Organization within departments.
 Team Structure: Organization within project teams.

5.9.1 Department Structure: Functional Format

In a functional format, developers are grouped by specialization (e.g., database, design, testing).
Projects draw developers from these groups as needed, and developers return to their functional

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groups after their tasks are complete. Communication between teams is document-based, so
high-quality documentation is crucial for project continuity.

5.9.2 Project Format

In the project format, a dedicated team of developers is assigned to a project at its start. This
team handles all project activities from beginning to end, contrasting with the functional format
where developers are temporarily assigned to projects based on their expertise.

5.9.3 Functional vs. Project Formats

Functional Format:
 Advantages:
o Ease of Staffing: Flexibility in staffing by assigning developers as needed and
returning them to functional groups.
o Document Quality: Ensures thorough documentation due to limited direct
interaction between teams.
o Specialization: Allows developers to specialize in specific tasks, enhancing
expertise.
o Manpower Turnover: Effective handling of turnover with good documentation
and flexible staffing.
o Career Planning: Supports technical career progression, focusing on specialized
skills.

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Project Format:
 Advantages:
o Team Dedication: Provides a dedicated team for the entire project, improving
continuity and efficiency.
o User Preference: Users interact with a single team, enhancing communication
and support.
o Maintenance: Familiarity with the software over time aids in efficient
maintenance.

5.9.4 Matrix Format

Overview:
 Matrix Format blends functional and project structures.
 Structure: Functional specialists are assigned to projects as needed, with team members
reporting to both functional and project managers.
Types:
 Strong Matrix: Functional managers have significant authority, assigning workers to
projects.
 Weak Matrix: Project managers control the budget, can reject or hire workers, and have
more influence over project staffing.

Advantages:
 Combines benefits of functional specialization with project-oriented focus.
Challenges:
 Conflict: Potential for conflicts between functional and project managers over worker
allocation.
 Worker Shifting: Frequent shifts of workers in strong matrices can disrupt project
continuity.

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5.9.5 Team Structure

Definition: Refers to how reporting, responsibilities, and communication are organized within
project teams.
Types:
 Democratic: Decisions are made collectively.
 Chief Programmer: A lead programmer oversees the team.
 Mixed: Combines elements from various structures.
Note: Teams within the same organization may use different structures depending on project
complexity and size.

5.9.6 Team Structure

Definition: Refers to how reporting, responsibilities, and communication are organized within
project teams.
Types:
1. Democratic: Decisions are made collectively.
2. Chief Programmer: A lead programmer oversees the team.
3. Mixed: Combines elements from various structures.

Note: Teams within the same organization may use different structures depending on project
complexity and size.

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5.9.7 Chief Programmer Team

Structure:
 Chief Programmer: Provides technical leadership and oversees the project.
 Team Members: Handle tasks such as detailed design, coding, testing, and
documentation.

Philosophy:
 Based on Brooks' idea of maintaining design consistency with a small, focused team.
 The chief programmer sets the specifications, creates high-level design, and allocates
tasks.
 Ensures integration and verification of the completed work.

5.9.8 Chief Programmer Team: Pros and Cons

Advantages:

 Efficiency: Best for small, simple projects with quick design and task delegation.

Disadvantages:
 Lower Morale: Reduced team morale due to constant supervision.
 Limited Creativity: Chief programmer makes most decisions, limiting team input.
 Single Point of Failure: Project is at risk if the chief programmer becomes unavailable.
 Recruitment and Overload: Hard to find a top programmer; risk of overload in large
projects.

Use Case:
 Suitable for simple projects where speed is crucial and team development is secondary.

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5.9.9 Democratic Team: Summary

Structure:
 No formal hierarchy; decisions are made through discussions.
 Manager provides administrative leadership; technical roles rotate.

Advantages:
 Higher Morale: Increases job satisfaction and reduces turnover.
 Better Solutions for Complex Problems: Encourages collaborative problem-solving.

Disadvantages:
 Less Productive for Simple Projects: Less efficient for small tasks.
 Potential Chaos in Large Teams: Can become disorganized with more members.

Best For:
 Research projects with fewer than six developers.

5.9.10 Mixed Control Team Structure: Summary

Structure:
 Combines hierarchical reporting with a democratic approach.
 Hierarchical for overall project management; democratic for problem decomposition and
solution development.

Advantages:
 Balanced Approach: Utilizes both structured reporting and collaborative problem-
solving.
 Effective for Large Teams: Suits large team sizes by integrating different management
styles.

Usage:
 Popular in many software development companies for its flexibility and effectiveness in
large teams.

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5.10 Dispersed and Virtual Teams: Summary

Concept:

 Shift: From traditional co-located teams to virtual teams enabled by modern

communication technology.

Advantages:

 Cost Efficiency: Lower salaries and reduced overheads.

 Flexibility: Access to specialized skills as needed.
 Productivity: Often higher for remote workers.
 Time Zone Benefits: Can speed up project completion.

Challenges:

 Detailed Requirements: Essential for remote tasks.

 Formal Processes: Needed for coordination and documentation.
 Trust and Quality: Building trust and ensuring quality can be difficult.
 Coordination: Time zone differences can complicate communication.

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5.11 Communication Genres

Concept:
 Communication Genres: Structured types of communication with specific rules and
conventions, beyond just the technical means.
Examples:
 Meetings: Varied types with their own formalities (e.g., management meetings).
 Email: Can have structured formats for standard processes (e.g., change requests).

Considerations:
 Time and Place: Communication can be categorized by whether it's
synchronous/asynchronous and co-located/remote.
 Information Complexity:
o Simple Information: Phone calls are quick but less suitable for complex details.
o Understanding: Two-way communication is preferable if clarification is needed.
o Sensitivity: Face-to-face is best for personal or sensitive matters.

5.11.1 Early Stages of a Project: Summary

 Trust Building: Initial meetings help team members build trust and confidence.
 Same Time/Same Place Communication: In-person meetings are often most effective at the
start, especially for dispersed teams.
 Differing Opinions: While some argue for face-to-face interaction, others, like Julian Baggini,
believe that good relationships can form without personal meetings.
 Decision Making: Early project stages benefit from in-person meetings for effective design and
methodology decisions.

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5.11.2 Intermediate design stages of the project

During intermediate design stages, detailed work on components can proceed in parallel across
locations. For clarifications, same time/different place communication, such as teleconferencing, is most
effective.

5.11.3 Implementation stages of the project

During the implementation stage, with clear design and defined roles, communication is effectively
handled via email. However, regular face-to-face meetings are also recommended to maintain project
rhythm and motivation. Martha Maznevski and Katherine Chudoba noted that such meetings act as a
"heartbeat," providing essential coordination and energizing the team.

5.12 Communication Plans

Effective communication is crucial in all projects, especially dispersed ones. During project
planning, a dedicated communication plan should be created, outlining how to manage
interactions among stakeholders. This involves:
 Identifying Stakeholders: List all key stakeholders, particularly those involved in
development and implementation.
 Selecting Communication Channels: Determine the best methods and channels for each
project activity and milestone.
 Documenting Communication Plans: Create a table detailing communication events,
target audiences, purposes, schedules, methods, and responsible persons.
This structured approach ensures clear and effective communication throughout the project.

5.13 Leadership

Leadership involves influencing a group to achieve goals, and is distinct from management,
which encompasses organizing and controlling. Effective leaders often exhibit a strong need for
power, self-control, and self-confidence. Leadership power can come from:

 Position Power:
o Coercive (threatening punishment)
o Connection (access to influential people)

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o Legitimate (formal title)

o Reward (ability to grant rewards)
 Personal Power:
o Expert (specialized knowledge)
o Information (exclusive access to information)
o Referent (personal appeal)

Leaders may have varying levels of formal authority, but their influence is often derived from a
mix of these power types.

5.13.1 Leadership styles

Leadership styles vary in their approach to decision-making and supervision. Key styles are
measured by two axes:
1. Directive vs. Permissive:
o Directive Autocrat: Makes decisions alone with close supervision.
o Permissive Autocrat: Makes decisions alone but allows latitude in
implementation.
o Directive Democrat: Involves team in decision-making with close supervision.
o Permissive Democrat: Involves team in decision-making with more freedom in
implementation.
2. Task-oriented vs. People-oriented:
o Task-oriented: Focuses on task execution, effective in uncertain situations.
o People-oriented: Focuses on team needs, more effective as task uncertainty
decreases and with more experienced team members.
Effective leaders balance these styles depending on the team's maturity, task complexity, and
level of uncertainty.

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QUESTIONS

1. Analyze the influence of Frederick Taylor’s scientific management versus Theory Y on

modern software development teams' motivation and productivity.(L3)
2. Evaluate how selecting the right person for a software development role impacts team
productivity and project success.(L2)
3. How can the expectancy theory improve motivation in software development teams with
frequent project changes?(L2)
4. Create a plan to improve job satisfaction using the Oldham-Hackman Job Characteristics
Model.(L1)
5. Evaluate the ethical responsibilities of ICT professionals in ensuring unbiased and
technically sound decision-making.(L2)
6. Analyze the effectiveness of different decision-making strategies in managing complex
software development projects.(L3)
7. Evaluate the impact of different leadership styles on team performance in software
development projects.(L2)

Dr. Praveen Banasode Dept. of MCA, JCE Belagavi Page 25