THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 17

negative sign: namely heat generated in the machine is always released during
the conversion process. A plus sign indicates energy going in; a minus indicates
energy going out. In the case of the stored energy (electrical and mechanical), a
plus sign indicates an increase of stored energy, while a negative sign indicates
a reduction in stored energy.
The balance between the various forms of energy in the machine will determine
its efficiency and cooling requirements, both critical performance and construc-
tion parameters in a large generator. Figure 1.16 depicts the principle of energy
conversion as applicable to electric rotating machines.

1.6 THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

At this point the rudiments of electromagnetism have been presented, together

with the four basic laws of physics describing the inherent physical processes
coexisting in any electrical machine. Therefore it is the right time to introduce
the basic configuration of the synchronous machine, which, as mentioned before,
is the type of electric machine that all large turbine-driven generators belong to.

1.6.1 Background
The commercial birth of the alternator (synchronous generator) can be dated back
to August 24, 1891. On that day, the first large-scale demonstration of trans-
mission of ac power was carried out. The transmission extended from Lauffen,
Germany, to Frankfurt, about 110 miles away. The demonstration was carried out
during an international electrical exhibition in Frankfurt. This demonstration was
so convincing about the feasibility of transmitting ac power over long distances,
that the city of Frankfurt adopted it for their first power plant, commissioned in
1894. This happened about one hundred and eight years before the writing of
this book (see Fig. 1.17).
The Lauffen-Frankfurt demonstration—and the consequent decision by the
city of Frankfurt to use alternating power delivery—were instrumental in the
adoption by New York’s Niagara Falls power plant of the same technology. The
Niagara Falls power plant became operational in 1895. For all practical purposes
the great dc versus ac duel was over. Southern California Edison’s history book
reports that its Mill Creek hydro plant is the oldest active polyphase (three-phase)
plant in the United States. Located in San Bernardino County, California, its first
units went into operation on September 7, 1893, placing it almost two years
ahead of the Niagara Falls project. One of those earlier units is still preserved
and displayed at the plant.
It is interesting to note that although tremendous development in machine rat-
ings, insulation components, and design procedures has occurred now for over
one hundred years, the basic constituents of the machine have remained practi-
cally unchanged.
18 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Fig. 1.17 The hydroelectric generator from Lauffen, now in the Deutches Museum,
Munich. (Reprinted with permission from The Evolution of the Synchronous Machine by
Gerhard Neidhofer, 1992, ABB)

Fig. 1.18 “Growth” graph, depicting the overall increase in size over the last century,
of turbine-driven generators.

The concept that a synchronous generator can be used as a motor followed

suit. Although Tesla’s induction motor replaced the synchronous motor as the
choice for the vast majority of electric motor applications, synchronous generators
remained the universal machines of choice for the generation of electric power.
The world today is divided between countries generating their power at 50 Hz
and others (e.g., the United States) at 60 Hz. Additional frequencies (e.g., 25 Hz)
can still be found in some locations, but they constitute the rare exception.
Synchronous generators have continuously grown in size over the years (see
Fig. 1.18). The justification is based on simple economies of scale: the output
 THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 19

rating of the machine per unit of weight increases as the size of the unit increases.
Thus it is not uncommon to see machines with ratings reaching up to 1500 MVA,
with the largest normally used in nuclear power stations. Interestingly enough, the
present ongoing shift from large steam turbines as prime movers to more efficient
gas turbines is resulting in a reverse of the trend toward larger and larger gen-
erators, at least for the time being. Transmission system stability considerations
also place an upper limit on the rating of a single generator.

1.6.2 Principles of Construction

Chapter 2 includes a description of the design criteria leading to the construction
of a modern turbogenerator, as well as contains a detailed description of all
components most commonly found in such a machine. This section is limited
to the presentation of the basic components comprising a synchronous machine,
with the purpose of describing its basic operating theory.
Synchronous machines come in all sizes and shapes, from the miniature
permanent magnet synchronous motor in wall-clocks, to the largest steam-turbine-
driven generators of up to about 1500 MVA. Synchronous machines are one of
two types: the stationary field or the rotating dc magnetic field.
The stationary field synchronous machine has salient poles mounted on the
stator—the stationary member. The poles are magnetized either by permanent
magnets or by a dc current. The armature, normally containing a three-phase
winding, is mounted on the shaft. The armature winding is fed through three
sliprings (collectors) and a set of brushes sliding on them. This arrangement can
be found in machines up to about 5 kVA in rating. For larger machines—all those
covered in this book—the typical arrangement used is the rotating magnetic field.
The rotating magnetic field (also known as revolving-field) synchronous
machine has the field-winding wound on the rotating member (the rotor), and the
armature wound on the stationary member (the stator). A dc current, creating a
magnetic field that must be rotated at synchronous speed, energizes the rotating
field-winding. The rotating field winding can be energized through a set of slip
rings and brushes (external excitation), or from a diode-bridge mounted on the
rotor (self-excited). The rectifier-bridge is fed from a shaft-mounted alternator,
which is itself excited by the pilot exciter. In externally fed fields, the source can
be a shaft-driven dc generator, a separately excited dc generator, or a solid-state
rectifier. Several variations to these arrangements exist.
The stator core is made of insulated steel laminations. The thickness of the lam-
inations and the type of steel are chosen to minimize eddy current and hysteresis
losses, while maintaining required effective core length and minimizing costs. The
core is mounted directly onto the frame or (in large two-pole machines) through
spring bars. The core is slotted (normally open slots), and the coils making the
winding are placed in the slots. There are several types of armature windings,
such as concentric windings of several types, cranked coils, split windings of
various types, wave windings, and lap windings of various types. Modern large
machines typically are wound with double-layer lap windings (more about these
winding types in Chapter 2).
20 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

The rotor field is either of salient-pole (Fig. 1.19) or non-salient-pole construc-

tion, also known as round rotor or cylindrical rotor (Fig. 1.20). Non-salient-pole
(cylindrical) rotors are utilized in two- or four-pole machines, and, very seldom,
in six-pole machines. These are typically driven by steam or combustion turbines.
The vast majority of salient-pole machines have six or more poles. They include
all synchronous hydrogenerators, almost every synchronous condenser, and the
overwhelming majority of synchronous motors.
Non-salient-pole rotors are typically machined out of a solid steel forging. The
winding is placed in slots machined out of the rotor body and retained against
the large centrifugal forces by metallic wedges, normally made of aluminum or
steel. The retaining rings restrain the end part of the windings (end-windings).
In the case of large machines, the retaining rings are made out of steel.
Large salient-pole rotors are made of laminated poles retaining the winding
under the pole head. The poles are keyed onto the shaft or spider-and-wheel

Fig. 1.19 Synchronous machine construction. Schematic cross section of a salient-pole

synchronous machine. In a large generator, the rotor is magnetized by a coil wrapped
around it. The figure shows a two-pole rotor. Salient-pole rotors normally have many more
than two poles. When designed as a generator, large salient-pole machines are driven by
water turbines. The bottom part of the figure shows the three-phase voltages obtained
at the terminals of the generator, and the equation relates the speed of the machine, its
number of poles, and the frequency of the resulting voltage.
 THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 21

Fig. 1.20 Schematic cross section of a synchronous machine with a cylindrical

round-rotor (turbogenerator). This is the typical design for all large turbogenerators. Here
both the stator and rotor windings are installed in slots, distributed around the periphery
of the machine. The lower part shows the resulting waveforms of a pair of conductors,
and that of a distributed winding. The formula giving the magneto-motive force (mmf)
created by the windings.

structure. Salient-pole machines have an additional winding in the rotating mem-

ber. This winding, made of copper bars short-circuited at both ends, is embedded
in the head of the pole, close to the face of the pole. The purpose of this winding
is to start the motor or condenser under its own power as an induction motor, and
take it unloaded to almost synchronous speed, when the rotor is “pulled in” by
the synchronous torque. The winding also serves to damp the oscillations of the
rotor around the synchronous speed, and is therefore named the damping-winding
(also known as amortisseurs or damper-windings).
This book focuses on large turbine-driven generators. These are always two-
or four-pole machines, having cylindrical rotors. The discussion of salient-pole
machines can be found in other books. (See the Additional Reading section at
the end of this chapter.)
22 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

1.6.3 Rotor Windings

In turbogenerators, the winding producing the magnetic field is made of a num-
ber of coils, single-circuit, energized with dc power fed via the shaft from the
collector rings riding on the shaft and positioned outside the main generator
bearings. In self-excited generators, shaft-mounted exciter and rectifier (diodes)
generate the required field current. The shaft-mounted exciter is itself excited
from a stationary winding. The fact that unlike the stator, the rotor field is fed
from a relatively low power, low voltage circuit has been the main reason why
these machines have the field mounted on the rotating member and not the other
way around. Moving high currents and high power through the collector rings and
brushes (with a rotating armature) would represent a serious technical challenge,
making the machine that much more complex and expensive.
Older generators have field supplies of 125 volts dc. Later ones have supplies
of 250 volts and higher. Excitation voltages of 500 volts or higher are common
in newer machines. A much more elaborated discussion of rotor winding design
and construction can be found in Chapter 2.

1.6.4 Stator Windings

The magnitude of the voltage induced in the stator winding is, as shown above,
a function of the magnetic field intensity, the rotating speed of the rotor, and the
number of turns in the stator winding. An actual description of individual coil
design and construction, as well as how the completed winding is distributed
around the stator, is meticulously described in Chapter 2. In this section a very
elementary description of the winding arrangement is presented to facilitate the
understanding of the basic operation of the machine.
As stated above, coils are distributed in the stator in a number of forms.
Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The basic goal is to obtain three
balanced and sinusoidal voltages having very little harmonic content (harmonic
voltages and currents are detrimental to the machine and other equipment in a
number of ways). To achieve a desired voltage and MVA rating, the designer may
vary the number of slots, and the manner in which individual coils are connected,
producing different winding patterns. The most common winding arrangement is
the lap winding, and it shown in Figure 1.21.
A connection scheme that allows great freedom of choice in designing the
windings to accommodate a given terminal voltage is one that allows connecting
sections of the winding in parallel, series, and/or a combination of the two.
Figure 1.22 shows two typical winding arrangements for a four-pole generator.

1.7 BASIC OPERATION OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

For a more in-depth discussion of the operation and control of large turbogen-
erators, the reader is referred to Chapter 4. In this chapter the most elementary
principles of operation of synchronous machines will be presented. As it was