CHAPTER 6
MULTIPLEXING AND SPREADING
SEDIGO, MICAH G.
CHAPTER 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3 Basic Multiplexing
01 What is Bandwith? 02 Multiplexing 03 Techniques
Frequency Hopping Direct Sequence
04 Spread Spectrum 05 Spread Spectrum 06 Spread Spect
Bandwidth is how much data your internet connection can send or receive at once.
01
What is
Bandwith?
BANDWITH
UTILIZATION
Two ways to use bandwidth wisely
Multiplexing Spreading
Combines many low-bandwidth Expands one signal across a
signals into one high-bandwidth wider bandwidth.
channel. Focuses on security &
Focuses on efficiency (using reliability (privacy, anti-
bandwidth wisely) jamming)
Example: Many phone calls sent Example: Wi-Fi or military radios
through one fiber optic cable spreading signals to avoid
interception
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01
What is
Bandwith?
caller 1 receiver 1
Multiplexing
Combines many low-bandwidth caller 2 receiver 2
signals into one high-bandwidth FIBER OPTIC CABLE
channel.
Focuses on efficiency (using
bandwidth wisely)
Example: Many phone calls sent
through one fiber optic cable
caller 3 receiver 3
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Multiplexing MULTIPLEXING
DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Multiplexing Bandwidth Efficiency
If a connection has more bandwidth than devices need, it
can be shared.
Multiplexing lets many signals use one connection at
once.
As more people use the internet or telecom, traffic
increases.
To handle this, we can:
1. Add more separate links, or
2. Use one bigger link and share it with many signals.
If extra bandwidth is not shared, it is wasted.
Bandwidth is valuable, so it must be used efficiently.
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Multiplexing
CONCEPT OF MULTIPLEXING
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Multiplexing
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
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3 Basic
FREQUENCY-DIVISION
Multiplexing
Techniques MULTIPLEXING (FDM)
FDM combines multiple analog
signals on one link by giving each
signal a separate frequency band,
with guard bands to avoid overlap.
FDM is called analog because it
divides bandwidth into frequency
bands, which are continuous. But
digital signals can still be sent by
first converting them into analog
waveforms that fit into those
bands.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
Techniques
MULTIPLEXING PROCESS (FDM)
Multiple input signals share one link.
Each signal is modulated with a different
Modulator
carrier frequency (f1, f2, f3).
Carrier f1
Modulated signals are combined into one
composite signal.
Modulator
The link must have enough bandwidth to
carry them all.
Carrier f2
At the receiver, a demultiplexer
Modulator separates them again.
Carrier f3
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
Techniques
DEMULTIPLEXING PROCESS (FDM)
The combined signal arrives at the
demultiplexer.
Filters separate the signal into different
frequency bands.
Demodulators remove the carrier waves.
The original messages (voice, data, etc.)
are sent to their outputs.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
Techniques
THE ANALOG CARRIER SYSTEM
To maximize the efficiency of their
infrastructure, telephone companies have
traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-
bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines. In
this way, many switched or leased lines can be
combined into fewer but bigger channels. For
analog lines, FDM is used.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
Techniques
ANALOG HIERARCHY (FDM)
Voice Channel: 1 call = 4 kHz
Group: 12 calls → 48 kHz
Supergroup: 5 groups = 60 calls → 240
kHz
Master Group: 10 supergroups = 600
calls → 2.52 MHz
Jumbo Group: 6 master groups = 3600
calls → 16.984 MHz
✨ Idea: Many phone calls are combined step
by step into bigger groups so they can travel
together efficiently using FDM.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
WAVELENGTH-DIVISION
Techniques
MULTIPLEXING
Uses fiber-optic cable to carry
multiple signals.
Works like FDM, but with light
signals (different
wavelengths/colors).
Multiplexer: Combines several
light beams (λ₁, λ₂, λ₃) into one.
Fiber: Transmits the combined
light signal.
Demultiplexer: Splits the light
back into separate beams.
Benefit: Maximizes fiber
bandwidth → many channels on
one cable.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
WAVELENGTH-DIVISION
Techniques
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexer (Left Prism): Combines
different light signals (λ₁, λ₂, λ₃) into
one beam.
Fiber Cable: Carries the combined
light as a single line.
Demultiplexer (Right Prism): Splits
the combined light back into
separate signals (λ₁, λ₂, λ₃).
Key Idea: Prism bends light
differently depending on
wavelength (like rainbow colors).
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Techniques
Digital technique to share one high-
speed line among many users.
Line is divided into time slots, not
frequency.
Each user gets a turn to send data in
its time slot.
Happens very fast → feels like
everyone sends data at the same time.
Works with both digital data and
analog data converted to digital.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Techniques
We can divide TDM into two different schemes:
synchronous and statistical. We first discuss
synchronous TDM and then show how
statistical TDM differs. In synchronous TDM,
each input connection has an allotment in the
output even if it is not sending data
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3 Basic SYNCHRONOUS TIME-DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing
Techniques
Synchronous TDM is a method in which each
device is allocated a time slot.
In Synchronous TDM, each device is assigned a
time slot regardless of whether the device carries
data or not.
If the device has no data, the slot will stay vacant.
Signals are transmitted in the form of frames in
Synchronous TDM. Frames are used to organise
time periods. If a device does not have data for a
specific time slot, the empty slot is sent.
T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET
multiplexing are the most common types of
Synchronous TDM.
There are n slots if there are n devices.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
INTERLEAVING
Techniques
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches,
one on the multiplexing side and the other on the
demultiplexing side.
Two fast-rotating switches (one at multiplexer, one at
demultiplexer).
Multiplexer switch: connects to A → B → C in turn.
Each input sends one data unit into the shared path
(interleaving).
Frames: made up of one slot from each input (A1, B1, C1
…).
Demultiplexer switch: rotates in sync, but opposite
direction.
Delivers each unit back to the correct receiver.
Synchronization keeps both switches perfectly aligned.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
EMPTY SLOTS
Techniques
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If
a source does not have data to send, the
corresponding slot in the output frame is empty
Each input has a fixed slot in every frame.
If a source has no data, its slot is still kept →
becomes empty.
This wastes bandwidth since frames may not be
fully filled.
Example: Frame 1 = 3 slots filled, Frame 2 = 2 slots
filled, Frame 3 = 3 slots filled.
Later, Statistical TDM solves this by removing
empty slots.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
DATA RATE MANAGEMENT
Techniques
One challenge with TDM is dealing with input
lines that have different data rates. So far, we
assumed all inputs transmit at the same speed,
but that’s not always true. To manage this,
three methods can be applied which are hte
multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot
allocation, and pulse stuffing—or sometimes a
mix of them.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
MULTILEVEL MULTIPLEXING
Techniques
Used when some input rates are
multiples of others.
Example in the figure:
2 inputs of 20 kbps + 3 inputs of
40 kbps.
First level: 20 + 20 = 40 kbps
(combine slower lines).
Now we have 4 × 40 kbps streams.
Second level: combine them into
160 kbps output.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
MULTIPLE SLOT ALLOCATION
Techniques
Used when one input has a higher
data rate than others.
Solution: Give the faster input more
slots in each frame.
In the frame (colored blocks):
-50 kbps input occupies two slots
-Each 25 kbps input occupies one
slot
Ensures fair sharing without wasting
bandwidth.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
PULSE STUFFING
Techniques
Used when input lines have different, non-multiple
data rates.
Idea: Match all inputs to the highest data rate by adding
dummy bits.
Example in the figure:
Input lines: 50 kbps, 50 kbps, and 46 kbps.
The 46 kbps line is passed through a Pulse Stuffing
unit.
Dummy bits are added → its rate increases to 50 kbps.
Now all three inputs are 50 kbps each, making them
synchronous.
Multiplexer (MUX) combines them into a 150 kbps
output.
Ensures smooth multiplexing without rate mismatch.
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3 Basic
Multiplexing
STATISTICAL TIME-DIVISION
Techniques
MULTIPLEXING
Slots allocated only when input has data (no
fixed reservation).
More efficient than synchronous TDM → no
empty slots.
Example in the figure:
Line A → A1
Line B → B1, B2
Line C → No data (skipped)
Line D → D1, D2
Line E → E2
Output frames contain only active data:
Frame 1 → E2, D2, B2
Frame 2 → D1, B1, A1
Addressing needed: each slot carries both data
+ address (to identify destination).
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Spread
Spectrum
SPREAD SPECTRUM
Spread Spectrum: Makes each signal use more
bandwidth for safety, not efficiency.
Used in Wireless: Wi-Fi, LANs, WANs, military
communication.
Main Concern: Prevent interception and jamming, not
just saving space.
How it Works:
Adds redundancy (extra info).
Expands signal bandwidth (B → Bss).
Uses a spreading code (looks random but follows a
pattern).
Goal: Protect the signal like putting a small gift in a big
padded box.
There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
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Frequency
Hopping Spread
FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD
Spectrum
SPECTRUM
Uses M carrier frequencies instead of just one.
Signal hops between frequencies over time.
Each hop lasts for a period Th.
Process
PN Generator: Creates k-bit pattern (decides hopping
sequence).
Frequency Table: Stores all possible M frequencies.
Frequency Synthesizer: Generates chosen carrier
frequency.
Modulator: Combines original signal with the carrier.
Result
Signal spreads over much larger bandwidth (BpHSS ≫ B).
Provides security (hard to intercept) and resistance to
jamming.
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Direct Sequence
Spread
DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD
Spectrum
SPECTRUM
Original signal is combined with a chip sequence
(pseudorandom code).
Each data bit is replaced with a longer chip pattern.
This spreads the signal over a much wider bandwidth.
At the receiver, the same chip sequence is used to recover
the original data.
Without the chip code, the signal looks like random noise →
making it secure.
Analogy
Like hiding a short message inside a long sentence.
Example: Secret word “YES” hidden in “You Eat
Sandwiches.”
To outsiders, it looks like a normal sentence.
Only those who know the trick (the chip code) can read the
real message.
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