SUB-MODULE 1: DIODE APPLICATIONS

VOLTAGE MULTIPLICATION
Voltage multiplication is a technique used in electrical circuits to generate a higher DC voltage from
a lower AC or DC input voltage, typically using capacitors and diodes. This process effectively
increases the voltage by a specific factor, such as doubling, tripling, or quadrupling, without
necessarily adding external power sources. Types of Voltage multipliers include:

 Half-Wave Voltage Doubler: A basic circuit that doubles the input voltage.
 Full-Wave Voltage Doubler: Another doubler circuit that utilizes both half-cycles of the AC
input.
 Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler: These circuits increase the voltage by a factor of three or
four, respectively.
 Cockcroft-Walton Multiplier: A cascaded structure of half-wave doublers, used for
generating very high voltages.

Half Wave Voltage Doubler

During the positive voltage halfcycle

 Across the transformer, secondary diode D1 conducts (and diode D2 is cut off),
 Charging capacitor C1 up to the peak rectified voltage ( Vm ).
 Diode D1 is ideally a short during this half-cycle, and the input voltage charges capacitor C1 to
Vm with the polarity shown below
During the negative half-cycle

 diode D1 is cut off

 diode D 2 conducts
 charging capacitor C2.

Since diode D2 acts as a short during the negative half-cycle (and diode D1 is open), we can sum the
voltages around the outside loop (See below)

We get VC2 = 2Vm

On the next positive half-cycle, diode D2 is nonconducting and capacitor C2 will discharge through the
load.

 If no load is connected across capacitor C2 , both capacitors stay charged— C1 to Vm and C2 to

2Vm .
 If, as expected, there is a load connected to the output of the voltage doubler, the voltage
across capacitor C2 drops during the positive half-cycle (at the input) and the capacitor is
recharged up to 2Vm during the negative half cycle.

The output waveform across capacitor C2 is that of a half-wave signal filtered by a capacitor filter. The
peak inverse voltage across each diode is 2Vm .
Full Wave Voltage Doubler

During the positive half-cycle of transformer secondary voltage (see below) diode D1 conducts, charging
capacitor C1 to a peak voltage Vm . Diode D2 is nonconducting at this time.

During the negative half-cycle (see below) diode D2 conducts, charging capacitor C2 , while diode D1 is
nonconducting.
If no load current is drawn from the circuit, the voltage across capacitors C1 and C2 is 2Vm . If load
current is drawn from the circuit, the voltage across capacitors C1 and C2 is the same as that across a
capacitor fed by a full-wave rectifier circuit.

Effective Capacitance: C1C2/(C1+C2) – Much less than C1 or C2 alone. This leads to poorer filtering than
that of a single capacitor filter.

The peak inverse voltage across each diode is 2Vm , as it is for the filter capacitor circuit.

In summary, the half-wave or full-wave voltage-doubler circuits provide twice the peak voltage of the
transformer secondary while requiring no center-tapped transformer and only 2Vm PIV rating for the
diodes.

Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler

If you extend the half-wave voltage doubler, you can develop three and four times the peak input
voltage (or even 5, 6, 7, etc times).

ASSIGNMENT: In not more than one page, write about the Cockcroft-Walton Multiplier.
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

Zener Diodes

How does a Zener Diode behave?

A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that allows current to flow not only in the forward direction
like a typical silicon or germanium diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is greater than
the breakdown voltage known as Zener knee voltage or simply Zener voltage, named after Clarence
Melvin Zener, the discoverer of this electrical property.

A Zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator because it maintains a nearly constant
voltage, which is equal to the Zener voltage (VZ), across its terminals over a specified range of reverse-
current values. This constant voltage drop across the Zener diode produced by reverse breakdown is
represented by a DC voltage symbol. See below.

The figure Below shows approximate equivalent circuits of each region of the Zener Diode
Avalanche and Zener Breakdown

To understand how Zener diodes, operate, we must know the two types of reverse breakdown in a
Zener diode: avalanche and Zener breakdown.

 The avalanche effect occurs in both rectifier and Zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse
voltage.
 Zener breakdown occurs in a Zener diode at low reverse voltages

A Zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion
region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion region. Close to the Zener
breakdown voltage, the field is sufficiently able to pull electrons from their valence groups and create
current.

 Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than approximately 5 V operate typically in Zener
breakdown.
 Zener diodes with breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V operate typically in
avalanche breakdown.
 Both types, however, are called Zener diodes.
 Zeners with breakdown voltages from less than 1 V to more than 250 V with specified tolerances
from 1% to 20%, are commercially available.

Breakdown Characteristics

As the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR) also increases until it reaches the Zener
knee current (IZK). This time, the breakdown effect begins. The Zener impedance (ZZ), which is the
internal Zener resistance, begins to decrease as the reverse current increases rapidly.
From the bottom of the knee, the Zener breakdown voltage (V Z) remains relatively constant although it
increases slightly as the Zener current (I Z), increases. VZ is usually specified at a value of the Zener
current known as the test current.

Zener Diode Specifications

What should you know about a Zener to ensure its proper operation? These are the specifications you
must know:

1. Zener Voltage (VZ)

The breakdown voltage, commonly called the Zener voltage, is the reverse-biased voltage that causes
the diode to conduct current. Breakdown voltages usually range from 2.4 V to hundreds of volts.

2. Test Current (IZ)

For each Zener diode, the Zener voltage (V Z) is measured at a specified Zener test current (I Z). For
example, the Zener voltage for a 1N4732A ranges from 4.465 to 4.935V with a typical value of 4.7V at a
test current of 53mA.

3. Knee Current (IZK)

There is a minimum current required to keep the diode in breakdown for voltage regulation. Typical
values are around 0.25 to 1mA for a 1-watt Zener diode. If this current is not reached, the diode will not
break down sufficiently to maintain its rated voltage.

4. Maximum Current (IZM)

The Zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals for values of reverse current
ranging from IZK to IZM. If IZM is exceeded, the Zener diode may be damaged due to excessive power
dissipation.
5. Leakage Current

Reverse leakage current is specified for a reverse voltage that is less than the knee voltage. This means
that the Zener is not in reverse breakdown for these measurements. For example, what is the leakage
current for a reverse voltage of 1V in a 1N4728A.

6. Power Rating (PZ)

The power rating tells you the maximum power (voltage x current) the Zener diode can handle. (Even
diodes designed to operate in break down can break down for real if you exceed their power ratings. So,
be careful!)

7. Zener Resistance (ZZ)

ZZ is the maximum Zener impedance at the specified test current, I Z. For example, for a 1N4728A, ZZ is
10Ω at 76mA. At the knee of the characteristic curve, the maximum Zener impedance Z ZK is specified at
IZK which is the current at the knee of the curve. For example, ZZK is 400Ω at 1mA for a 1N4728A.

8. Temperature Coefficient (TC)

Zener diodes are affected by temperature changes associated with their voltage temperature
coefficient. The temperature coefficient specifies the percent change in Zener voltage for each change in
temperature. The formula for calculating the change in Zener voltage for a given junction temperature
change (%/℃), for a specified temperature coefficient is:

If the temperature coefficient is expressed in mV/℃, ΔVz is given as:

A positive temperature coefficient means that the change in Zener voltage is directly proportional to the
change in temperature. Consequently, a negative TC means that the Zener voltage is inversely
proportional to the change in temperature.

9. Junction Temperature Specification

In order to ensure the reliability of the diode, the temperature of the diode junction is key. Even though
the case may be sufficiently cool, the active area can still be very much hotter. As a result, some
manufacturers specify the operating range for the junction itself. For normal design, a suitable margin is
normally retained between the maximum expected temperature within the equipment and the junction.
The equipment internal temperature will again be higher than the temperature external to the
equipment. Care must be taken to ensure that individual items do not become too hot despite there
being an acceptable ambient temperature outside the equipment.
10. Package

Zener diodes are specified in a variety of different packages. The main choice is between surface mount
and traditional through-hole devices. However, the package chosen will often define the package heat
dissipation level. The choices available will be detailed in the Zener diode datasheet specification.

Below is an example of a Specification datasheet. Do you see the 1N4728A?

Now that we know something about the Zener Diode, let us see how it is used in a voltage regulation
circuit.

Video of Zener Diode

Zener Voltage Regulator

There are 3 conditions under which a Zener voltage regulator operates:

 Fixed supply voltage (Vi) and fixed load (RL)

 Fixed supply voltage (Vi) and variable load (RL)
 Variable supply voltage (Vi) and fixed load (RL)

Fixed Supply Voltage (Vi) and Fixed Load (RL)

The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks appears in the figure below. The applied dc voltage is
fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can fundamentally be broken down into two steps.

Basic Zener regulator

Step 1: Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network and calculating the
voltage across the resulting open circuit. Applying step 1 results in the network below, where an
application of the voltage divider rule results in

Determining the state of the Zener diode.

 If V ≥ VZ, the Zener diode is ON, and the appropriate equivalent model can be substituted.
 If V ≤ VZ, the diode is OFF, and the open-circuit equivalence is substituted.

Step 2: Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired unknowns
 Substituting the Zener equivalent for the “ON” situation.

KCL gives us

The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by

that must be less than the PZM specified for the device.

Example

Determine the state of the Zener by “Removing the Zener” and finding V
Since V = 8.73V is less than VZ = 10V, the diode is in the “off” state, as shown on the characteristics
below. Substituting the open-circuit equivalent results in the circuit above, we find that,

For Part (b), we again find the value of V

Since V = 12V is greater than VZ = 10 V, the diode is in the “ON” state and the circuit is as below

Fixed Supply Voltage (Vi), Variable Load Resistance (RL)

Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of resistor values (and therefore load current) that
will ensure that the Zener is in the “ON” state. Too small a load resistance RL will result in a voltage VL
across the load resistor less than VZ, and the Zener device will be in the “OFF” state.

In the figure below. to determine the minimum load resistance that will turn the Zener diode on, we
calculate the value of RL that will result in a load voltage VL = VZ.

Any load resistance value greater than the RLmin obtained above will ensure that the Zener diode is in the
“ON” state and the diode can be replaced by its VZ source equivalent.

Therefore,

Once the diode is in the “ON” state, the voltage across R remains fixed at

…… and IR remains fixed at

Zener Current is given as

This means, when IZ is minimum, IL is a maximum and when IZ is maximum IL is a minimum value, since IR
is constant.

Since IZ is limited to a maximum of IZM as provided on the data sheet, it affects the range of RL and
therefore IL. Substituting IZM for IZ establishes the minimum IL as
and the maximum load resistance as

In the example below, we want to keep VRL constant despite a changing load resistance.

a) For the network below, determine the range of RL and IL that will result in VRL being maintained
at 10V.
b) Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode.

To determine the value of RL that will turn the Zener diode on……..

The voltage across the resistor R is then determined by……

You can draw a plot of VL versus RL and VL versus IL

Part b)
Fixed RL, Variable Vi

For fixed values of RL, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn the Zener diode on. The minimum
turn-on voltage Vi = Vimin is determined by

Since IL is fixed at VZ/RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the maximum Vi is defined by

In the example, we determine the range of values of Vi that will keep the Zener “ON”

So, with a fixed RL, the output

voltage will remain fixed at
20V for a range of input
You can draw a plot of VL versus Vi voltage that extends from
23.67V to 36.87V.
Transistor Voltage Regulator

Two types of transistor voltage regulators are the series voltage regulator and the shunt voltage
regulator. Each type of circuit can provide an output dc voltage that is regulated or maintained at a set
value even if the input voltage varies or if the load connected to the output changes.

Series Voltage Regulator

The basic connection of a series regulator circuit is shown in the block diagram below. The series
element controls the amount of the input voltage that gets to the output.

The output voltage is sampled by a circuit that provides a feedback voltage to be compared to a
reference voltage.

1. If the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the
series control element to decrease the amount of the output voltage—thereby maintaining the
output voltage.
2. If the output voltage decreases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the
series control element to increase the amount of the output voltage.

Series Regulator Circuit

A simple series regulator circuit is shown below. Transistor Q1 is the series control element, and Zener
diode DZ provides the reference voltage. The regulating operation can be described as follows:
 1. If the output voltage decreases, the increased base-emitter voltage causes transistor Q 1 to
conduct more, thereby raising the output voltage—maintaining the output constant.
2. If the output voltage increases, the decreased base-emitter voltage causes transistor Q 1 to
conduct less, thereby reducing the output voltage—maintaining the output constant.

Calculate the output voltage and the Zener current in the regulator circuit below for RL=1 kΩ

Improved Series Regulator

An improved series regulator circuit is shown below. Resistors R1 and R2 act as a sampling circuit, with
Zener diode DZ providing a reference voltage, and transistor Q2 then controls the base current to
transistor Q1 to vary the current passed by transistor Q1 to maintain the output voltage constant.
If the output voltage tries to increase, the increased voltage, V2, sampled by R1 and R2, causes the base-
emitter voltage of transistor Q2 to go up (since VZ remains fixed). If Q2 conducts more current, less goes
to the base of transistor Q1, which then passes less current to the load, reducing the output voltage—
thereby maintaining the output voltage constant.

The opposite takes place if the output voltage tries to decrease, causing less current to be supplied to
the load, to keep the voltage from decreasing.

The voltage V2 provided by sensing resistors R1 and R2 must equal the sum of the base-emitter voltage of
Q2 and the Zener diode, that is,

As an example, let’s find the regulated output voltage provided by the circuit for the circuit elements R 1
= 20 kΩ, R2 = 30 kΩ, and VZ = 8.3V in the above improved series regulator circuit.

Op-Amp Series Regulator

The figure below shows how an op-amp can be used to compare the Zener diode reference voltage with
the feedback voltage from sensing resistors R1 and R2. If the output voltage varies, the conduction of
transistor Q1 is controlled to maintain the output voltage constant. The output voltage will be
maintained at a value of
As an example, calculate the regulated output voltage in the circuit below:

Short Circuit or Overload Protection

1. Current-Limiting Circuit

This is one form of short-circuit or overload protection. See below.

As load current IL increases, the voltage drop across the short-circuit sensing resistor RSC increases. When
the voltage drop across RSC becomes large enough, it will drive Q2 on, diverting current from the base of
transistor Q1, thereby reducing the load current through transistor Q1, preventing any additional current
to load RL. The action of components RSC and Q2 limits the maximum load current.
 2. Foldback Limiting

We have seen that Current limiting reduces the load voltage when the current becomes larger than the
limiting value.

The circuit below, provides foldback limiting, which reduces both the output voltage and the output
current, protecting the load from overcurrent as well as protecting the regulator.

Foldback limiting is provided by the additional voltage-divider network of R 4 and R5 (in addition, or over
that of R1 and R2 in the above figure).

The divider circuit (R4 and R5) senses the voltage at the output (emitter) of Q1. When IL increases to its
maximum value, the voltage across RSC becomes large enough to drive Q2 on, thereby providing current
limiting.

If the load resistance is made smaller, (like a short circuit for example) the voltage driving Q 2 on
becomes less, so that IL drops, then VL also drops in value—this action being foldback limiting.

When the load resistance is returned to its rated value, the circuit resumes its voltage regulation action.
Shunt Voltage Regulation

A shunt voltage regulator provides regulation by shunting current away from the load to regulate the
output voltage. Figure below shows the block diagram of such a voltage regulator.

The input unregulated voltage provides current to the load. Some of the current is pulled away by the
control element to maintain the regulated output voltage across the load.

If the load voltage tries to change due to a change in the load, the sampling circuit provides a feedback
signal to a comparator, which then provides a control signal to vary the amount of the current shunted
away from the load. As the output voltage tries to get larger, for example, the sampling circuit provides
a feedback signal to the comparator circuit, which then provides a control signal to draw increased
shunt current, providing less load current, thereby keeping the regulated voltage from rising.

Basic Transistor Shunt Regulator

A basic shunt regulator circuit is shown in the figure below. Resistor R S drops the unregulated voltage by
an amount that depends on the current supplied to the load RL. The voltage across the load is set by the
Zener diode and transistor base-emitter voltage. If the load resistance decreases, a reduced drive
current to the base of Q1 results, shunting less collector current. The load current is thus larger, thereby
maintaining the regulated voltage across the load. The output voltage to the load is

Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator

Determine the regulated voltage and circuit currents for the shunt regulator below

The load voltage is

The current through the Zener (and transistor base-emitter current) is smaller than I C by the transistor
beta β.

Improved Shunt Regulator

The circuit below shows an improved shunt voltage regulator circuit. The Zener diode provides a
reference voltage so that the voltage across R1 senses the output voltage. As the output voltage tries to
change, the current shunted by transistor Q1 is varied to maintain the output voltage constant.

Transistor Q2 provides a larger base current to transistor Q1 than that of the “unimproved” one above,
so that the regulator handles a larger load current. The output voltage is set by a total of the Zener
voltage and the voltage across the two transistor base-emitters,

Improved shunt voltage regulator circuit

Shunt Voltage Regulator Using Op-Amp

The figure below shows another version of a shunt voltage regulator using an op-amp as voltage
comparator. The Zener voltage is compared to the feedback voltage obtained from voltage divider R 1
and R2 to provide the control drive current to shunt element Q1. The current through resistor RS is thus
controlled to drop a voltage across RS so that the output voltage is maintained.

Shunt voltage regulator using an op-amp

Switching Regulation

A type of regulator circuit that is quite popular for its efficient transfer of power to the load is the
switching regulator. Basically, a switching regulator passes voltage to the load in pulses, which are then
filtered to provide a smooth dc voltage. The figure below shows the basic components of such a voltage
regulator. The added circuit complexity is well worth the improved operating efficiency obtained.

The switching regulator is a type of regulator circuit which its efficient transfer of power to the load is
greater than series and shunt regulators because the transistor is not always conducting. The switching
regulator passes voltage to the load in pulses, which then filtered to provide a smooth dc voltage.

The disadvantages of LPS such as lower efficiency, the need for large value of capacitors to reduce
ripples and heavy and costly transformers etc. are overcome by the implementation of Switched Mode
Power Supplies.

The working of SMPS is simply understood by knowing that the transistor used in LPS is used to control
the voltage drop while the transistor in SMPS is used as a controlled switch.

A switching regulator rapidly switches a series device on and off. The switch’s duty cycle sets the amount
of charge transferred to the load. This is controlled by a feedback mechanism similar to that of a linear
regulator.

This type regulator is ideal for high current applications since less power is dissipated. Voltage regulation
in a switching regulator is achieved by the on and off action limiting the amount of current flow based
on the varying line and load conditions. With switching regulators 90% efficiencies can be achieved.

There are two types of switching regulators viz step down and step up regulators. They are explained
briefly below.
Step-Down Configuration

With the step-down (output is less than the input) configuration the control element Q 1 is pulsed on and
off at variable rate based on the load current. The pulsations are filtered out by the LC filter.

Step down regulator

Step-up configuration

The difference is in the placement of the inductor and the fact that Q1 is shunt configured. During the
time when Q1 is off the VL adds to VC stepping the voltage up by some amount.

Step up regulator

IC Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for
reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection all in a single IC.

Although the internal construction of the IC is somewhat different from that described for discrete
voltage regulator circuits, the external operation is much the same. IC units provide regulation of either
a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage.

One advantage of IC voltage regulators is that properties like thermal compensation, short circuit
protection and surge protection can be built into the device.
The IC regulators can be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of milliamperes to
tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milliwatts to tens of watts.

Most of the commonly used IC voltage regulators are three-terminal devices.

Three-Terminal Voltage Regulators

The figure below shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC to a load. The fixed
voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage V i applied to one input terminal, a regulated
output dc voltage V o from a second terminal, and the third terminal connected to ground. For a
selected regulator, IC device specifications list a voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to
maintain a regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The specifications also list the amount
of output voltage change resulting from a change in load current (load regulation) or in input voltage
(line regulation).

Three Terminal Devices

There are basically four types of IC voltage regulators viz.

 Fixed positive voltage regulators

 Fixed negative voltage regulators
 Adjustable voltage regulators
 Dual-tracking voltage regulators

The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5V to 24V. The figure below shows how
one such IC, a 7812, is connected to provide voltage regulation with output from this unit of +12V dc. An
unregulated input voltage Vi is filtered by capacitor C1 and connected to the IC’s IN terminal. The IC’s
OUT terminal provides a regulated +12 V, which is filtered by capacitor C2 (mostly for any high-frequency
noise). The third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND). Whereas the input voltage may vary over
some permissible voltage range and the output load may vary over some acceptable range, the output
voltage remains constant within specified voltage variation limits. These limitations are spelled out in
the manufacturer’s specification sheets.
A table of positive-voltage regulator ICs is provided below.

The connection of a 7812 in a complete voltage supply is shown in the connection of the figure below.
The ac line voltage (120Vrms) is stepped down to 18Vrms across each half of the center-tapped
transformer. A full-wave rectifier and capacitor filter then provides an unregulated dc voltage, shown as
a dc voltage of about 22 V, with ac ripple of a few volts as input to the voltage regulator. The 7812 IC
then provides an output that is a regulated +12 V dc.

A +12V power supply

Positive-Voltage-Regulator Specifications

The specifications sheet of voltage regulators is typified by the specification sheet below for the group of
series 7800 positive-voltage regulators. Some consideration of a few of the more important parameters
should be made.

Specification sheet data for voltage regulator ICs

Output voltage: The specification for the 7812 shows that the output voltage is typically

+12 V but could be as low as 11.5 V or as high as 12.5 V.

Output regulation: The output voltage regulation is seen to be typically 4mV, to a maximum of 100mV
(at output currents from 0.25A to 0.75A). This information specifies that the output voltage can typically
vary only 4 mV from the rated 12V dc.

Short-circuit output current: The amount of current is limited to typically 0.35A if the output were to be
short-circuited (presumably by accident or by another faulty component).

Peak output current: Although the rated maximum current is 1.5A for this series of IC, the typical peak
output current that might be drawn by a load is 2.2A. This shows that although the manufacturer rates
the IC as capable of providing 1.5A, one could draw somewhat more current (possibly for a short period
of time).
Dropout voltage: The dropout voltage, typically 2V, is the minimum amount of voltage across the input–
output terminals that must be maintained if the IC is to operate as a regulator. If the input voltage drops
too low or the output rises so that at least 2V is not maintained across the IC input–output, the IC will no
longer provide voltage regulation. One therefore maintains an input voltage large enough to assure that
the dropout voltage is provided.

Fixed-Negative-Voltage Regulators

The series 7900 ICs provide negative-voltage regulators, similar to those providing positive voltages. A
list of negative-voltage regulator ICs is provided in the table below. As shown, IC regulators are available
for a range of fixed negative voltages, the selected IC providing the rated output voltage as long as the
input voltage is maintained greater than the minimum input value. For example, the 7912 provides an
output of -12 V as long as the input to the regulator IC is more negative than -14.6 V.

Draw a voltage supply using a full-wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter, and IC regulator to provide an
output of +5V.

A +5V power supply

For a transformer output of 15V and a filter capacitor of 250mF, calculate the minimum input voltage
when connected to a load drawing 400mA.

Since this voltage is greater than the minimum required for the IC regulator (from the first table above),

Vi = 7.3 V), the IC can provide a regulated voltage to the given load.
Determine the maximum value of load current at which regulation is maintained for the circuit of the
above figure.

Adjustable-Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulators are also available in circuit configurations that allow the user to set the output
voltage to a desired regulated value. The LM317, for example, can be operated with the output voltage
regulated at any setting over the range of voltage from 1.2 V to 37 V.

The figure below shows how the regulated output voltage of an LM317 can be set.

Resistors R1 and R2 set the output to any desired voltage over the adjustment range (1.2V to 37V). The
output voltage desired can be calculated using

Connection of LM317 adjustable-voltage regulator.

Determine the regulated voltage in the circuit of the above figure with R 1 = 240Ω and R2 = 2.4 kΩ.
Determine the regulated output voltage of the circuit below

Positive adjustable-voltage regulator

A check of the filter capacitor voltage shows that an input–output difference of 2V can be maintained up
to at least 200mA load current.

Applications

 Power Supplies
 Simple DC Supply
 DC Supply with Transformer Input
 Chopper Supply
 Special TV Horiontal TV
 Battery Charger Circuits

Summary

Video of Average value, RMS, Ripple factor of Full wave and Half wave