Nerve Tissue

Cells conducting nerve impulses

The neurons
A. Functional classification:

1. Sensory
2. Motor
3. Interneuron
With supporting cells/neuroglia e.g. astrocytes

1
Neuron Types

2
Neurons
B. Antomical Classification:

1. Myelinated
2. Unmyelinated or non-myelinated

Unipolar e.g. sensory neuron

Multipolar e.g. motor neuron
Stellate e.g. interneuron or association neuron

3
Structure of Myelinated Neuron

4
Neurons Classified by Functions

5
5
Motor Unit

6
Neuron Action

7
Summary of Neuronal Structure and Function
Structure Functions

Dendrites Receive stimuli through activation of ligand-gated or

mechanically gated ion channels; in sensory neurons,
produce generator or receptor potentials; in motor
neurons and interneurons, produce excitatory and
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs).
Cell body Receives stimuli and produces EPSPs and IPSPs
through activation of ligand-gated or mechanically
gated ion channels.
Junction of axon Trigger zone inmany neuronns; integrates EPSPs
hillock and initial and IPSPs and, if sum is a depolarization that
segment of axon reaches threshold, initiates action potential (nerve
impulse).
Axon Propagates (conducts) nerve impulses from initial
segment (or from dendrites of sensory neurons) to
axon terminals in a self-reinforcing manner; impulse
amplitude does not change as it propagates along
the axon.
Axon terminals and Inflow of Ca2+ caused by depolarizing phase of
synpatic end bulbs nerve impulse triggers exocytosis of neurotrnasmitter
8
(or varicosities) from synpatic vesicles. 8
9
Neuroglia
‘Neuro’-- nerve; ‘glial’ -- glue (Greek)
Non-conducting cells in the brain

Functions:
•Protect and nourish nervous tissue - blood-brain-barrier.
•Support nervous tissue and bind it to other structures.
•Aid in repair of cells
•Act as phagocytes to remove pathogen
•Regulate the compositions of fluids around and between cells

• Neuroglia continue to multiply throughout life causing occasionally

tumours of the brain
• Many types of neuroglial cells are formed:
• Schwann cell, astrocyte, microglia, ependymal, oligodendrocyte.
10
Examples of Neural Circuits

11
11
Neuromuscular
Junction

12
The Nervous System (NS)
Lecture Outline

• Overall functions
• Components
• Individual functions
• Mechanism of action
• Synapses
• Neurotransmitters
• Receptors
• Nervous System and Aging
13
The Components of Nervous System
• Central Nervous System (CNS):
Brain,
Spinal Cord,
Meninges,
Cerebro-Spinal Fluid (CSF)

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

Cranial Nerves,
Spinal Nerves

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

Sympathetic,
Parasympathetic

14
The Nervous System (NS)
Functions

1. Provides most rapid means of communication between

body parts;
2. Stimulates muscular movements;
3. Co-ordinates all body activities;
4. Maintains homeostasis – working together with the
hormonal system;
5. Detects changes outside and inside the body by sensory
organs.

All these allow a better survival of the individual

15
Organization
of the
Nervous
System

16
16
Anatomical Organization of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Gray Matter Organization
Peripherial Nervous
System Neural Cortex Centers
Gray Matter on Collections of neuron
Gray matter the surface of the cell bodies in the CNS,
Ganglia: brain each center has
Collection of Neuron Cell specific processing
bodies in the PNS Nuclei functions
Collection of
neural cell Higher Centers
White Matter bodies in the The most complex
Nerves: receptor of the centres in the brain
Bundles axons in the CNS
PNS White Matter Organization
Tracts Columns
Bundles of CNS Several tracts that form
axons that share an anatomically distinct
a common origin, mass
destination and
function
Receptors
Receptors

Pathways
Columns and tracts that connect
the brain with other organs and
Effectors systems in in the body

Sensory (ascending) pathway

Motor (descending) pathway

17
 Working Components of NS
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Information Processing

Sensory Information Motor commands

Brain within within
Afferent division efferent division
Spinal
Cord

Somatic Autonomic
nervous Nervous
PERIPHERAL system System
Nervous
System
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
division division

Special sensory Somatic sensory

receptors receptors
Provide sensations Monitor the outside
Skeletal Smooth muscle
of smell, taste, vision, world and our
and hearing position in it Muscle
Cardiac muscle

Visceral sensory receptors Glands

Monitor internal conditions and the status of
internal organ system
Effectors
Receptors
18
Brain –Superior View

19
Brain - Lateral View

20
Brain – Sagittal View

21
Division of the Brain

Brain Stem

22
Functional
Areas in
Brain

23
Functional Differences Between the Two Cerebral hemispheres
LEFT HEMISPHERE FUNCTIONS RIGHT HEMISPHERE FUNCTIONS

Receives somatic sensory signals from and Receives somatic sensory signals from and
controls muscles on right side of body. controls muscles on left side of body.

Reasoning. Musical and artistic awareness.

Numerical and scientific skils Space and pattern perception.

Ability to use and understand sign language. Recognition of faces and emotional content
of facial expressions.

Spoken and written language. Generating emotional content of language.

Generating mental images to identifying and
discriminating among odors. 24
24
Cortex of the Cerebrum

words

25
Functions of the Cerebral Lobes
LOBE FUNCTIONS

Frontal lobes Motor areas control movements of voluntary skeletal muscles.

Association areas carry on higher intellectual processes such as
those required for concentration, planning, complex problem
solving, and judging the consequences of behaviour
Parietal lobes Sensory areas are responsible for the sensations of temperature,
touch, pressure, and pain from the skin.
Association areas function in the understanding of speech and in
using words to express thoughts and feelings.
Temporal lobes Sensory areas are responsible for hearing and smelling.
Association areas are used in the interpretation of sensory
experiences and in the memory of visual scenes, muscile and
other complex sensory patterns.
Occipital lobes Sensory areas are responsible for vision.
Association areas function in combining visual images with other
sensory experiences.
26
Functional Areas of the Cerebrum

27
27
The Cerebrum

• The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres connected by a bundle of

nerve fibers, the corpus callosum. The largest and most visible part of the
brain, the cerebrum, appears as folded ridges and grooves, called convolutions.
The following terms are used to describe the convolutions:

• A gyrus (plural, gyri) is an elevated ridge among the convolutions.

• A sulcus (plural, sulci) is a shallow groove among the convolutions.
• A fissure is a deep groove among the convolutions.

• The deeper fissures divide the cerebrum into five lobes (most named after
bordering skull bones)—the frontal lobe, the parietal love, the temporal lobe,
the occipital lobe, and the insula. All but the insula are visible from the
outside surface of the brain.

28 28
• A cross section of the cerebrum shows three distinct layers of nervous
tissue:

• The cerebral cortex is a thin outer layer of gray matter. Such activities
as speech, evaluation of stimuli, conscious thinking, and control of
skeletal muscles occur here. These activities are grouped into motor
areas, sensory areas, and association areas.

• The cerebral white matter underlies the cerebral cortex. It contains

mostly myelinated axons that connect cerebral hemispheres
(association fibers), connect gyri within hemispheres (commissural
fibers), or connect the cerebrum to the spinal cord (projection fibers).
The corpus callosum is a major assemblage of association fibers that
forms a nerve tract that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.

• Basal ganglia (basal nuclei) are several pockets of gray matter located
deep inside the cerebral white matter. The major regions in the basal
ganglia—the caudate nuclei, the putamen, and the globus pallidus—
are involved in relaying and modifying nerve impulses passing from
the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord. Arm swinging while walking, for
example, is controlled here.

29 29
Sensory and Motor Area of the Brain
Primary motor area Primary sensory area
sequence sequence

Trunk

Head
Neck
Leg
Hip
Toes Genitals

Lips
Motor cortex Somatic sensory cortex
jaw
Tongue (precentral (postcentral gyrus)
gyrus)
Intra-abdominal
Swallowing Pharynx

Prof. P.L. Tang_L2_Sleep Science 30 30

Organization of the Brain

31
Organization of the Brain

32
Memory
Fact memories
Accessing memories, stored bits of information gathered through prior
experience – specific bits of information.

Skill memories
Learned motor behaviours – with repeated exercise, skill memories become
in-corporated at the unconscious level. Different portions in brain stem
store up skill memories. Complex skills involve interplay between the
cerebellum and cerebral cortex.

Short-term memories or primary memories

Not long lasting, but information can be recalled immediately. They contain
bits of information e.g. telephone number. Repeating a phone number
or other bit of information reinforces the original short-term memory
and helps ensure its conversion to a long-term memory.

33
Memory (cont’d)
Long-term memories – remain for much longer periods or an entire lifetime.
Some fade with time and may require considerable effort to recall other
long-term memories seem to be part of consciousness, such as your name
or contour of your body. Most long-term memories are stored in the
cerebral cortex. Conscious motor and sensory memories are referred to
the appropriated association areas, e.g. visual memories in visual
association area, and memories of voluntary motor activity are kept in the
premotor cortex; special portions of the occipital and temporal lobes retain
the memories of faces, voices and cords.

Memory consolidation – conversion of short-term memory to long-term

memory process.

Amnesia – loss of memory from disease or trauma; loss depends on specific

brain regions affected. Damage to thalamic and limbic structures,
especially the hippocampus, affects memory storage and consolidation.

34
The Diencephalon
• The diencephalon connects the cerebrum to the brain stem. It consists of
the following major regions:
• The thalamus is a relay station for sensory nerve impulses traveling from
the spinal cord to the cerebrum. Some nerve impulses are sorted and
grouped here before being transmitted to the cerebrum. Certain
sensations, such as pain, pressure, and temperature, are evaluated here
also.

• The epithalamus contains the pineal gland. The pineal gland secretes
melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate the biological clock (sleep-
wake cycles).

• The hypothalamus regulates numerous important body activities. It

controls the autonomic nervous system and regulates emotion, behavior,
hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the biological clock. It also
produces two hormones (ADH and oxytocin) and various releasing
hormones that control hormone production in the anterior pituitary
gland.
35 35
• The following structures are either included or associated with
the hypothalamus.

• The mammillary bodies relay sensations of smell.

• The infundibulum connects the pituitary gland to the
hypothalamus.
• The optic chiasma passes between the hypothalamus and
the pituitary gland. Here, portions of the optic nerve from
each eye cross over to the cerebral hemisphere on the
opposite side of the brain.

Prof. P.L. Tang_L2_Sleep Science 36 36

The Limbic System
• The limbic system is a network of neurons that extends over a wide range
of areas of the brain. The limbic system imposes an emotional aspect to
behaviors, experiences, and memories. Emotions such as pleasure, fear,
anger, sorrow, and affection are imparted to events and experiences. The
limbic system accomplishes this by a system of fiber tracts (white matter)
and gray matter that pervades the diencephalon and encircles the inside
border of the cerebrum. The following components are included:

• The hippocampus (located in the cerebral hemisphere)

• The denate gyrus (located in cerebral hemisphere)
• The amygdala (amygdaloid body) (an almond-shaped body associated with
the caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia)
• The mammillary bodies (in the hypothalamus)
• The anterior thalamic nuclei (in the thalamus)
• The fornix (a bundle of fiber tracts that links components of the limbic
system)

37 37
Brain – Sagittal View

38 38
 Mid-Sagittal Section of the Brain
Third Ventricle
Parietal lobe of
Intermediate mass of cerebral hemisphere
thalamus Corpus callosum
Choroid plexus of third
Frontal lobe of cerebral ventricle
hemisphere Occipital lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
Thalamus (encloses
Anterior commissure third ventricle)
Pineal body (part of
epithalamus)
Hypothalamus Corpora quadrigemina
(Midbrain)
Optic chiasma
Cerebral aqueduct
Pituitary gland (Midbrain)
Cerebral pedunice of
Temporal lobe of midbrain
central hemisphere Mammillary body
Pons Fourth ventricle
Choroid plexus
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord Cerebellum
Prof. P.L. Tang_L2_Sleep Science 39 39
The Reticular formation
Radiations to
cerebral cortex

Auditory impulses
Visual impulses
Descending
Reticular formation motor
Ascending general sensory tracts projections to
(touch, pain, temperature) spinal cord
40 40
The Brain Stem
• The brain stem connects the diencephalon to the spinal cord.
The brain stem resembles the spinal cord in that both consist of
white matter fiber tracts surrounding a core of gray matter.

• The brain stem consists of four regions, all of which provide

connections between various parts of the brain and between
the brain and the spinal cord. (Some prominent structures are
illustrated in the following figure ).

41 41
Prominent Structures of the Brain Stem

42 42
– The midbrain is the uppermost part of the brain stem.
– The pons is the bulging region in the middle of the
brain stem.
– The medulla oblongata (medulla) is the lower portion
of the brain stem that merges with the spinal cord at
the foramen magnum.
– The reticular formation consists of small clusters of
gray matter interspersed within the white matter of
the brain stem and certain regions of the spinal cord,
diencephalon, and cerebellum. The reticular
activation system (RAS), one component of the
reticular formation, is responsible for maintaining
wakefulness and alertness and for filtering out
unimportant sensory information. Other components
of the reticular formation are responsible for
maintaining muscle tone and regulating visceral
motor muscles.
43
• The cerebellum consists of a central region, the vermis, and two wing
like lobes, the cerebellar hemispheres. Like that of the cerebrum, the
surface of the cerebellum is convoluted, but the gyri, called folia, are
parallel and give a pleated appearance. The cerebellum evaluates and
coordinates motor movements by comparing actual skeletal
movements to the movement that was intended.

44 44
The Brain Case

45
 Superior sagittal sinus

Choroid plexus Arachnoid villus

Cerebrum covered Subarachnoid space

with pia mater Arachnoid
Meningeal dura mater
Corpus callosum Periosteal dura mater

Tentorium cerebelli
Third ventricle

Pituitary gland Cerebellium

Cerebral aqueduct
Choroid plexus
Fourth ventricle
Central canal of spinal cord

Ventricle and location

of the cerebrospinal
fluid 46 46
Summary of the
Formation,
Circulation and
Absorption of
Cerebrospinal
Fluid (CSF)

47
47
Lumbar Puncture

48
48
The Blood Brain Barrier

49
49
Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
Blood capillaries wrapped around by neuroglial cells to limit the permeability

Helps to maintain stable environment by allowing some substances e.g.

glucose, amino acids and some electrolytes to cross it while blocking others,
e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters, drugs and compounds harmful to the brain.

It excludes pathogens. Some viruses can pass through e.g. provirus, herpes
virus and streptococci species, certain disease processes e.g. hypertension
ischemia, inflammation can increase permeability of BBB.

Some antibiotics can cross it, others cannot. Condition can be improved by
using concentrated sugar solution mixing with the drug and injected into the
bloodstream. The high osmotic pressure so generated can open the tight
junctions through which the drug can pass.

50
51
Spinal Cord and
Nerves

52
Somatic NS
(Central NS)

53
Spinal Cord (Cross Section)

54
T.S. Spinal Cord

55
Sensory and Motor Pathways
PATHWAY FUNCTION

SENSORY
Posterior column pathway Delivers highly localized sensations of fine touch, pressure,
Spinothalamic pathway vibration, and proprioception to the primary sensory cortex
Spinocerebellar pathway Delivers poorly localized sensations of touch, pressure, pain,
and temperature to the primary sensory cortex
Delivers proprioceptive information concerning the positions of
muscles, bones, and joints to the cerebellar cortex

MOTOR Provides conscious control of skeletal muscles throughtout the

Corticospinal pathway body
Medial and lateral pathways Provides subconscious regulation of skeletal muscle tone,
congtrols reflexive skeletal muscle responses to equilibrium
sensations and to sudden or strong visual and ausditory stimuli

56
Reflexes
A reflex is an automatic motor response to a specific stimulus, helping
to preserve homeostasis by making rapid adjustments in the function
of organs or organ systems. Same stimulus, same motor response.
The working component – see diagram.

57
Common terminology:
Monosynaptic reflex e.g. knee-jerk reflex (patellar reflex) or stretch
reflex.

Polysynaptic reflex – includes a longer delay between stimulus and

response and producing far more involved responses because the
inter-neurons can control several muscle groups simultaneously, e.g.
withdrawal reflex or flexor reflex

58
Integration and Control of Spinal Reflexes
Although reflexes are automatic, higher centres in the brain influence
these responses by stimulating or inhibiting the interneurons and
motor neurons involved. e.g. Babinski sign or positive Babinski
reflex – fanning of toes in infants; but negative Babinski reflex –
curling of toes in adults, after a one-second delay.

59
60
Knee Jerk Reflex (Stretch Reflex)

Step 1

Step 2

61 61
The Components of a Reflex Arc
A simple reflex arc, such as the withdrawal reflex shown here, consists of a sensory neuron, an
interneuron, and a motor neuron

62
Nerve Plexuses
Compound nerve trunks containing axons derived from several spinal nerves innervating larger
muscles. Four plexuses are found.
1. Cervical plexus – innervates muscles of neck and extends into thoracic cavity to control the
diaphragm.
2. Brachial plexus – innervates the shoulder girdle and upper limb.
3. Lumbar plexus – this and the next one supply nerves to pelvic girdle and
4. Sacral plexus – nerves to pelvic girdle and lower limb. They are sometimes designated the
lumbo-sacral plexus.
Nerves from plexuses contain sensory as well as motor fibers.

63
63
Nerve Plexuses and Major Nerves
LEXUS MAJOR NERVE DISTRIBUTION
Cervical Phrenic nerve Diaphragm
Plexus (C1 – Other branches Muscles of the neck; skin of upper chest, neck, and ears
C5)

Brachial Axillary nerve Deltoid and teres minor muscles; skin of shoulder
Plexus Musculocutaneous nerve Flexor muscles of the arm and forearm; skin on lateral surface of forearm
(C5 – T1) Median nerve Flexor muscles of forearm and hand; skin over lateral surface of hand
Radial nerve Extensor muscles of the arm, forearm, and hand; skin over postrolateral
surface of the arm
]Ulnar nerve Flexor muscles of forearm and small digital muscles; skin over medial
surface of hand
Lumbosacral Femoral nerve Flexors and extensors of knee; skin over medial surfaces of thigh, leg,
Plexus and foot
Lumbar Plexus Obturator nerve Adductors of hip; skin over medial surface of thigh
(T12 – L4) Saphenous nerve Skin over medial surface of leg

Sacral Plexus Gluteal nerve Adductors and extensors of hip; skin over posterior surface of thigh
(L4– S4) Sciatic nerve Flexors of knee and ankle, flexors and extensors of toes; skin over
anterior and posterior surfaces of leg and foot

64
64
Distribution of nerves
from the brachial
plexus

The brachial plexus

supplies the shoulders and
upper limbs.

65 65
 Brachial Plexus
Nerve Origi Distribution
n
Dorsal scapular C5 Levator scapulae and rhomboid muscles.
(SKAP-u-lar)
Long thoracic C5-C7 Serratus anterior muscle.
(thor-RAS-ik)
Suprascapular C5-C6 Supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles.

Musculocutaneous C5-C7 Flexors of arm (coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, and brachialis

(mus-ku-lo-ku-tan-e-us) muscles); skin over lateral forearm.
Pectoral (PEK-to-ral) (medial and C5-C7 Pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscles.
lateral)
Subscapular (upper and lower) C5-C6 Subscapularis and teres major muscles.

Thoracodorsal (thor-ak-o-DOR-sal) C6-C8 Latissimus dorsi muscle.

Axillary (AK-si-lar-e) C5-T1 Flexors of forearm, except flexor carpi ulnaris and some muscles
of the hand; skin of lateral two-thirds of palm of hand and fingers.
Median C5-T1 Flexors of forearm, except flexor carpi ulnaris and some muscles
of the hand; skin of lateral two-thirds of palm of hand and fingers.
Radial C5-T1 Triceps brachii and other extensor muscles of forearm; skin of
posterior arm and forearm. Lateral two-thirds of dorsum of hand,
and middle phalanges.
Ulnar C8-T1 Flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum profundus, and most
muscles of the hand; skin over medial hand.
66
Lumbar Plexus
Nerve Origin Distribution
Iliohypogastric(il-e-o- L1 Abdominal muscles; skin over inferior abdomen
hi-po-GAS-trik) and buttocks.
Ilioinguinal (iL-e-o-IN- L1 Abdominal muscles (with illiophypogastric); skin
gwi-nal) of superior medial thigh, penis and scrotum in
male, and labia majora and mons pubis in female.
Genitofemoral (jen-i- L1-L2 Cremaster muscle; skin over middle anterior thigh,
to-FEM-or-al) scrotum in male, and labia majora infemale.
Lateral cutaneous L2-L3 Skin over lateral, anterior and posterior thigh.
nerve of thigh
Femoral (FEM-or-al) L2-L4 Flexor muscles of thigh and extensor muscles of
leg; skin over anterior and medial thigh and
medial side of leg and foot.
Obturator (OB-too-ra- L2-L4 Abductor muscles of thigh; skin over medial thigh.
tor)
67
Sacral Plexus
Nerve Origin Distribution
Superior gluteal L4-L5 and Gluteus minimus and gluteus medius muscles, and tensor fasciae
(GLOO-te-al) S1 latae.
Inferior gluteal Posterior L5-S2 Gluteus maximus muscle.
cutaneous nerve of thigh
Sciatic (si-AT-ik) S1-S3 Skin over anal region, inferior lateral aspect of buttocks, superior
posterior aspect of thigh, superior p[osterior aspect of thigh,
superior part of calf, scrotum in male, and labia majora in female.
Tibial L4-S3 Hamstring and adductor magnus muscles. Composed of two
(TIB-e-al) nerves bound together by common sheath that spilts, usually at
(including medial plantar the knee.
branches)
L4-S3 Gastrocnemius, plantaris, soleus, popliteus, tibialis posterior
muscles, flexors of toes, intrinsic muscles of the foot; skin over
posterior leg and plantar surface of foot and lateral.
Common fibular Fibularis muscles (brevis, longus, tertius), tibialis anterior muscles,
(FIB-u-lar) L4-S2 and extensor muscles of toes; skin over anterior leg and dorsum
(including superficial and of foot.
deep fibular branches)
Pudendal S2-S4 Muscles of perineum; skin of penis and scrotum in male and
(pu-DEN-dal) clitoris, labia majora, labia minora, and vagina in female.

68
Distribution of Nerves from
the lumbar and sacral
plexuses

The lumbar plexus supplies the

anterolateral abdominal wall, external
genitals, and part of the lower limbs.

69
 Brain Waves
Fluctuating electrical activity
occurring in the brain
(Hertz per sec)

Detectable by Electroencephalogram
which measures the voltage changes
in brain tissues for the evaluation of
nerve tissue functions
70
Alpha Waves – 8 ~ 13 Hz, high voltage

(Eyes closed, relaxed waves)

Beta Waves – > 13 Hz, low voltage

(Eyes open, busy waves)

71
Theta Waves – 4~7 Hz, low voltage

(Drowsy waves)

Delta Waves – < 4 Hz, high voltage

(Deep sleep Waves)

72
Electroencephalography

Normal Brain Wave Abnormal Brain Wave 73

The 12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerve (Number) Primary Function Innervation

Olfactory (I) Special sensory Olfactory epithelium

Optic (II) Special sensory Retina of eye

Oculomotor (III) Motor Inferior, medial, superior rectus, inferior oblique, and
intrinsic muscles of eye

Trochlear (IV) Motor Superior oblique muscle of eye

Trigeminal (V) Mixed Sensory: orbital structures, nasal cavity, skin of

forehead, eyelids, eyebrows, nose, lips, gums and
teeth; cheek, palate, pharynx and tongue
Motor: chewing (temporalis, masseter, pterygoids)
muscles
74
The Cranial Nerves (Cont’d)
Cranial Nerve (Number) Primary Function Innervation
Abducens (VI) Motor Lateral rectus muscle of eye

Facial (VII) Mixed Sensory: taste receptors on the anterior 2/3 of

tongue
Motor: muscles of facial expression, lacrimal (tear)
gland, and submandibular and sublingual salivary
glands
Vestibulocohlear Special sensory Cohlea (receptors for hearing)
(Acoustic) (VIII) Vestibule (receptors for motion and balance)

Glossopharyngeal (IX) Mixed Sensory: posterior 1/3 of tongue; pharynx and

palate (part); receptors for blood pressure, pH,
oxygen, and carbon dioxide concentrations
Motor: pharyngeal muscles, parotid salivary gland

75
The Cranial Nerves (Cont’d)

Cranial Nerve Primary Function Innervation

(Number)
Vagus (X) Mixed Sensory: pharynx; auricle and external meatus;
diaphragm; visceral organs in thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities
Motor: palatal and pharyngeal muscles and visceral
organs in thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Accessory Motor Voluntary muscles of palate, pharynx, and larynx;

(Spinal Accessory) (XI) sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles

Hypoglossal (XII) Motor Tongue muscles

76
Autonomic NS

77
Sympathetic
Division

78
Parasympathetic
Division

79
 The Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of
the ANS on Various Body Structures
structure Sympathetic Effects Parasympathetic Effects

EYE Dilation of pupil Constriction of pupil

Focusing for distance vision Focusing for near vision
Tear Glands None (not innervated) Secretion
SKIN
Sweat glands Increases secretion None (not innervated)
Arrector pili muscles Contraction, erection of hairs None (not innervated)

CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM
Blood vessels Vasoconstriction and vasodilation None (not innervated)
Increases heart rate, force of
Heart contraction, and blood pressure Decreases heart rate, force of contraction,
and blood pressure
80
 The Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the
ANS on Various Body Structures (cont’d)
Structure Sympathetic Effects Parasympathetic Effects
ADRENAL GLANDS Secretion of epinephrine and None (not innervated)
norepinephrine by adrenal
medullae
RRESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Airways Increases diameter Decreases diameter
Respiratory rate Increase rate Decrease rate
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
General level of activity Decreases activity Increases activity
Liver Glycogen breakdown, glucose Decreases rate
synthesis and release
SKELETAL MUSCLES Increases force of contraction, None (not innervated)
glycogen breakdown

81
The Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the
ANS on Various Body Structures (cont’d)

structure Sympathetic Effects Parasympathetic Effects

ADIPOSE TISSUE Lipid breakdown, fatty acid None (not innervated)
release
URINARY SYSEM
Kidneys Decreases urine production Increases urine production
Urinary bladder Constricts sphincter, relaxes Tenses urinary bladder, relaxes sphincter to
urinary bladder eliminate urine
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Increased glandular secretions; Erection of penis (male) or clitoris (females)
ejaculation in males

82
Autonomic Neurotransmitters

Effector

Effector

83
83
Neurotransmitters
Small-Molecule Transmitters

Neurotransmitter Location Function

Acetylecholine

Acetylcholine (Ach) Junctions with motor Excitatory or

effectors (muscles gland); inhibitory; involved in
many parts of brain memory

84
 Neurotransmitters
Small-Molecule Transmitters (Cont’d)
Neurotransmitter Location Function
Amines
Serotonin Several regions of the CNS Mostly inhibitory; involved in moods and emotions,
sleep
Histamine Brain Mostly excitatory; involved in emotions and
regulation of body temperature and water balance

Dopamine Brain; autonomic system Mostly inhibitory; involved in emotions/moods and

in regulating motor control

Epinephrine Several areas of the CNS Excitatory or inhibitory; acts as a hormone when
and in the sympathetic secreted by sympathetic neurosecretory cells of
division of the ANS the adrenal gland

Norepinephrine Several areas of the CNS Excitatory or inhibitory; regulates sympathetic

and in the sympathetic effectors; in brain, involved in emotional responses
division of the ANS 85
Neurotransmitters
Small-Molecule Transmitters (Cont’d)

Neurotransmitter Location Function

Amino acids
Glutamate (glutamic CNS Excitatory; most common excitatory
acid) neurotransmitter in CNS
Gamma- Brain Inhibitory; most common inhibitory
aminobutyric acid neurotransmitter in brain
(GABA)
Glycine Spinal cord Inhibitory; most common inhibitory
neurotransmitter in spinal cord
Other small molecules
Nitric oxide (NO) Uncertain May be a signal from postsynaptic to
presynaptic neuron
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 Neurotransmitters
Large-Molecule Transmitters
Neurotransmitter Location Function
Neuropeptides
Vasoactive intestinal Brain; some ANS and Function in nervous system uncertain
peptide (VIP) sensory fibers; retina;
gastrointestinal tract
Cholecystokinin Brain; retina Function in nervous system uncertain
(CCK)
Substance P Brain, spinal cord, Mostly excitatory; transmits pain
sensory pain information
pathways;
gastrointestinal tract
Enkephalins Several regions of Mostly inhibitory; act like opiates to
CNS; retina; intestinal block pain
tract
Endorphins Several regions of Mostly inhibitory; act like opiates to
CNS; retina; intestinal block pain
tract 87
 The Mechanism
• Action Potential
• Impulse Transmission
• Refractory Period
• All-or-None Law
• Synapses
• The Reflex Arc
• Sensory function: the receptors
1. exteroceptors
2. Isceroceptors
3. proprioceptors
4. pain receptors
General Senses
Cutaneous and connective tissue origin
Special senses: the organ of special senses
Anaesthesia
Hyperaesthesia
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Membrane and Resting Potential

89
Membrane and Resting Potential

90
Membrane Polarization

91
Action Potential

92
 The Action Potential

In depolarization, Na + membrane channels open and Na + enters the cell. In

repolarization, K+ membrane channels open and K + leaves the cell. During the
resting stage, the Na + /K + pump returns ion concentrations to their original
concentrations so the membrane can be stimulated again. 93
 Action
Potential

94
94
Changes at Synapse
Information Relay Among Neurons

95
1. Arrival of action potential at synaptic knob

96
2. Entry of extracellular Ca+2 and release of Ach through
synaptic vesicle exocytosis

97
3. Binding of Ach to receptors and depolarization of
postsynaptic membrane may bring adjacent segment to
threshold

98
4. Removal of Ach by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

99
Dermatomes

100
Referred Pain
In referred pain, sensations originating in visceral organs are
perceived as pain in other body regions innervated by the same
spinal nerves. Each region of perceived pain is labelled according
to th organ at which the pain originated.

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Distribution of referred pain
The coloured parts of the diagrams indicate skin areas to which visceral pain is referred.

Nociceptors are present in almost every tissue of the body. 102

Referred Pain

103
Pain Receptors - Nociceptors
Free nerve endings, especially common in the superficial portions of
skin, joint capsules, within periostea covering bones and around
blood vessel walls. Other deep tissues and visceral organs contain
few nociceptors. They have large field of reception causing the exact
source of painful sensation difficult to ascertain.
Nociceptors may be sensitive to extremes of temperature mechanical
damage or dissolved chemicals such as those released by injured cells.
A ‘burning’ feeling is often referred to.

104
Once pain receptors in a region are stimulated, two types of axons
carry the painful sensation. Myelinated fibres carry the very localized
sensations of Fast Pain )or prickling pain). These sensations reach the
brain quickly and where they often trigger somatic reflexes. They are
also relayed to the primary sensory cortex and so receive conscious
attention. Slower, unmyelinated fibres carry sensations of Slow Pain,
or burning or aching pain.
These sensations enable you to identify only the general area
involved.

105
Pain sensations from visceral organs often are perceived as originating at the body
surface generally in those regions innervated by the same spinal nerves. The
perception of pain coming from parts of the body that are both actually
stimulated is called Referred Pain. The mechanism is unknown with clinical
examples like cardiac pain, often perceived as originating in the skin of the upper
chest and left arm.

Pain receptors continue to respond as long as the painful stimulus remains.

However, the perception of the pain can decrease over time because of the
inhibition of centers in the thalamus, reticular formation, lower brain stem, and
spinal cord.

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Substances Affecting NS:
Drugs:
• Sedatives e.g. tranquilisers
• Hypnotics e.g. Barbiturates – additive
• Narcotics e.g. opium, morphine, heroin – additive
• Analgesics e.g. aspirin, paracetamol – lining, liver damage
• Stimulants on sympathetic NS
e.g. Amphitamines (cot loss) – additive, caffeine on brain to help synapse
• Nerve poisons
e.g. alcohol – depressant, narcotic and sedative, slow down transmission of
impulse; alcoholism, Alcohol Anonymous (AA)
• Methanol – toxic, neuritis causing blindness e.g. India

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Nervous System and Aging

• Reduction in brain size and weight

• Reduction in number of neurons
• Decrease in blood flow to brain
• Changes in synaptic organization of brain
• Intracellular and extracellular changes in CNS neurons

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EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• After age 60, the brain begins to lose thousands of neurons a day, When these cells die, they are
not replaced. By the time a person reaches 80, the brain weighs about 10 % less than it did when
the person was a young adult. The cerebral cortex shrinks more than other areas of the brain
losing as much as 45 % of its cells. Therefore, there is a decline in such mental activities as
learning, memory, and reasoning.
• The production of neurotransmitters also slows down so that synaptic transmission is slower.
Along with a reduced number of neurons, processing of thoughts slows down. As a person ages, it
takes longer to translate a thought into action, thus younger athletes tend to outshine older
athletes in sports.
• Alzheimer disease is usually associated with age. The progressive loss of memory and other
intellectual functions in these patients are accompanied by abnormalities in neuron structure.
The neurons develop neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques perhaps as a result of a genetic
defect.

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DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
You will come across the following common diseases associated with
the nervous system.
General :
1. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) –loss of myelin in nerve fibres affecting
impulse conduction
2. Tumour – neuroma, gliomas, neurofibromatosis with numerous
benign tumours
3. Hemiplegia, paraplegia, triplegia and quadplegia

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 Brain Disorders:
1. Destruction of brain tissue
a. Cardiovascular Accidents (CVA) eg hemorrhage
b. Cerebral Palsy (CP) eg motor control area paralysed

2. Dementia – progressive loss of memory, shortened attention span, personality changes, reduced intellectual
capacity and motor control deficit
a. Alzheimer Disease (AD) – middle and late adult years, characterized by dementia, tissue damage,
genetic inheritable
b. Parkinson – loss of neuronal communication
c. Huntington Disease (HD) – inherited disorder, characterized by chorea (purposelessly movement)
progressing to severe dementia
d. HIV (AIDS) can infect neurons and thus cause dementia
3. Seizure disorders
a. Seizure – sudden burst of abnormal neuron activity that result in temporary changes in brain functions
b. Epilepsy – many forms: all characterized by recurring seizures, may be idiopathic
c. Electroencephalogram – voltage changes in the brain to evaluate brain activity
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PNS Disorders
Neuritis by compression, degeneration and infection
[Link] – inflammation of spinal nerves giving neuralgia, eg
trigeminal neuralgia 5th CN
[Link] Palsy – Compression, degeneration, inflammation of 7th CN,
often temporary
[Link] zoster or shingles – viral infection affecting skin of a single
dermatome(caused by varicella zoster virus, VZVof chickenpox)

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ANS Disorders – many possible causes

1. Heart disease, eg hypertension

2. Digestive problems, eg colitis, gastric ulcers

3. Reduced resistance to disease, eg glucocorticoid

4. Neuroblastoma, malignant tumour of sympathetic NS,

usually occurs in young children and metastasizes to
other body parts

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