Syllabus: Fundamentals of Flight Aerodynamics

Aerodynamic forces and moments on an Airfoil, Lift and drag

components, lift curve, drag curve, types of drag, factors affecting lift
and drag, Centre of pressure and its significance, Aerodynamic center,
Aspect ratio, Airfoil nomenclature, Basic characteristics of airfoils,
Simple problems on lift and drag. Significance of speed of sound,
Propagation of sound, Mach number, subsonic, transonic, supersonic,
hypersonic flows

Prof. G K Suryanarayana
Dept of Aerospace Engineering
Streamline
– Set of points that form a line that is everywhere tangent to local velocity
vector
– No flow across streamlines
– For a steady flow, moving fluid element traces out a fixed path in space
Stream tube
– A set of streamlines that intersect a closed loop in space
Steady Flow
• A flow that does not fluctuate with time
Unsteady Flow
• A flow that varies with time
Gas laws:
Boyle’s Law: P ∝ 1/V at Constant T
Charles’ Law: V ∝ T at Constant P
Gay Lussac’s law: P ∝ T at Constant V
Combined gas law: PV/T = Constant
Equation of State for a Perfect Gas applies at a point
– Ideal Gas Law: p = rRT or pv = RT (v = 1/r)
– R universal = 8,314 J/kg mole K
– R for air = 8,314 / 28.96 = 287 J/kg K (or 1,716 ft lb / slug R).
Streamlines and Streamtubes in steady flow

Streamlines
 Streamlines in steady flow

• In general, one can visualize streamlines of flow over an object at low

speeds (low Reynolds number to be specific)

• Special techniques required for visualization (Hydrogen bubble, Dye

injection, etc) or in wind tunnels (Smoke-flow)

• At higher speeds, streamlines cannot be seen by normal

visualization techniques in experiments

• Streamlines can be captured at any speed through Computations

(CFD)
 Examples of flow visualization

Streamlines over an airfoil: [Link]

Streamline pattern over F-16 model in water tunnel
Streamlines over Harrier VTOL Aircraft through CFD
 Why study aerodynamics?

Study of aerodynamics is important to determine forces and

moments (torques) acting on flying vehicles
– Forces and moments are caused as a result of interaction
between a body (airplane, rocket, etc.) and air surrounding it
– Interaction depends on flow conditions (fluid properties,
relative velocity, pressure, temperature, etc.) and body shape
(geometry)
 Aerodynamics
• Aerodynamics deals with the forces generated by motion of objects
through the air

• The fundamental quantities are pressure, density, temperature and

velocity

• Pressure = Normal force per unit area exerted on a surface, defined at a

point in a fluid (gas or liquid) at a point on a surface and can vary from
point to point

• Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance

• Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of a particle in a gas and

is proportional to average molecular kinetic energy

• Velocity is a vector whose magnitude and direction can vary in a flow

field

• Pressure, Velocity, Density and temperature can all vary from point to
point
 Aerodynamics

• All fluids have viscosity, which makes them ‘wet’ the surface over which
they flow

• Interface between a surface and a fluid causes friction, also called skin
friction

• The effects of viscosity are felt in a small region over the surface, called
the boundary layer

• Velocity on the wall is zero and velocity at the edge of the boundary layer
is the true velocity of the flow
Typical airfoil sections
 Typical airfoil sections

Airfoil / Aerofoil
 Some important definitions

Chord of an airfoil

Angle of attack, α
 Some important definitions

Leading and trailing edges of an airfoil

LE TE

Chord line

Straight line from Leading edge to Trailing edge

Camber

Measure of the curvature of an airfoil as evaluated by the height of the

mean camber line above or below the chord line
 Some important definitions
Mean camber line

Line joining the mid points between upper and lower surfaces

Center of Pressure

An imaginary point on the chord at which the net aerodynamic forces act
on an airfoil

Aerodynamic Center

An imaginary point on the chord at which the aerodynamic moment is

independent of angle of attack
 Some important definitions
Lift
Component of resultant aerodynamic force perpendicular to relative wind

Drag

Component of force in the direction of relative wind

Pitching Moment

Moment due to lift force at a point on the chord

 Some important definitions
Dynamic pressure
q = ρV2/2

Relative wind
Refers to the motion of air relative to an airfoil: Equal and opposite to
forward velocity of an aircraft

Resultant aerodynamic force

Vector sum of all the aerodynamic forces acting on an airfoil: Point of
application is the center of pressure

Viscous flow
Since a viscous fluid adheres on the surface over which it flows, the
velocity at the surface is zero. The velocity increases as we go above the
surface. The layer where the local velocity is less than the free-stream
velocity is called the boundary layer. The effects of viscosity are contained
within the boundary layer. Outside this layer, the fluid behaves as if it has
no viscosity
 Some important definitions
Mach number (M)

Is defined as the ratio of the velocity of an object to the velocity of sound at

the same altitude of the object

Critical Mach number (MCr)

Critical Mach number of an aircraft is its Mach number at which the air
flowing over some part of the aircraft (usually the wing) reaches the speed
of sound and shock waves begin to form at that location

Reynolds number (Re = ρVc/µ

µ)

A non-dimensional quantity representing the ratio of inertial force to

viscous force . This quantity combines independent parameters viz., density,
velocity and viscosity into a single parameter such that aerodynamic forces
can be expressed as a function of a single parameter
 Some important definitions

Indicated Air Speed (IAS)

Speed of an aircraft, as indicated by the instrument in the cockpit

Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)

Indicated air speed corrected for position error and instrument error

Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)

Calibrated air speed corresponding to sea level conditions in ISA

 Some important definitions

Indicated Air Speed (IAS)

Speed of an aircraft, as indicated by the instrument in the cockpit

Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)

Indicated air speed corrected for position error and instrument error

Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)

Calibrated air speed corresponding to sea level conditions in ISA

 Some important definitions

Ground Speed

Speed at which the aircraft moves relative to a fixed point on the earth’s
surface
VGround = Vair speed + V wind

If the wind moves in the same direction as the aircraft (tail wind), Vwind is
positive

If the wind moves in the opposite direction as the aircraft (Head Wind),
Vwind is negative

Inviscid flow

In many engineering applications, viscosity of a fluid may be ignored and

this simplifies the governing equations. Corrections due to viscosity are
separately considered and added to results from inviscid flow equations
 Some important definitions

Incompressible flow

When fluid velocities are small, air behaves as if it is incompressible. That

is, the density of the flow remains unaltered. Liquids are incompressible,
but gases are incompressible only at low speeds. Generally, whenever M <
0.3, the flow can be regarded as incompressible.

Compressible flow

When fluid velocities are not small, changes in density occur along the flow
passage. This becomes a very important aspect of all high speed flows.
When M > 0.30, effects of compressibility must be considered.
 Some important definitions
Viscous flows
Laminar flow
Layers (lamina) of fluid uniformly slide over each other without
unsteadiness

Velocity gradient normal to the surface (δ

δu/δ
δy) is small

Low values of skin friction drag

Occurs at low Reynolds numbers

Turbulent flow
Fluid particles move randomly along a streamline, causing exchange
of momentum across the fluid layers

Velocity gradient normal to the surface (δ

δu/δ
δy) is larger

Larger skin friction

Occurs at high Reynolds numbers

 Some important definitions

Rotational and Irrotational Flows

If the fluid particles rotate along with the flow, it is rotational. If the
particles retain their shape while moving with the flow, it is irrotational.

Flow within boundary layer is rotational: Flow outside the boundary layer
is irrotational
 Some important definitions

Rotational and Irrotational Flows

 Classification of Fluid Flows

Fluid flow can be classified based on the speed of propagation of

sound (a)

a = (γγRT)0.5
 Classification of Fluid Flows

Fluid flow can be classified based on the speed of propagation of

sound (a)

γ= CP/CV = 1.402 for air at normal temperatures

T = Temperature (K) in Absolute scale

Speed of sound and classification of speed ranges

• Propagation of sound occurs at the local speed of sound

• Speed of sound = a = (γRT)0.5

• Pressure fluctuations travel at the speed of sound: Hence, speed of

sound is an important parameter in classifying types of flows based on
speed
 Speed of Sound

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
 Classification of Fluid Flows

•Incompressible flows – low speed aerodynamics: M < 0.33

• Subsonic aerodynamics (0.33 < M < Mcrit typically, M = 0.8)
• Transonic aerodynamics (0.80 < M < 1.2)
• Supersonic aerodynamics (1.2 < M < 5)
• Hypersonic aerodynamics (M > 5.0)

Low speed aerodynamics

• Speed of the vehicle is < (1/3) of speed of sound (i.e., ~ 400 kMPH at sea level)
• There is no significant change in density of the flow, due to variations in the
speed of flow over an object
• Since the density does not change, the flow is termed incompressible
• Liquids are incompressible, but gases are compressible
• At low speeds, changes in density are small (<5%) and hence can be ignored
 Classification of Fluid Flows

Subsonic aerodynamics

• Speed of the vehicle typically 0.33 to 0.8 times the speed of sound (i.e., ~
400 – 1000 kMPH at sea level)
• At these speeds, significant change in density of the flow occurs due to
variations in the speed of flow over an object
• Since the density changes, the flow is termed compressible
• Upper limit of this range is till some regions of flow experience sonic
condition (speed of speed. i.e., ~ 1200 kMPH)
• At Mcrit, shocks begin to occur at locations of sonic velocity, leading to
increase in the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle
 Classification of Fluid Flows

Transonic aerodynamics

• Speed of the vehicle typically 0.8 to 1.2 times the speed of sound (i.e., ~
1000 – 1400 kMPH at sea level)
• At these speeds, the flow is compressible and features partly supersonic
and partly subsonic regions
• Upper limit of this range is till some regions of flow experience sonic
condition (speed of speed. i.e., ~ 1200 kMPH)
• At Mcrit, shocks begin to occur at locations of sonic velocity, leading to
increase in the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle
• Crucial flight conditions for aircraft since control reversal can happen due
to changes in nature of flow
• Transonic shock wave system travels over the body and gradually settles to
steady supersonic flow conditions
• Most complex problems in aerodynamics are related to unsteady transonic
flows
 Classification of Fluid Flows

Supersonic aerodynamics

• Vehicle speed > 1400 kMPH (at sea level)

• Supersonic speeds normally achieved at low altitudes only in launch
vehicles and missiles
• Aircraft can fly supersonic generally at high altitudes, since the drag force
is large (e.g, Concorde aircraft could fly at M~ 2.2 at altitude of 18KM)
• Occurrence of shock waves and sonic bang

Hypersonic aerodynamics

• Vehicle speed > 6000 kMPH (at sea level)

• Hypersonic speeds normally achieved at very high altitudes where the
atmosphere has low density
• Aerothermodynamic heating and material problems dominate
• Occurrence of shock waves
Classification of Fluid Flows
Classification of Fluid Flows
Classification of Fluid Flows
Classification of Fluid Flows
 Theory of Lift and drag

• The motion of air around an object produces pressure and velocity changes
through the flow field. Consequently, the aerodynamic forces on the body
are due to shear force that acts tangentially and the pressure force that acts
normal to the body

• Shear forces are due to viscosity and normal forces are due to changes in the
pressure
 Theory of Lift and drag

• The net effect of p and τ distributions integrated over the complete body
surface is a resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on the body
 Theory of Lift and drag

• The resultant force (R) can be resolved into two sets of components as
shown

Wind axes is normal used for

estimating the performance of flight
vehicles

Wind Axes
 Theory of Lift and drag

• The resultant force (R) can be resolved into two sets of components as
shown
Body axes is normal used in wind
tunnel testing of flight vehicles
Body axes and wind axes parameters can
be easily transformed to each other

Body Axes
 Theory of Lift and drag

Nomenclature for integrating the pressure field over an airfoil

 Theory of Lift and drag

2-Dimensional flow over a wing

 Theory of Lift and drag

The total normal and axial forces per unit span can be obtained by
integrating the upper and lower pressure distributions as

The lift and drag can be obtained from the equations:

 Theory of Lift and drag

The aerodynamic moment exerted on the body depends on the point about
which the moment is taken (Moment about center of pressure = 0).

Consider moment about the leading edge. By convention: Nose up is +ve and
Nose down is –ve

Pitch up Moment: Positive

Pitch down Moment: Negative

 Theory of Lift and drag

The moment about the leading edge per unit span due to p and τ on the
elemental area dS on the upper and lower sides are
 Theory of Lift and drag

In these equations, x, y and θ are known functions of s for a given airfoil

shape. Hence, if pu, pl, τu and τl are known as functions of s (from theory or
from experiments), the integrals may be evaluated and the lift, drag and
pitching moments determined.

Major goal in theoretical aerodynamics is to calculate p(s) and τ (s) for a given
shape and determine the aerodynamic forces and moments.

More fundamental than aerodynamic forces and moments are their non-
dimensional quantities defined as follows:
Theory of Lift and drag
 Theory of Lift and drag
• The resultant of these forces can be resolved into a lift force normal to
direction of wind and drag force along the direction of wind

• The center of pressure is the location on the chord, at which the resultant
force acts. At this location, the aerodynamic moment is zero

• As we increase ∝, the Lift and Drag forces increase. These forces are
proportional to Density, Area of the wing surface and square of the velocity.
L or D ∝ Density, (ρ ∞) Square of Velocity (V∞2) and Surface area (S) of the
wing

• Thus, L = CLq∞S and D = CDq∞S where CL and CD are the lift and drag
coefficients and q∞ is the freestream dynamic pressure ( ρ ∞ V 2∞)/2
• Suffix ‘∞’ refers t0 undisturbed flow conditions far upstream of the wing

• CL = L/qS and CD = D/qS

• Through dimensional analysis, it can be established that these coefficients

are functions of Reynolds number and Mach number
 Theory of Lift and drag

• At the center of pressure on the chord, there is no moment, but a pure

force. However, at any other location, this force causes a force and
moment. This moment is called “Pitching Moment”

• Pitching moment = Lift x Distance from Center of pressure

• At a constant V∞ , as the angle of attack increases, both lift and drag

increase.

• In the coefficients mentioned, the reference area S and reference length I are
chosen to pertain to the given geometric body shape; for different shapes, S and l
may be different. For example, for an airplane wing, S is the planform area & l
the mean chord length. However, for a sphere, S is the cross-sectional area, and l
is the diameter. The particular choice of reference area and length is not critical;
however, when using force and moment coefficient data, you must always know
what reference quantities
Theory of Lift and drag
 Theory of Lift and drag

• The symbols in capital letters listed above, i.e., CL , CD, CM, CN and CA
denote the force and moment coefficients for a complete three-dimensional body
such as an airplane or a finite wing.

In contrast, for a two-dimensional body, such as shown below, the forces and
moments are per unit span.

For these two-dimensional bodies, it is conventional to denote the aerodynamic

coefficients by lowercase letters; e.g.,
Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
 Theory of Lift and drag

(b)

(c)
(a)

Since α = 0°, results in body axis and wind axis are the same. Hence, A’ = D’ and we can
obtain drag from the equation:
Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
 Theory of Lift and drag

Total drag is the sum of drag due to pressure and shear stress integrals
 Theory of Lift and drag

The drag coefficient (cd) = D/ ((0.5*ρ ∞ * V2∞)*S)

V∞ can be determined from Mach number, as V∞ = M ∞ /a where a = (γRT) 0.5

Substituting for γ and ρ, we get V∞ = 2(340.2) = 680.4 m/s

Theory of Lift and drag
Theory of Lift and drag
 Force and Moment system over an airfoil

Due to the distribution of pressure over the airfoil, a certain resultant force and
a moment are created. The resultant force can be placed anywhere on the
chord, as a force and a moment.
 Force and Moment system over an airfoil

W1 W3 W3

W2 W4 W5

Resultant Force = Algebraic sum of all the loads

At any point along the bar, except at one point, this resultant force and a moment act
At one specific point, only the resultant force acts and the moment is ZERO
That point can be considered as the Center of Force

Exercise: An aircraft with Tricycle landing gear is parked on a Runway. How would
you find out the location of its center of gravity?
Force and Moment system over an airfoil
 Force and Moment system over an airfoil

It can be shown from dimensional analyses that the aerodynamic force and
moment coefficients are functions of Reynolds number (Re) and Mach number
(M). These are called as Similarity Parameters

Since these coefficients are

functions of α,
 Force and Moment system over an airfoil

• These are the basic concepts useful for design of any aerospace vehicle
• The aerodynamic force coefficients between a geometrically scaled model and the
prototype are identical if the Re and M are the same.
• Thus, for design and development of any aerospace vehicle, tests can be carried out
in a wind tunnel at the flight Reynolds number and the coefficients can be
experimentally determined. The coefficients can be used to determine the
aerodynamic forces and moments of the prototype and design the vehicle.
 Force and Moment system over an airfoil

• These are the basic concepts useful for design of any aerospace vehicle
• The aerodynamic force coefficients between a geometrically scaled model and the
prototype are identical if the Re and M are the same.
• Thus, for design and development of any aerospace vehicle, tests can be carried out
in a wind tunnel at the flight Reynolds number and the coefficients can be
experimentally determined. The coefficients can be used to determine the
aerodynamic forces and moments of the prototype and design the vehicle.
Force and Moment system over an airfoil
Thus, to simulate the flow conditions in the wind tunnel, it must be pressurised to 11.26 bar
 Aerodynamics deals with fluids in motion. However, a body immersed in
a fluid can experience a force even when there is no relative motion
between the body and fluid. This is called Fluid Statics and an example
of such a force is Buoyancy.

Thus, to simulate the flow conditions in the wind tunnel, it must be pressurised to 11.26 bar
A
Force and Moment system over an airfoil
Thus, to simulate the flow conditions in the wind tunnel, it must be pressurised to 11.26 bar
Aerodynamics deals with fluids in motion. However, a body immersed in
a fluid can experience a force even when there is no relative motion
between the body and fluid. This is called Fluid Statics and an example
of such a force is Buoyancy.
A
Typical characteristics of airfoils
Force and Moment system over an airfoil
Thus, to simulate the flow conditions in the wind tunnel, it must be pressurised to 11.26 bar
 Fluid Statics

Aerodynamics deals with fluids in motion. However, a body immersed in

a fluid can experience a force even when there is no relative motion
between the body and fluid. This is called Fluid Statics and an example
of such a force is Buoyancy.
A
 Typical characteristics of airfoils

Lift Curve Drag Curve

Pitching Moment Curve

NACA 63-210 airfoil

Re = 3 x 106
Typical characteristics of airfoils
Typical characteristics of airfoils