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INDIRECT SOURCES SOURCES OF

 Pressure, density and temperature EARTH’S
increases with depth INTERIOR DIRECT SOURCES
 Core of Meteors similar to core of  Deep mining &
earth drilling e.g. Mponeng
 Gravity anomaly – gravity Earth’s interior used to Gold mine in South
differences due to uneven understand Africa - deepest
distribution of mass of materials  Endogenic process  Volcanic eruption –
 Shift in Magnetic field & geo-  Internal structure shows that earth
dynamo effect  Evolution of earth. interior is very hot
 Seismic waves (detailed below)  Geophysical phenomena
 Atmospheric Composition

SEISMIC WAVES
TYPES OF BODY WAVES
 Seismic waves – due to
P WAVES S WAVES
earthquake.
 Primary waves  Secondary waves
 Earthquake due release of  Compressional waves  Distortional waves
energy at focus of an  Longitudinal nature  Transverse nature
earthquake (hypocentre)  Moves faster (arrives first)  Cannot pass through liquid or
during a fault  Travel in all medium gases (hence do not pass
 Point on surface nearest to  Velocity order – through liquid outer core)
Solids>liquid> gases  Shadow zone – 1030 - 1800
focus is called the epicentre.
 Shadow zone (area where  Propagation – vibrates
 Earthquake waves – recorded
earthquake waves are not perpendicular to direction of
by seismograph. reported in instrument) propagation
 Two types of earthquake 0
– 103 - 142 0

waves – Body Waves (due to Propagation – vibrates

release of energy that travels parallel to wave’s direction
through body of earth) and SURFACE WAVES
Surface Waves (L waves – due  Low frequency, long wavelength and transverse vibration
 Most destructive of all the waves and recorded last.
to interaction of body waves
 Propagation –vibrates perpendicular to direction of propagation
with surface rocks) By observing the changes in direction of waves (due to reflection
and rebounding of waves) different layers can be identified
LAYERS OF EARTH
CRUST (Outermost layer) MATLE ASTHENOSPHERE CORE
(astheno - weak)
 Forms 0.5-1.0 per cent  Forms 83 per cent of  Upper portion of  Accounts for 16 per cent
of the earth’s volume the earth's volume. mantle of the earth's volume.
 30-50 kms thick  The crust and the  Extends up to 400  Lies between 2900 km
normally (oceanic crust uppermost part of the kms and 6400 km below the
thinner than continental mantle are called  Main source of earth's surface.
crust) lithosphere magma  Outer core – liquid and
 ‘sial ’ layer – silica  Extends from Moho’s  Mohorovicic inner core – solid
+Aluminum (continents) discontinuity (35 km) (Moho)  ‘nife ’ layer – nickel +iron
 ‘sima’ layer – silica + to a depth of 2,900 km discontinuity –  Gutenberg Discontinuity
magnesium (ocean) (Moho-Discontinuity to between crust and - lies between the mantle
 70-100 kms in the outer core). asthenosphere and the outer core
Himalayan region

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PLATE TECTONICS
DEFINITION
Plate tectonics is the large scale movement of lithospheric plates due to force emanating from earth’s interior.
‘THEORIES PRIOR TO PLATE TECTONICS’ – WHICH EXPLAINS LARGE SCALE MOVEMENTS ARE DISCUSSED BELOW
CONTINENTAL DRIFT (CD) THEORY – ALFRED WEGENER IN 1922
WHAT??  There existed one big landmass (Pangaea)which was covered by one big ocean (Panthalassa)
 Tethys Sea divided Pangaea into two huge landmasses: Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north and
Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
 Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era), and the continents began to break
up and drift away from one another.
 Wegener says the drift is still continuing
FORCES OF  Equator wards drift due to the interaction of forces of gravity, pole-fleeing force (related to
CD AND ITS rotation of earth) and buoyancy (ship floats in water due to buoyant force offered by water)
CRITICISM  Westwards due to tidal currents because of the earth’s motion (tidal force due to attraction of
moon and sun)
 CRITICISM - These factors to be able to cause a drift of such a magnitude, they will have to be
millions of times stronger.
EVIDENCES EVIDENCES CRITICISMS
OF CD  S. America, Africa seems to fit each other  Coastlines are temporary
THEORY AND  Poles drifted constantly (Polar wandering)  Doesn’t means movement of continents
ITS  Glossopteris vegetation in India, Australia  Also found in Afghanistan, Iran
CRITICISM  Belts of ancient rocks from Brazil matches  Rocks of same age found in other parts also
with Southern Africa DRAWBACKS OF CDT
 Tillite deposits (sedimentary rock out of  No explanation why drift began in
glaciers) found in Africa, Australia besides Mesozoic era
India  Doesn’t take ocean into consideration
 Placer deposits of gold are found on the  Assumption are presented as proofs
Ghana coast but the source are in Brazil  Weak forces e.g. tidal force
 Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and
Africa (Lemuria)
CONVECTIONAL CURRENT THEORY – ARTHUR HOLMES IN 1930s
WHAT??  The intense heat generated by radioactive substances in the mantle (100-2900 km below the
earth surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives rise to the formation of convention currents in
the mantle.
 Rising limbs of these currents form oceanic ridges and falling limbs form trenches
FORCES  Radioactive elements causing thermal differences in mantle.
SEA FLOOR SPREADING – HARRY HESS
WHAT??  Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is
formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.
 Basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new sea floor.
EVIDENCES  SEA FLOOR MAPPING - Revealed that ocean floor is full of relief with mountain ranges etc.
 PALEOMAGNETIC STUDIES revealed that following facts.
o Volcanic eruptions are common all along the mid-oceanic ridges and they bring huge
amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
o The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable
similarities
o Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges are normal polarity and are the youngest.
o The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the crest.
o The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the mid-oceanic
ridge areas, the quake foci have shallow depths.
(Paleomagnetism is the study of the record of the Earth's magnetic field in rocks, sediment etc)
PLATE TECTOINCS – McKENZIE, PARKER AND MORGAN IN 1967 & 1968
WHAT??  Paleomagnetists led the revival of the continental drift theory leading to plate tectonics.
 The theory says - Lithospheric plates move horizontally over asthenosphere as rigid units
 Plate tectonics is the large scale movement of lithospheric plates due to force emanating
from earth’s interior

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FOUR TYPES OF VOLCANISM

EXHALATIVE EFFUSIVE EXPLOSIVE SUB-AQUEOUS
 Discharge of materials  Abundant outpouring  Fragmentation and  This type of volcanic
in gaseous form of lava from vent or ejection of solid activity takes place
 Indicates that volcano fissure material through below the surface of
is reaching its  Deccan Traps vents water
extinction
HOTSPOT VOLCANISM
WHAT?? Hotspot Volcanism occurs not at margin but at interior parts of lithospheric plates
HOT SPOT A hot spot is a region within the Earth’s mantle from which heat rises through the process of
convection.
MANTLE PLUMES  Hotspot Volcanism occurs at abnormally hot centers known as mantle plumes.
 Mantle plumes are exceptionally hot areas fixed deep below the Earth’s crust
HOTSPOT VOLCANIC  Submarine mountains known as seamounts
LANDFORMS  Reunion Islands near Madagascar
EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the sudden movement of a
part of the earth’s crust. They result from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates
seismic waves or earthquake waves.
TERMS/FEATURES EXPLANATION
FOCUS The place of origin of an earthquake inside the earth.
EPICENTER Point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus
CAUSES OF  Compressional or tensional stresses
EARTHQUAKE  Slipping of rock formation along faults and fractures in earth’s crust
 Volcanic Activity
 Deep mining
 Underground Nuclear tests
 Groundwater extraction
EFFECT OF  Landslides
EARTHQUAKES  Damming of rivers
 Cause submergence and emergence of landforms
 Formation of cracks or fissures
SEISMIC WAVES Refer Page No. 1 for detailed explanation

EARTHQUAKES A WADATI–BENIOFF ZONE

BASED ON THE It is a zone of seismicity corresponding with the downgoing slab in a subduction zone
DEPTH OF FOCUS SHALLOW FOCUS EARTHQUAKES (CRUSTAL EARTHQUAKE)
 Most common at submarine ridges. Hardly felt
 Occurs at depth less than 70 kms
 Found within the earth’s outer crustal layer
 Smaller magnitude of a range of 1 to 5
DEEP FOCUS EARTHQUAKES (INTRA PLATE EARTHQUAKE)
 Occurs at trenches – convergent boundary. Very powerful.
 Japan lies along trench line. Hence it faces devastating earthquakes
 Occur at greater focal depths of 300 – 700 km.
 Occur within the deeper Subduction zones of earth
 Higher magnitude of 6 to 8 OR more
INTERMEDIATE EARTHQUAKE - These are somewhat severe

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Chief
Source of coal, oil.
source of
Form richest soils IGNEOUS ROCKS (PRIMARY ROCKS)
metals, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Formed out of lava or magma
ores &
Source of marble  Cooling slowly at greater depths –
minerals
rocks in Rajasthan large mineral grains
 Sudden cooling at surface – small
grains
IGNEOUS METAMORPHIC TYPES (BASED ON COOLING OF
ROCKS THREE TYPES OF ROCKS
ROCKS LAVA)
 Plutonic (Intrusive) Rocks – Cools
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS down slowly at greater depths e.g.
 Formed as a result of denudation through lithification granite
(compaction of deposits)  Volcanic (Extrusive) Rocks – Rapid
 Contains number of layers and has fossils of plants and cooling of thrown out lava e.g.
animals basalt
 Found in alluvial deposits, coastal plains, river basins etc.  Dyke (Hypabyssal) Rocks –
TYPES (BASED ON MODE OF FORMATION) intermediate between deep seated
 Mechanically formed through agents like running water plutonic bodies and surface lava
wind, ice etc. e.g. sandstone, shale flows
 Chemically formed through evaporation of water containing TYPES (BASED ON PRESENCE OF
minerals e.g. chert, limestone ACID FORMING RADICAL, SILICON)
 Organically formed through remains of plants and animals  Acid Rocks – high silica content;
buried under heat and pressure e.g. coal, chalk forms sial portion of crust; e.g.
feldspar
 Basic Rocks – poor in silica; Forms
METAMORPHIC ROCKS plateaus and Deccan Traps; e.g.
 Formed under Pressure, Volume and gabbro
Temperature (PVT) changes
 Metamorphism is a process by which Petrology is
ROCK CYCLE
already consolidated rocks undergo the science
recrystallization and reorganization of of rocks
materials within original rocks.
 Metamorphic rocks are commonly found
in Himalayan, Assam, West Bengal etc.
CAUSES OF METAMORPHISM
 Mountain building movements
 Geo-dynamic forces such as Plate
Tectonics
TYPES (ON THE BASIS OF AGENCY OF
METAMORPHISM)
 Thermal Metamorphism –
recrystallization under the influence of
temperature
 Dynamic Metamorphism –
recrystallization under the stress of
pressure

 Some rock forming minerals are feldspar, quartz,

Bauxite, Cinnabar, Dolomite, Gypsum etc.
 Feldspar and quartz are the most common mineral
found in rocks

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