Comprehensive Anatomy & Physiology Notes

Chapters 6–8: Must Know and Good to Know with Definitions

Must Know
Integumentary System: Organ system including skin, hair, nails, and glands that protects the
body, regulates temperature, and senses the environment.
Functions of the Integumentary System: Protection, sensory detection, thermoregulation, and
vitamin D synthesis.
Skin Layers: Three main layers: epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (deep).
Epidermis: Outermost layer of skin made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium; avascular.
Stratum Basale: Deepest epidermal layer with dividing keratinocytes, melanocytes (produce
melanin), and Merkel cells (sensory).
Stratum Spinosum: Layer of keratinocytes connected by desmosomes; contains Langerhans
(immune) cells.
Stratum Granulosum: Cells flatten, accumulate keratin, and begin to die.
Stratum Lucidum: Clear layer present only in thick skin (palms, soles).
Stratum Corneum: Most superficial layer of dead keratinized cells; protects against abrasion.
Dermis: Layer beneath epidermis made of connective tissue; provides strength, elasticity, contains
blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles.
Hypodermis: Subcutaneous layer of adipose and areolar tissue; insulates, cushions, stores
energy.
Hair: Keratinized structure for protection, sensation, and thermoregulation; grows in cycles.
Nails: Keratinized plates that protect digits and aid in manipulation.
Sweat Glands: Eccrine glands (thermoregulation, watery secretion) and apocrine glands (puberty
onset, viscous secretion).
Sebaceous Glands: Secrete sebum to lubricate and waterproof skin and hair; active at puberty.
Burns: First-degree (epidermis only), second-degree (epidermis + dermis, blisters), third-degree
(full thickness, may destroy nerves).
Skin Cancers: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma (most dangerous).

Good to Know
Keratin: Fibrous protein made by keratinocytes; provides water resistance and toughness.
Melanin: Pigment produced by melanocytes; eumelanin (black/brown), pheomelanin (red/yellow).
Dermal Papillae: Fingerlike projections of dermis into epidermis; anchor layers, create fingerprints.
Melanosomes: Vesicles storing and transferring melanin to keratinocytes.
Arrector Pili Muscles: Small muscles attached to hair follicles; contract to raise hairs
(‘goosebumps’).
Nail Anatomy: Includes nail root, bed, lunula, and cuticle (eponychium).
Acne: Blocked sebaceous glands cause inflammation, often colonized by bacteria.
Brown Fat: Type of adipose tissue in infants for heat generation.
Chapter 7: Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System

Must Know
Functions of Bone: Support, movement, protection, mineral storage (calcium, phosphate), fat
storage, and blood cell production (hematopoiesis).
Bone Classifications: Long (femur), short (carpals), flat (skull, sternum), irregular (vertebrae),
sesamoid (patella).
Bone Markings: Surface features such as articulating surfaces, depressions, projections, and
holes that indicate function and attachment.
Compact Bone: Dense bone composed of osteons with concentric lamellae around central canals.
Spongy Bone: Light, lattice-like trabeculae that house red marrow; aligned along stress lines.
Bone Cells: Osteogenic cells (stem), osteoblasts (form bone), osteocytes (maintain bone),
osteoclasts (resorb bone).
Ossification: Bone formation: intramembranous (flat bones) and endochondral (long bones).
Epiphyseal Plate/Line: Growth plate of cartilage in children; ossifies into line in adults.
Periosteum: Dense connective tissue covering bone surface; contains vessels and cells for growth
and repair.
Endosteum: Membrane lining medullary cavity; contains bone-forming cells.
Hormonal Regulation: PTH raises blood calcium, calcitonin lowers it, calcitriol aids absorption.
Bone Disorders: Osteoporosis (low bone density), osteomalacia/rickets (soft bones due to vitamin
D deficiency).
Bone Repair: Four stages: hematoma, fibrocartilaginous callus, bony callus, remodeling.

Good to Know
Cartilage Types: Hyaline (joints), fibrocartilage (discs, pubic symphysis), elastic (ears, not skeletal
system).
Bone Anatomy: Diaphysis (shaft), epiphysis (ends), metaphysis (between), medullary cavity
(marrow).
Ligaments and Tendons: Ligaments connect bone to bone; tendons connect muscle to bone.
Marrow Types: Red marrow (blood formation), yellow marrow (fat storage).
Trabeculae: Struts in spongy bone aligned with stress lines.
Canaliculi: Tiny canals allowing communication between osteocytes.
Perforating Canals: Channels connecting blood vessels from periosteum to central canals.
Bone Remodeling: Dynamic balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity.
Clinical Relevance: Important in radiology, orthopedics, chiropractic medicine.
Chapter 8: Axial Skeleton

Must Know
Skeleton Divisions: Axial skeleton (80 bones) forms central axis; appendicular skeleton (126
bones) forms limbs and girdles.
Axial Skeleton: Includes skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
Skull Bones: 22 total: cranial (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid) and facial
(mandible, maxillae, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, palatine, vomer, inferior nasal conchae).
Sutures: Immovable joints between skull bones: sagittal, coronal, lambdoid, squamous.
Vertebral Column: Composed of cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum, and coccyx;
supports weight and protects spinal cord.
Thoracic Cage: Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid), ribs (true 1-7, false 8-10, floating 11-12);
protects thoracic organs.

Good to Know
Skull Cavities: Cranial, orbital, nasal, oral, and paranasal sinuses that house organs and reduce
skull weight.
Paranasal Sinuses: Frontal, maxillary, sphenoid, and ethmoid; lighten skull and resonate voice.
Orbit: Formed by seven bones (frontal, zygomatic, maxilla, ethmoid, lacrimal, palatine, sphenoid).
Nasal Septum: Formed by vomer, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, and septal cartilage.
Fontanelles: Soft spots in infant skulls that allow growth and birth passage.
Abnormalities: Cleft palate/lip (fusion failure), craniosynostosis (premature suture fusion).
Vertebra Features: Body, arch, vertebral foramen, spinous and transverse processes,
intervertebral discs.
Spinal Curvatures: Cervical/lumbar (secondary, concave posteriorly), thoracic/sacral (primary,
convex posteriorly).
Atlas and Axis: C1 (atlas) supports skull, C2 (axis) allows rotation with dens.
Sacrum and Coccyx: Sacrum is fused vertebrae, coccyx is tailbone at base of vertebral column.