Module II: Individual

Differences, Performances, and

Managerial Decision-making
Processes

Atri Sengupta
IIM Sambalpur
 Manager vs Leader
• Counting value vs Creating value
• Circles of power vs Circles of influence
• Managing work vs Leading people
• Status quo maintenance vs Change agent
• Short term vs Long term thinking
• Building systems and processes vs Building relationships
• Directing vs Coaching
Philosophy of Leadership

Managing
Self

Effective
Managing Managing Leadership
Others Situations
Personality &
Job Fit
 What is Personality?
• ‘Personality’ derived from Latin persona,
which means ‘mask’, i.e., a visible aspect of
one’s character.
• Sum total behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and
values that are characteristic of an
individual.
• A person’s unique pattern of thinking,
emotion, and behavior; the consistency of
who you are, have been, and will become.
• Behaviour = f (Personality, Environment)
 Formation of Personality

• Heredity
• Environment
• Situation
 Factors Influencing Personality

• Birth Order • Cultural Environment

- Brother, Sister, Both - Personalities Found
• Parental Characteristics - Country
- Parent Age - State
- Education Level - City
- Religious Orientation - Neighborhood
- Economic Status
- Occupation
 Theories of Personality

• Trait Theories: Attempt to learn what traits make up

personality and how they relate to actual behavior
• Psychoanalytic Theories: Focus on the inner workings
of personality, especially internal conflicts and
struggles
• Behavioristic Theories: Focus on external
environment and on effects of conditioning and
learning
• Social Learning Theories: Attribute difference in
personality to socialization, expectations, and mental
processes
• Humanistic Theories: Focus on private, subjective
experience and personal growth
 Trait Theories of Personality

• Traits are relatively stable and consistent personal

characteristics
• Trait personality theories suggest that a person can be
described on the basis of some number of personality traits
• Allport identified some 4,500 traits
• Cattel used factor analysis to identify 30-35 basic traits
• Eysenck argued there are 3 distinct traits in personality
• Extraversion/introversion
• Neuroticism (stability)
• Psychotocism (super-ego function)
 Trait Theories of Personality – Big
‘Five’ Model
• Extraversion: the degree to which someone is outgoing, sociable, and
assertive, comfortable with relationships; an introvert is more withdrawn and
reserved
• Agreeableness: the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative,
and trusting, gets along well with others; a disagreeable person is a source of
conflict and discomfort for others
 Trait Theories of Personality – Big
‘Five’ Model
• Conscientiousness: the degree to which someone is
responsible, dependable, and careful, focuses on what can
be accomplished and meeting commitments; persons
lacking conscientiousness is careless, often trying to do too
much and fail, or doing little.
• Neuroticism: the degree to which someone experiences
unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, depression,
and feelings of vulnerability; persons with low neuroticism
are emotionally stable.
 Trait Theories of Personality – Big
‘Five’ Model
• Openness: the degree to which someone is curious, open
to new ideas, imaginative, broad-minded, receptive to new
things, comfortable to change.
Trait Theories of Personality – Big ‘Five’ Model
 Trait Theories of Personality – Cattle’s 16 PF Model

• Abstractedness imaginative versus practical

• Apprehension insecure versus complacent
• Dominance aggressive versus passive
• Emotional Stability calm and stable versus high-strung and
• Liveliness enthusiastic versus serious
• Openness to Change liberal versus traditional
• Perfectionism compulsive and controlled versus indifferent
• Privateness pretentious versus unpretentious
• Reasoning abstract versus concrete
• Rule Consciousness moralistic versus free-thinking
• Self-Reliance leader versus follower
• Sensitivity sensitive versus tough-minded
• Social Boldness uninhibited versus timid
• Tension driven and tense versus relaxed and easy going
• Vigilance suspicious versus accepting
• Warmth open and warmhearted versus aloof and critical
Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality: Freud
Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality: Freud
Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality: Freud
Transactional Analysis and Life Positions
 What Drives Your Behaviour?
• Be perfect
• Pleasing others
• Try hard
• Be strong
• Hurry up
 The Game People Play
• Your life position assessment
 Understanding Behavioural Dynamics

“Life Positions” or “OK- Not OK” Model (Berne, 1975):

I’m OK, You’re OK I’m OK, You’re not OK

• Assertive / creative • Aggressive / defensive

• I win, You win • I win, You lose
• Joyful • Furious, Burned up

I’m not OK, You’re OK I’m not OK, You’re not OK

• Passive / submissive • Manipulative / divisive

• I lose, You win • I lose, You lose
• Embarrassed • Humiliated

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 Types of Personality -- Type A
• Time Urgency and Impatience, e.g. individuals who are frustrated by waiting, interrupt
conversations, walk or talk very quickly, etc.
• Free-Floating Hostility or Aggressiveness, e.g. impatience, rudeness, easily upset by
minute issues, ‘have a short fuse’, etc.
• Strenuous worker
• Poor sleep pattern
• Compulsive tendencies
• Aggressive
• Depressive and neurotic tendencies
• Angry
• Impatience
• Low on introspection
• Anxious
• Hard driving
• Little time for relaxation
• Conscientious
 Types of Personality -- Type A

Physical Characteristics:
• Facial Tension (Tight lips, clenched jaw, etc.)
• Tongue Clicking or Teeth Grinding
• Dark Circles Under Eyes
• Facial Sweating (on forehead or upper lip)

Adverse Effects of Type A Personality:

• Hypertension
• Heart Disease
• Job Stress
• Social Isolation
 Types of Personality -- Type B

• relaxed • hence able to cope with stress

• not prone to outbursts of rage or anger effectively
• non-competitive & less driven • less susceptible to disease
• easy-going • though not driven overachievers, they
are often successful in their
• patient professions
• optimistic
• have a sense of humour
• at peace with their environment and
themselves
• able to express their emotions
appropriately
• pleasant demeanor
• temporary fearlessness in the face of
trauma
 Types of Personality -- Type C

• Suppression of emotion
• Depression
• Learned helplessness
• Low emotional expressiveness
Stages of Personality Development: Ericson’s Model
Stages of Personality Development
 Stages of Personality Development: Ancient Indian Theory

Stage Age in Description

Years
Brahmacharya Till 24 Brahmacharya represented the bachelor student stage of life. This
(student life) stage focuses on education and included the practice
of celibacy. The student went to a Gurukul (house of the guru) and
typically would live with a Guru (teacher), acquiring knowledge of
science, philosophy, scriptures and logic, practicing self-discipline,
working to earn dakshina to be paid for the guru, learning to live a
life of Dharma (righteousness, morals, duties).
Grihastha 24–48 This stage referred to the individual's married life, with the duties of
(household life) maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children,
and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life. Grihastha stage
was considered as the most important of all stages in sociological
context, as human beings in this stage not only pursued a virtuous
life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other
stages of life, as well as the offspring that continued mankind. The
stage also represented one where the most intense physical, sexual,
emotional, occupational, social and material attachments exist in a
human being's life.
 Stages of Personality Development: Ancient Indian Theory

Stage Age in Description

Years
Vanaprastha 48—72 The retirement stage, where a person handed over household
(retired life) responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and
gradually withdrew from the world. Vanaprastha stage was a
transition phase from a householder's life with its greater emphasis
on Artha and Kama (wealth, security, pleasure and sexual pursuits)
to one with greater emphasis on Moksha (spiritual liberation).
Sannyasa 72+ The stage was marked by renunciation of material desires and
(renounced life) (or prejudices, represented by a state of disinterest and detachment
anytime) from material life, generally without any meaningful property or
home (Ascetic), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple
spiritual life. Anyone could enter this stage after completing
the Brahmacharya stage of life.
 Measuring Personality

• Verbal Techniques
• Projective Questions
• Sentence Completion
• Story Completion
• Visual Techniques
• Drawing Techniques
• Objective Techniques
 Measuring Personality – Scales Available

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

- “Nothing in the newspaper interests me except the comics.”
- “I get angry sometimes.”
• Rorschach Inkblot Test - used to identify people’s inner
feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - people express their

inner motives through the stories they make up about
ambiguous scenes
Personality at Workplace
 Understanding Individual Preferences
• What energizes one most?
❖ Interacting with other people
❖ Being with him/herself
• Where does one like to focus his/her
energy?
❖ In the outer world of people & things
❖ In the inner world of ideas & thoughts
What is he/she comfortable with?
• What does one prefer more?
❖Acting first then thinking about ❖ To be around others
it
❖ To spend time by him/herself
❖Think first then act
• What is his/her working style?
Is he more of a --
❖ Handling several projects at a time
❖Public person
❖Private person
❖ Handling single project at a time
Communication and Learning Styles
Extrovert learners like to: Introvert learners like to:
◼ talk to understand new ◼ study alone;
information and ideas;
◼ listen to others talk and
◼ work in groups; think about information
privately;
◼ try something first and
think about it later; ◼ think about something first
and try it later;
◼ see the results from a
project; ◼ listen, observe, write and
read;
◼ see examples of how
other people are doing the ◼ take time to complete
work assignments
◼ Extroverts learn best when ◼ Introverts learn best when
they can work with a friend they can find quiet places to
and learn by trying work and have enough time
something themselves to reflect on, redraft and
instead of watching or improve their work.
listening to others. When Introverts often like to
they have difficulty with make connections between
understanding, they benefit work and their personal
by talking about their ideas interests
with others
Understanding Individual Preferences
• Does he/she pay more attention to -----
❖ Facts & details
❖ Connections, underlying meaning, &
implications
• Is he/she ---
❖ More down-to-earth and sensible person?
❖ Imaginative and creative one?
• What does he/she trust more?
❖ His/her direct experience
❖ His/her gut experience
• Is he/she more tuned to --
❖ The here-and-now?
❖ Imagine how things will impact future
events?
Communication and Learning Styles
Sensing learners: Intuitive learners:
◼ like clear goals; • like reading and listening;
◼ are careful and pay • like problems that require
attention to details; the use of imagination;
◼ like taking one step at a • like variety;
time;
◼ have a good memory for • are more interested in big
facts; ideas than in little details;
◼ pay more attention to • like starting on new
practical tasks and ideas projects rather than
◼ Sensing learners learn best finishing existing ones
when they can ask their • Intuitive learners learn best
teacher to explain exactly
what is expected and when when they can find ways to
they can focus on skills and be imaginative and creative
tasks that are important in in school. They prefer to
their lives. They like to use follow their instincts and
computers, watch films or understand the big picture
find other ways to see, hear before they begin tasks
and touch what they are
learning
 Understanding Individual Preferences
• Does he/she make decisions ----
❖ More objectively, weighing the pros & cons?
❖ Based on his/her feelings about the issue,
and the effect of decisions on others?
• Which words describe him/her better?
❖ Logical and analytical
❖ Sensitive and empathetic
• Does he/she believe in -----
❖ To be truthful, even if it hurts someone’s
What is the greater compliment to feelings?
him/her?
❖ To be tactful, even if it means telling a little
❖To be tough white lie?
❖To be tender • What does persuade him/her most?
❖ A good logical argument
❖ A strong emotional appeal
Communication and Learning Styles
Thinking learners: Feeling learners:
• want to be treated fairly; • like to have a friendly
• like teachers who are relationship with teachers;
organised;
• learn by helping others;
• want to feel a sense of
achievement and skill; • need to get along with
• use clear thinking to work other people;
out problems; • like to work with groups;
• like clear and logical • like tasks with which they
direction
have a personal connection
• Thinking learners learn best
when they have limited time • Feeling learners learn best
to do their work and are able when they can work with a
to put information in a friend, find opportunities
logical order that makes to choose topics they care
sense to them. They succeed
when they can focus on about and help others
what they already know in
order to make connections
to new information
Understanding Individual Preferences
• Does he/she take decisions ---
❖ Quickly and easily?
❖ Anxious and unsure?
• Does he/she prefer to ----
❖ Have things settles and decided?
❖ Leave options open, just in case
something unexpected comes up?

What is more true of him/her?

• Is it very important for him/her -----
❖Generally very organised ❖ To control most of the situations?
❖Have trouble finding things and ❖ To let others call the shots?
keeping organised • Is he/she ----
What is more true of him/her?
❖ anxious about time, and almost always
❖Finish work first and then relax punctual?
❖Find compelling reasons to put ❖ Frequently run let?
a task off until a later time
Communication and Learning Styles
Judging learners: Perceiving learners:
• like to have a plan and • are open to new
stick to it; experiences in learning;
• work in a steady, orderly • like to make choices;
way; • are flexible;
• like to finish projects; • work best when work is
fun;
• take school seriously;
• like to discover new
• like to know exactly what information
is expected of them • Perceiving learners learn
• Judging learners learn best best when they find new
when they have short-term ways to do routine tasks in
goals, when they are able order to generate interest
and to discover new
to make a plan of action information and ideas.
and find out from the They prefer being involved
teacher exactly what is in projects that are open-
expected ended without definite cut-
off points and deadlines
MBTI: Introduction
 ANALYSTS
Personality & Job Fit
INTJ – The Architect Investment banker
Personal financial advisor
Software developer
Economist
Executive

INTP – The Logician Computer

programmer/software
designer
Financial analyst
Architect
College professor
Economist
 ANALYSTS
Personality & Job Fit
ENTJ – The Commander Executive
Lawyer
Market research analyst
Management consultant
Venture capitalist

ENTP – The Debater Entrepreneur

Real estate developer
Advertising creative director
Marketing director
Politician/political consultant
 DIPLOMATS
Personality & Job Fit
INFJ – The Advocate Therapist/counsellor
Social worker
HR diversity manager
Organization development
consultant
Customer relations manager
INFP – The Mediator Graphic designer
Psychologist/therapist
Writer/editor
Physical therapist
HR development trainer
 DIPLOMATS
Personality & Job Fit
ENFJ – The Protagonist Advertising executive
Public relations specialist
Corporate coach/trainer
Sales manager
Employment/HR specialist

ENFP – The Campaigner Journalist

Advertising creative director
Consultant
Restaurateur
Event planner
 SENTINELS
Personality & Job Fit
ISTJ – The Logistician Auditor
Accountant
Chief financial officer
Web development engineer
Government employee

ISFJ – The Defender Dentist

Elementary school teacher
Librarian
Franchise owner
Customer service
representative
 SENTINELS
Personality & Job Fit
ESTJ – The Executive Insurance sales agent
Pharmacist
Lawyer
Judge
Project manager

ESFJ – The Consul Sales representative

Nurse/healthcare worker
Social worker
Public relations account
executive
Loan officer
 EXPLORERS
Personality & Job Fit
ISTP – The Virtuoso Civil engineer
Economist
Pilot
Data communications
analysis
Emergency room physician
ISFP – The Adventurer Fashion designer
Physical therapist
Massage therapist
Landscape architect
Storekeeper
 EXPLORERS
Personality & Job Fit
ESTP – The Entrepreneur Detective
Banker
Investor
Entertainment agent
Sports coach
ESFP – The Entertainer Child welfare counselor
Primary care physician
Actor
Interior designer
Environmental scientist