1.

Earth’s Physical Features

The Earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid, bulging at
the equator and flattened at the poles due to rotation. The total
surface area of Earth is about 510 million km², of which nearly 71% is
covered with water bodies (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers) and only 29%
is landmass (continents and islands). The distribution of land and
water is uneven, with the Northern Hemisphere having more land
while the Southern Hemisphere has more ocean.
 The Earth’s relief can be studied under three orders:
1. First-order relief – The primary divisions of Earth’s surface
such as continents and ocean basins.
2. Second-order relief – Large-scale features like mountain
chains (Himalayas, Rockies), plateaus (Deccan Plateau,
Colorado Plateau), mid-ocean ridges, deep trenches
(Mariana Trench).
3. Third-order relief – Local features such as valleys, river
terraces, dunes, volcanic cones, glacial moraines.
These features are shaped by a combination of internal
(endogenic) forces such as volcanism, earthquakes, and
mountain building, and external (exogenic) forces such as
weathering, erosion, and deposition.

2. Evolution of Earth (Theories of Origin)

The Earth is believed to have formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
Several scientific theories explain its origin and evolution:
1. Nebular Hypothesis (Kant–Laplace, 18th century)
o The Solar System formed from a rotating gaseous nebula.
o As it contracted, the central mass formed the Sun and the
remaining matter condensed into planets.
 o Earth formed as one of these planets and later
differentiated into crust, mantle, and core.
2. Planetesimal Hypothesis (Chamberlin & Moulton, 1905)
o Suggests the Sun passed near another star, pulling matter
that condensed into small bodies called planetesimals.
o These planetesimals collided and accumulated to form the
Earth.
3. Modern Big Bang & Nebular Theory
o The Universe originated from a Big Bang around 13.8
billion years ago.
o The Solar System formed later (~4.6 billion years ago)
from a rotating nebula of dust and gas.
o Earth differentiated into core, mantle, and crust due to
gravitational separation of heavy and light elements.
4. Stages of Earth’s Evolution
o Accretion stage – Dust particles combined into
planetesimals and proto-Earth.
o Differentiation stage – Heavier iron and nickel sank to
form the core, lighter silicates formed the mantle and
crust.
o Atmosphere & hydrosphere formation – Volcanic
outgassing released water vapor, CO₂, and nitrogen.
Cooling formed oceans.
o Origin of life – Simple organisms evolved in oceans about
3.5 billion years ago, leading to today’s biosphere.

3. Earth’s Composition
The Earth’s interior is composed of three main layers:
1. Crust
o The outermost solid layer; thickness ranges from 5–10 km
under oceans (oceanic crust, basaltic) to 30–70 km under
continents (continental crust, granitic).
o Continental crust is less dense (~2.7 g/cm³), while oceanic
crust is denser (~3 g/cm³).
2. Mantle
o Extends to ~2900 km depth. Composed mainly of silicate
minerals rich in magnesium and iron.
o Divided into upper mantle (with asthenosphere – a semi-
molten layer where convection currents occur) and lower
mantle (rigid and dense).
o These convection currents drive plate tectonics.
3. Core
o The innermost layer, mostly made of iron and nickel.
o Divided into:
 Outer core – Liquid, responsible for generating the
Earth’s magnetic field.
 Inner core – Solid, extremely dense, composed
mainly of iron.
o Density of core is ~13 g/cm³, much higher than crust and
mantle.

4. Petrology and Mineralogy

  Petrology is the scientific study of rocks, their origin,
occurrence, composition, and classification. Rocks are classified
into:
o Igneous rocks: Formed from the solidification of magma
(e.g., granite, basalt).
o Sedimentary rocks: Formed from the deposition of
sediments by wind, water, or ice (e.g., sandstone, shale,
limestone).
o Metamorphic rocks: Formed when existing rocks are
altered by heat, pressure, or chemical action (e.g.,
marble, gneiss, schist).
 Mineralogy deals with the study of minerals – naturally
occurring crystalline solids with definite chemical composition.
o Important properties: hardness (Mohs scale), cleavage,
lustre, colour, streak, specific gravity.
o Common minerals: Quartz (SiO₂), Feldspar, Mica, Calcite
(CaCO₃).
 Petrology and mineralogy are vital for understanding the
Earth’s crust, mineral resources, and economic geology.

5. Structural Geology
Structural geology deals with the deformation and arrangement of
rocks under the influence of tectonic forces.
 Folds: Bending of rock layers due to compression → anticline
(upfold), syncline (downfold).
 Faults: Fractures with displacement → normal fault (due to
tension), reverse fault (due to compression), strike-slip fault
(due to shear forces).
  Joints: Cracks in rocks with no displacement.
 Unconformities: Breaks in deposition that represent gaps in
geological time.
Structural geology helps in exploration of oil, gas, coal,
groundwater, and minerals.

6. Geophysics
Geophysics applies principles of physics to study Earth’s interior and
processes.
 Seismology: Study of earthquakes and seismic waves to
determine Earth’s internal structure.
 Geomagnetism: Study of Earth’s magnetic field, generated by
outer core motion.
 Gravimetry: Measures gravity variations to locate oil, minerals,
and ore deposits.
 Geoelectrical and georadar methods: Used in groundwater and
subsurface exploration.
Geophysics is crucial for earthquake prediction, mineral
exploration, and understanding tectonic processes.

7. Natural Hazards
(a) Volcanoes
A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through which magma,
gases, and ash erupt.
 Types:
o Shield volcanoes: Broad, gentle slopes (Hawaii).
o Composite volcanoes: Explosive eruptions (Mt. Fuji,
Vesuvius).
 o Cinder cone volcanoes: Small, steep-sided cones.
 Hazards: lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash clouds, poisonous
gases.
(b) Earthquakes
Earthquakes are sudden vibrations in the Earth’s crust caused by
release of energy along faults.
 Measured using:
o Richter scale (magnitude).
o Modified Mercalli scale (intensity).
 Effects: Ground shaking, building collapse, landslides, tsunamis,
loss of life and property.
(c) Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of giant sea waves generated by submarine
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides.
 They travel at 800–900 km/h in deep oceans.
 Near coasts, waves rise up to 30 m, causing devastation.
 Example: 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused massive
destruction in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia.
(d) Glaciers
Glaciers are large masses of moving ice that erode, transport, and
deposit sediments.
 Hazards include glacier lake outburst floods (GLOF) which can
cause flash floods and destruction.
 Example: Chamoli disaster (2021, Uttarakhand).
(e) Landslides
A landslide is the downward movement of rocks, soil, and debris
under gravity.
 Triggers: heavy rainfall, earthquakes, deforestation, road
construction.
 Hazards: road blockage, village destruction, loss of life.
 Common in Himalayan and Western Ghats regions.

8. Geological Division of India

India’s geology is divided into three major regions:
1. Peninsular Block
o The oldest and most stable part of India.
o Formed of igneous and metamorphic rocks (granite,
gneiss).
o Rich in coal, iron, manganese, bauxite, mica.
2. Himalayan Region
o Young fold mountains formed due to collision of Indian
Plate with Eurasian Plate.
o Still rising, tectonically active, prone to earthquakes and
landslides.
o Contains important glaciers and perennial rivers.
3. Indo-Gangetic Plains
o Fertile plains formed by deposition of alluvium by the
Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers.
o Very suitable for agriculture and dense human
settlements.
Unit 2: Physical Geology –
Detailed Notes
1. Earth’s Internal Structure
The Earth is not uniform inside but layered into concentric zones
based on composition and physical properties. The major layers are
the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.
 Crust: The outermost, thin, and brittle layer. It is of two types –
continental crust (granitic, less dense, average thickness ~35
km) and oceanic crust (basaltic, denser, average thickness ~7
km).
 Mantle: Extends up to 2900 km depth. It is rich in magnesium
and iron silicates (peridotite). The upper mantle contains a
partially molten zone called the asthenosphere, important for
plate movement.
 Outer Core: A liquid layer composed mainly of molten iron and
nickel. It is responsible for generating the Earth’s magnetic field
through convection and the dynamo effect.
 Inner Core: Solid due to extreme pressure, despite very high
temperature (over 5000°C). Composed mostly of iron and
nickel.
This layered structure is known from seismic studies (P and S
waves), gravity, and density data.

2. Variation of Pressure, Temperature, and Density

Inside Earth, pressure, temperature, and density increase with
depth.
  Pressure: Increases due to the weight of overlying rocks. At the
Earth’s center, pressure exceeds 3.6 million atmospheres.
 Temperature: Increases with depth, known as the geothermal
gradient (average ~30°C per km in the crust). Temperatures
reach ~5000–6000°C near the core.
 Density: Also increases, because materials are compressed. The
crust has a density of ~2.7 g/cm³, mantle ~3.3–5.7 g/cm³, and
core ~10–13 g/cm³.
This variation is crucial for understanding convection currents,
volcanism, and tectonic activity.

3. Theory of Isostasy
Isostasy refers to the state of gravitational balance of Earth’s
lithosphere floating on the denser, deformable asthenosphere.
 Like icebergs floating in water, thicker crust (mountains) has
deeper roots, while thinner crust (ocean basins) has shallower
roots.
 Airy’s Theory: Differences in topography are due to crustal
thickness variations.
 Pratt’s Theory: Differences in elevation are due to density
variations in crustal blocks.
Isostasy explains why mountains do not sink and why crust
adjusts after erosion or glacial melting.

4. Continental Drift Theory

Proposed by Alfred Wegener (1912), it states that continents were
once joined in a supercontinent called Pangaea, which later broke
apart.
  Evidence: Fit of South America and Africa, fossil similarities
(Mesosaurus, Glossopteris), similarity of rocks and mountains
across oceans, and paleoclimatic evidence (glacial deposits in
tropical regions).
 However, Wegener lacked a convincing mechanism (he
proposed continents ploughing through oceanic crust).
Later, this theory evolved into plate tectonics, which gave the
driving force as mantle convection.

5. Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the modern unifying theory of geology.
 Earth’s lithosphere is broken into rigid plates (7 major and
several minor) that float on the asthenosphere.
 Plate boundaries:
o Divergent (constructive, e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge),
o Convergent (destructive, e.g., Himalayas, Andes),
o Transform (conservative, e.g., San Andreas Fault).
 Driving forces: Mantle convection, slab pull, ridge push.
 Effects: Formation of mountains, trenches, earthquakes,
volcanoes, and continental drift.
It explains the distribution of major geological features better
than any earlier theory.

6. Folds
Folds are bends or curves in rock layers formed by compressional
forces.
 Types:
 o Anticline (upfold, limbs dip away),
o Syncline (downfold, limbs dip towards),
o Monocline (single bend),
o Overturned and Recumbent folds (extreme deformation).
 Importance: Indicate tectonic stress, control topography, and
influence mineral and petroleum accumulation.

7. Faults
Faults are fractures in the Earth’s crust along which displacement
has occurred.
 Types:
o Normal fault: Due to tension, hanging wall moves down.
o Reverse fault: Due to compression, hanging wall moves
up.
o Strike-slip fault: Horizontal movement (e.g., San Andreas
Fault).
o Thrust fault: Low-angle reverse fault.
Faults are directly related to earthquakes, groundwater
flow, and mineral deposits.

8. Unconformities
Unconformity is a surface of discontinuity representing a gap in
geological record (erosion or non-deposition).
 Types:
o Angular unconformity: Older tilted rocks overlain by
younger horizontal beds.
 o Disconformity: Parallel strata with a time gap.
o Nonconformity: Sedimentary rocks overlie
igneous/metamorphic basement.
Unconformities are important for reconstructing
geological history and stratigraphy.

9. Rock Cycle
The rock cycle explains the transformation of one rock type to
another under geological processes.
 Igneous rocks form from cooling magma/lava.
 These may weather and erode to form sediments, which lithify
into sedimentary rocks.
 Sedimentary or igneous rocks may undergo heat and pressure
to form metamorphic rocks.
 Metamorphic or sedimentary rocks may melt to form magma,
restarting the cycle.
This cycle emphasizes Earth’s dynamic and ever-changing
nature.

10. Water Cycle

The water cycle (hydrological cycle) is the continuous movement of
water between atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.
 Processes: Evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and groundwater flow.
 Importance: Maintains Earth’s climate balance, recharges
groundwater, supports rivers and glaciers, and is vital for
ecosystems.
The cycle shows how water interacts with geology, causing
erosion, weathering, and sediment transport.