Anaphy Lab

Module 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Upon completion of this lesson, the nursing student can:
• 1. Identify divisions of the nervous system.
• 2. Describe the structure of neurons and their functions.
• 3. Define and describe the structure of a nucleus, a ganglion, a
• nerve tract, and a nerve.
• 4. Explain how an action potential is generated and
• propagated; and,
• 5. Describe the role of summation in neural pathways.
 By writing T if the statement is true and F is the statement is
False. This is a preview of this session’s topic. Please refrain
from looking at your any references..
Statement Correct? Rationalization
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes all nerves outside the
1. The Peripheral Nervous System consists
Incorrect brain and spinal cord; the brain and spinal cord comprise the Central
of the brain and the spinal cord.
Nervous System (CNS).
Skeletal muscle contraction is initiated by nervous system signals at
2. Skeletal muscles normally contract only
Correct the neuromuscular junction; voluntary skeletal muscle action requires
when stimulated by the nervous system.
nervous system stimulation.
3. The brain and spinal cord are the major The brain and spinal cord receive, process, and interpret sensory
organs for processing sensory input and Correct input—then coordinate and initiate motor responses, serving as
initiating response. control centers of the nervous system.
4. The Autonomic Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) innervates smooth muscle,
transmits action potential from the CNS to Incorrect cardiac muscle, and glands—not skeletal muscle; skeletal muscles are
skeletal muscles. controlled by the Somatic Nervous System.
The Enteric Nervous System (ENS) operates autonomously,
5. The Enteric Nervous System can coordinating digestive tract activity and reflexes even if CNS input is
Correct
function without input from CNS. lost, though it usually communicates with the CNS under normal
conditions
 DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
System/Division Components Functions Key Details / Clinical Notes
- Protected by skull/vertebrae and meninges
- Processes incoming sensory information
- Brain: "control center" for thought,
Central Nervous System - Brain - Integrates and interprets data
movement, vital functions
(CNS) - Spinal cord - Initiates motor output (stimulates
- Spinal cord: main relay path to/from body;
muscles/glands)
site of reflex action
- 12 pairs cranial nerves
- Nerves: bundles of axons outside CNS
- 31 pairs spinal nerves - Connects CNS to limbs/organs
Peripheral Nervous System - Ganglia: cell body clusters; relay points
- Ganglia - Conducts sensory input to CNS
(PNS) - Enteric plexuses: neural networks in GI
- Enteric plexuses - Carries motor output from CNS
walls
- Sensory receptors
- Enables conscious movement
- Voluntary control of skeletal muscles
Somatic Nervous System - Touch/pain/temperature perception
- Somatic nerves, receptors - Conveys sensory input from skin and
(SNS) – PNS - Disorders cause loss of voluntary muscle
joints to CNS
control
- Involuntary regulation of cardiac, smooth - Maintains homeostasis
Autonomic Nervous System - Sympathetic division muscle, glands - Sympathetic: increases HR, dilates pupils
(ANS) – PNS - Parasympathetic division - Sympathetic: "fight or flight" - Parasympathetic: slows HR, increases
- Parasympathetic: "rest and digest" digestion
- Controls GI tract independently - Can function autonomously from CNS
Enteric Nervous System - Neurons in GI tract walls
- Monitors chemical changes/stretch in GI - "Brain of the gut"
(ENS) – PNS (plexuses)
- Governs GI motility and secretion - Still modulated by ANS/CNS
 Cell Type Structure & Parts Functions / Roles Additional Notes

CELLS OF THE - 1. Cell Body

(Soma): Single
- Cell Body: Nucleus is site for
gene expression.

NERVOUS nucleus, typical

cellular organelles.
- Receive and
integrate input
- Dendrites: Receive signals from
other neurons/sensory receptors,

SYSTEM
- conduct signals toward cell body.
- Generate and
Neurons 2. Dendrites: Short, - Axon: Conveys impulses away
conduct action
branched from the cell body. Sensory
(Nerve cytoplasmic
potentials (nerve
neuron axons conduct signals
cells) impulses)
extensions. toward CNS; motor neuron
- Transmit signals
- 3. Axon: Single, axons conduct away from CNS.
to other neurons,
long process; may - Axon Hillock: Zone where
muscles, or glands
branch (collateral action potentials are initiated,
axons). Begins at deciding if neuron will "fire" or
the axon hillock. not.
- Astrocytes: Structural and
metabolic support, blood-brain
- Support, nourish,
barrier formation (CNS)
and protect
- Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate
Varied: astrocytes, neurons
CNS axons
oligodendrocytes, - Maintain
- Schwann cells: Myelinate PNS
Glial Cells Schwann cells, homeostasis
axons
(Neuroglia) microglia, - Produce myelin
- Microglia: Immune defense in
ependymal cells, (insulation)
CNS
satellite cells, etc. - Remove waste
- Ependymal
and defend against
cells: Produce/circulate CSF
pathogens
- Satellite cells: Support neurons
in PNS ganglia
CELLS OF THE
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 Type of Neuron Structure / Defining Typical Location / Main Function / Notes
Features Example
TYPES OF - Many dendrites, one
- Most neurons in the

NEURONS: (single) axon

- Most common neuron
CNS
- All motor neurons in the
- Integrate large
amounts of information
Multipolar efferent PNS - Relay motor signals
type in human CNS
Neuron - Examples: pyramidal from CNS to effector
and motor neurons
cells in cerebral cortex, organs
- Cell body with varying
motor neurons in spinal (muscles/glands)
shapes and sizes
cord
- Two distinct
- Sensory organs (special
processes: one axon - Specialized for
senses)
and one dendrite transmitting sensory
Bipolar - Retina of the eye (visual
(extends from opposite information from
Neuron sensory input)
sides of the cell body) specific receptor cells
- Nasal cavity (olfactory
- Rare compared to to the CNS
sensory input)
other types
- One process
- Transmit general
branches into two: one
sensory information
Pseudo- to periphery, one to - Sensory ganglia of
(touch, pain,
CNS peripheral nerves
unipolar - Cell body off to the - Dorsal root (spinal)
temperature) from
Neuron periphery directly to
side ganglia
CNS with rapid signal
- Appears to have a
conduction
single process
 Glial Cell Type Structure/ Major Functions Detailed Roles / Notes
Location

Glial Cells or - Major structural and

- Modulate synaptic signaling
(can stimulate/inhibit nearby
neurons)
neuroglia nerve Star-shaped,
metabolic support for
neurons
- Clean up neurotransmitter
excess and potassium ions
Astrocytes most abundant - Regulate
- Participate with blood vessels
in CNS neurotransmitters
to form a selective permeability
- Help form and maintain
barrier (blood-brain barrier)
the blood-brain barrier
- Control blood flow and brain
metabolism
Line internal - Some are ciliated to help move
fluid-filled CSF
cavities - Produce and circulate - Create a barrier between CNS
Ependymal Cells (ventricles, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tissue and CSF
Glial Cells or neuroglia central canal) - Involved in waste clearance
of CNS and brain homeostasis
nerve - Monitor the CNS for injury or
- are the supportive cells of the - Act as the primary disease
CNS and PNS. These cells do not Small, mobile immune defense cells in - Phagocytose (ingest) invading
Microglia immune cells CNS bacteria and dead neuronal
conduct action potentials. of CNS - Remove pathogens, tissue
- carries out different functions damaged cells, and debris - Play a role in
that enhance neuron function neuroinflammation and repair
and maintain normal conditions - Form myelin sheaths to speed
electrical conduction
within nervous tissue. In the Fewer
- Provide insulation for - Aid in neuron survival and
branches, wrap
CNS, there are four types of glial Oligodendrocytes around CNS CNS axons (myelinate signal precision
cells. multiple axons) - Damage results in
axons
demyelination disorders (e.g.,
multiple sclerosis)
Myelin Sheaths Structure /
Feature
Location /
Formation
Function Key Characteristics / Notes

AND Nodes of CNS: Formed by - Insulates axons

- Made of multiple layers of
lipid-rich membrane
Ranvier Myelin Sheath
oligodendrocytes
PNS: Formed by
- Greatly increases
speed of action
- Myelin is not a
continuous covering;
Schwann cells potential conduction formed in segments along
axon
- Rich in voltage-gated ion
Gaps between channels
- Enable saltatory
adjacent myelin - Occur at regular intervals
Nodes of conduction (action
segments between Schwann cells in
Ranvier potentials leap from
(internodes) the PNS or adjacent
node to node)
along axons oligodendrocyte
processes in the CNS
- Conduct action - Myelination allows
potentials at 3-15 thicker and longer axons
Myelinated Throughout CNS
meters/sec or faster - Damage to myelin (e.g., in
Axons and PNS
- Rapid, efficient MS) slows conduction or
neural signaling blocks signals
- Slower conduction
- Still capable of
Unmyelinated Present in both due to lack of
transmitting impulses, but
Axons CNS and PNS insulation and
at much lower speeds
saltatory conduction
Action Potentials
 Action Potentials
CHANNEL STATES &
STEP / PHASE KEY EVENTS & ION MOVEMENTS LOCATIONS NOTES
- Resting membrane potential maintained (inside
All gated channels closed RMP set by leak channels and Na⁺/K⁺
Resting State negative)
(axon hillock/cell membrane) ATPase pump (typ. -70 mV)
- Voltage-gated Na⁺ & K⁺ channels closed
- Stimulus or neurotransmitter opens chemically-
Ligand-gated Na⁺ channels Local depolarization occurs; if threshold is
Stimulus & Local Potential gated Na⁺ channels open locally reached, triggers AP
- Some Na⁺ enters cell
- Threshold reached, voltage-gated Na⁺ channels
Depolarization (Rising Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels Inside becomes more positive, leading to
open
Phase) - Rapid Na⁺ influx depolarizes membrane
open the action potential "spike"

- Membrane potential peaks (inside strongly Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels

Peak / Overshoot positive relative to outside) inactivate
Na⁺ entry stops; K⁺ channels begin to open

Repolarization (Falling - Voltage-gated K⁺ channels fully open Voltage-gated K⁺ open, Na⁺

Repolarization restores original polarity
Phase) - K⁺ exits cell, restoring negativity inactivated
- K⁺ channels stay open longer than needed
Hyperpolarization K⁺ channels open for short "Refractory period"—prevents immediate
- Membrane briefly becomes more negative than
(Afterpotential) RMP
period additional APs

Restoration / Return to - K⁺ channels close; Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump restores Cell returns to RMP, ready for next action
All gated channels closed
Resting ion gradients potential
Saltatory conduction at nodes of Ranvier
- Action potential moves down axon Channels open sequentially
Propagation (unmyelinated: continuous; myelinated: saltatory) along axon
greatly increases speed in myelinated
axons
The Synapse
The Synapse
Synapse Component / Step Description / Function Molecular/Cellular Mechanism Outcome / Further Detail
Site of neural communication;
Junction between neuron and another cell Axon terminates at synapse; includes
Synapse (neuron, muscle, gland, organ) presynaptic and postsynaptic parts
includes neuromuscular
junction
End of axon containing synaptic vesicles Stores neurotransmitters for
Presynaptic Terminal with neurotransmitters
Vesicles accumulate near membrane
release
Small gap between presynaptic and Neurotransmitters must diffuse
Synaptic Cleft postsynaptic membranes
Physical separation (20-40 nm)
across
Postsynaptic Membrane of neuron, muscle, or gland Contains specific neurotransmitter Initiates/inhibits post-synaptic
Membrane receiving signal receptors cell activity
Wave of depolarization reaches presynaptic Ca²⁺ influx triggers vesicle
Action Potential Arrival terminal Opens voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels
fusion
Neurotransmitter Synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic Chemical message delivered to
Exocytosis—vesicle contents enter cleft
Release membrane postsynaptic cell
Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitters diffuse and bind to Receptors are ligand-gated channels Ion channels open, changing
Binding receptors on postsynaptic membrane (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻ channels) membrane potential
If Na⁺ channels open: depolarization
Channel opening depends on Either excites or inhibits
Postsynaptic Effect (possible AP);
neurotransmitter type postsynaptic cell
if K⁺/Cl⁻ open: hyperpolarization (inhibition)
Enzymes degrade neurotransmitter
Signal must be terminated for accurate
Termination / Clearance neural communication (e.g., acetylcholinesterase); or reuptake Resets synapse for next signal
into presynaptic terminal
 Reflexes

Component / Description / Notes & Clinical

Step Location Function / Role Relevance
Specialized dendrite or
Detects stimulus (external or internal) Responsible for signal detection
Sensory Receptor sensory cell in the skin or
and initiates nerve impulse (e.g. pain, stretch, temperature)
periphery
Transmits sensory information as
Sensory (Afferent) Peripheral nerve, from Carries input toward integration
nerve impulses to central nervous
Neuron receptor to CNS center; involved in all reflex arcs
system (spinal cord/brainstem)
Interneuron Present in polysynaptic reflexes;
Usually in the CNS (spinal Connects sensory to motor neurons;
(Association absent in monosynaptic reflexes
cord or brainstem) processes and interprets stimulus
Neuron) (e.g. knee-jerk)
Motor (Efferent) Carries nerve impulse away from CNS Executes the response initiated by
From CNS to effector organ
Neuron to effector (muscle or gland) CNS
Muscle (skeletal, smooth, Produces actual reflex response— The body’s action to stimulus (e.g.,
Effector Organ
cardiac) or gland muscle contraction or gland secretion withdrawing hand from heat)
Reflexes
 Neuronal Pathways

Pathway / Structure / Arrangement Function & Example Mechanism / Integration Details

Process
Integrates signals so information from
Two or more neurons synapse multiple sources can influence a single
Converging Increases sensitivity; allows summation of
onto a single postsynaptic neuron
Pathway weak inputs from different pathways
neuron Example: visual and touch information
converging for coordinated movement
Enables one stimulus to affect multiple
One neuron's axon branches
Diverging destinations simultaneously Amplifies signal; coordinates complex
to synapse onto multiple
Pathway Example: single signal from brain commands responses (e.g. hand movement)
postsynaptic neurons
several muscle groups
Two types:
If multiple subthreshold signals combine, - Spatial Summation: Signals from different
Integration of local potentials
Summation threshold may be reached and an action locations combine
(graded signals)
potential triggered - Temporal Summation: Signals from the
same location arrive in rapid succession
Spatial Simultaneous stimulation at Enhances the effect of weak stimuli when Ensures integration of inputs from various
Summation multiple synapses combined presynaptic neurons
Repeated stimulation at a
Temporal Allows rapid, repeated inputs to accumulate Enables one input to drive the postsynaptic
single synapse in quick
Summation and add up cell to threshold if fast enough
succession
Neuronal Pathways
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Substance Site of Release Primary Effect Clinical Example/Notes
↓ ACh neurons in Alzheimer’s disease;
CNS synapses, ANS synapses, Excitatory or
Acetylcholine (ACh) myasthenia gravis is caused by loss of ACh
neuromuscular junctions inhibitory
receptors, resulting in muscle weakness
Cocaine/amphetamines ↑ NE release and block
Selected CNS synapses, some
Norepinephrine (NE) Mainly excitatory reuptake, causing overstimulation of
ANS synapses
postsynaptic neurons
Regulates mood, anxiety, sleep; ↑ serotonin in
Serotonin CNS synapses Generally inhibitory schizophrenia. SSRIs (e.g., Prozac) ↑ serotonin
for depression and anxiety
↓ dopamine in Parkinson’s (motor depression);
Selected CNS synapses, some Excitatory or
Dopamine excess in schizophrenia
ANS synapses inhibitory
(delusions/hallucinations)
Gamma-aminobutyric acid Drugs ↑ GABA activity (anticonvulsants for
CNS synapses Inhibitory
(GABA) epilepsy); GABA is main CNS inhibitor
Strychnine blocks glycine receptors → ↑
Glycine CNS synapses Inhibitory excitability, muscle tetany/convulsions, possible
death by respiratory muscle spasm
Opiates (morphine/heroin) bind endorphin
CNS, descending pain
Endorphins Inhibitory receptors, blocking pain by preventing
pathways
neurotransmitter release
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEMS: Spinal Cord

Structure/Fe
ature Description & Location Function / Pathways Clinical/Functional Note
Cauda equina: bundle of nerves resembling
Extends from foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar Conduction of ascending (sensory) and
Spinal Cord horse’s tail at lower spinal cord; damage can
vertebra; terminates in cauda equina descending (motor) signals
cause Cauda Equina Syndrome (emergency)
White Matter Main area for signal transmission; divided into Each column contains specific nerve tracts
Outer region, consists of myelinated axons
(Spinal Cord) columns (dorsal, ventral, lateral) (pathways)
Has dorsal (posterior, sensory), ventral
Gray Matter Inner core, contains neuron cell bodies,
Information processing, synaptic connections (anterior, motor), and lateral (autonomic)
(Spinal Cord) dendrites, unmyelinated axons
horns
Dorsal columns (mainly ascending),
Columns of White
Dorsal, Ventral, and Lateral columns Contain: ventral/lateral (both ascending &
Matter
descending)
-- Ascending
Within columns; bundles of axons Conduct sensory (afferent) impulses to brain Carry touch, pain, proprioception etc.
Tracts
-- Descending
Within columns; bundles of axons Conduct motor (efferent) impulses from brain Control voluntary and involuntary movement
Tracts
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEMS: Spinal Cord

Structure/Feature Description & Location Function / Pathways Clinical/Functional Note

Fluid-filled canal in center of spinal cord; CSF protects, nourishes, and removes waste from
Central Canal Circulates cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
continuous with ventricles of brain CNS
Posterior (Dorsal) Receives sensory input and connects with
Gray matter; site of sensory neuron synapse
Horn interneurons
Anterior (Ventral) Gray matter; houses cell bodies of somatic motor
Output to skeletal muscles (motor function) Damage can cause muscle weakness or paralysis
Horn neurons
Gray matter; only present in thoracic and upper
Lateral Horn Houses autonomic (sympathetic) neuron cell bodies Origin of sympathetic output from spinal cord
lumbar regions
Ventral Root Motor/efferent root, emerges from anterior horn Carries outgoing impulses to muscles/glands Lesions cause motor deficits
Dorsal Root Sensory/afferent root, enters at posterior horn Brings sensory input from periphery Lesions cause sensory deficits
Dorsal Root Swelling in dorsal root; contains cell bodies of Important for transmission of all somatic and
Site of sensory neuron bodies
Ganglion pseudo-unipolar sensory neurons visceral sensory signals
Mixed nerves (contains both sensory and motor
Spinal Nerve Formed by the merging of dorsal and ventral roots Injuries disrupt both afferent and efferent function
fibers)
Reflex: stroking bottom of infant’s foot → extension Persistence in adults may signal CNS
Babinski Reflex Indicates lack of CNS inhibition in infants
and fanning of toes lesion/damage
CENTRAL AND Reflex
Type
Stimulus & Response
Pathway
Neuronal Circuitry Physiological Role
/ Clinical
PERIPHERAL Significance

NERVOUS - Stimulus: Tap

patellar ligament - Tests integrity of
SYSTEMS: Spinal -
- Monosynaptic
spinal cord and
Response: Quadricep descending CNS
Cord Reflexes Knee-Jerk s femoris muscle
(simple): Sensory neuron
from muscle spindle
inhibition
Reflex contracts, lower leg - Used clinically to
synapses directly with
(Patellar extends assess nervous
motor neuron in spinal
Reflex) - Stretch of system function
cord
quadriceps (e.g. Babinski
- No interneuron involved
stimulates muscle effect in
spindle (sensory infants/adults)
receptor)

- Provides rapid,
- Polysynaptic: Sensory
automatic
- Stimulus: Painful neuron synapses with
protection from
stimulus (e.g. one or more interneurons
injury
Withdrawa pinprick, heat) in the spinal cord, which
- Example of spinal
l Reflex - Response: Flexor then synapse with motor
integration and
(Flexor muscles contract, neurons
reciprocal
Reflex) affected limb is - Multiple interneurons
inhibition
withdrawn from involved allow for
(excitation of
stimulus complex, coordinated
flexors, inhibition
muscle activation
of extensors)
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEMS: Spinal Nerves ( 31 Pairs )
Feature / Structure Description / Location Function(s) Clinical/Functional Notes

Spinal Nerves (31 pairs) Paired peripheral nerves exiting spinal cord Mixed nerves: sensory (afferent) + motor (efferent) Supply all body regions excluding the head/face (cranial nerves)

Contains sensory neuron axons; dorsal root ganglion houses cell

Dorsal Root Root entering posterior spinal cord Sensory input from periphery → CNS
bodies

Contains axons of motor neurons; motor signals go to

Ventral Root Root exiting anterior spinal cord Motor output from CNS → periphery
muscles/glands

All spinal nerves are mixed except first cervical (C1, mostly
Mixed Nerve Formed where dorsal and ventral roots merge Each nerve contains both sensory and motor fibers
motor)

Dermatome Region of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve Enables sensory mapping/detection of damage Testing can reveal level/nerve root injury

Myotome Skeletal muscles innervated by a spinal nerve Enables motor mapping; detects nerve root issues Useful in neurological examination

Spinal Nerve Plexuses Networks where spinal nerves group & intermingle Increase innervation overlap; reduce injury risk Three main plexuses outlined below

Innervates neck muscles, diaphragm (via phrenic

— Cervical Plexus Formed by C1–C4 spinal nerves Phrenic nerve is critical for breathing
nerve)

— Brachial Plexus Formed by C5–T1 spinal nerves Innervates upper limb (shoulder, arm, hand) Contains major nerves: radial, median, ulnar, etc.

— Lumbosacral Plexus Lumbar (L1–L5) and sacral (S1–S4) nerves Innervates lower limb (hip, leg, foot) Sciatic nerve (largest), femoral, tibial nerves

Spinal Nerve Exit Points Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions Each nerve exits via intervertebral foramen C1 exits above C1 vertebra; C8 exits below C7

Cutaneous Sensory Sensory exam can pinpoint specific nerve/cord

All except C1 have specific dermatomes Classic example: shingles rash follows dermatome
Distribution injury

Functional Integration Nerves merge and branch for efficiency Plexuses create redundancy and prevent paralysis Overlap protects function if some nerves are damaged
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEMS: Brain

Region Location & Main Structures Key Functions Clinical/Functional Highlights

Controls vital autonomic functions: heart rate,
blood pressure, respiration; conduit for Injury is often fatal; integrates
Deep, inferior region; includes medulla
Brainstem sensory/motor tracts; hosts cranial nerve basic life support
oblongata, pons, midbrain
nuclei, reflex centers, reticular formation mechanisms
(regulates sleep/wake, alertness)
Posterior/inferior region, connected to
Coordinates voluntary movement and balance; Damage leads to ataxia
brainstem via cerebellar peduncles; two
Cerebellum regulates muscle tone; enables fine motor (impaired coordination),
hemispheres, midline vermis, three lobes
control and motor learning balance problems
(anterior, posterior, flocculonodular)
Thalamus relays and integrates sensory data; Dysfunction can affect
Central, deep within brain; includes thalamus, hypothalamus regulates homeostasis, drives, sensation, consciousness,
Diencephalon
hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus emotions, and endocrine control; epithalamus endocrine and autonomic
manages circadian rhythms systems
Largest, most superficial, divided into right/left Site of higher brain functions—conscious Lesions may cause paralysis,
hemispheres by longitudinal fissure; folded thought, voluntary movement, language, sensory loss, aphasia,
Cerebrum
cortex (gyri/sulci); divided into lobes—frontal, reasoning, sensation, vision, memory, memory or personality
parietal, occipital, temporal personality changes
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS: Brain (Brainstem)

Brainstem Part Location/Connections Key Structures & Nuclei Main Functions & Clinical Significance

- Cranial nerve nuclei (IX, X, XI,

- Regulates heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, vomiting,
XII)
Medulla Base of brainstem (from coughing, sneezing, balance
- Pyramids (motor fiber tracts)
Oblongata foramen magnum to pons)
- Cardiovascular/respiratory
- Pyramids: conscious skeletal muscle control
- Vital for life; damage usually fatal
centers

Between medulla and - Pontine nuclei (relay signals) - Relays information between cerebrum & cerebellum
Pons midbrain; anterior to - Cranial nerve nuclei (V, VI, VII, - Controls chewing, salivation, plus some breathing, swallowing, balance
cerebellum VIII) - "Bridge" function for motor/sensory pathways

- Processes visual & auditory reflexes

- Superior colliculi (visual reflex)
- Eye movement, pupil diameter, lens shape
Between pons & diencephalon; - Inferior colliculi (auditory reflex)
Midbrain dorsal colliculi visible - Cranial nerve nuclei (III, IV)
- Coordinates body movements (reward/reinforcement; loss in
Parkinson’s)
- Substantia nigra
- Colliculi: 2 superior (visual), 2 inferior (auditory)

- Regulates consciousness, sleep-wake cycle, arousal, cyclical motor

Reticular Diffuse network throughout - Reticular activating system
functions (breathing, walking)
Formation entire brainstem (RAS)
- Receives diverse input, projects widely to cortex/brain

- Brainstem injury can cause coma, death (vital functions housed here)
Clinical Note - Reticular formation: damage may result in persistent coma
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS: Brain (Cerebellum)
Feature /
Structure Description & Location Functional Role Clinical/Functional Notes
Connected to the brainstem via three paired
Provide routes for afferent
cerebellar peduncles: Peduncles are major
(incoming) and efferent (outgoing)
Attachment - Superior (to midbrain) “highways”—damage disrupts
information between cerebellum
- Middle (to pons) coordination and communication
and CNS
- Inferior (to medulla oblongata)

Two hemispheres, central vermis; three lobes

Organizes and processes input for Gray matter (cortex) processes
(anterior, posterior, flocculonodular); highly
Structure coordination and timing of signals; white matter (arbor vitae)
folded cortex (folia), deep nuclei (dentate,
movement transmits within cerebellum
emboliform, globose, fastigial)

Integrates sensory and motor input; modifies Lesions cause ataxia, loss of
Movement Ensures fluid, accurate motion;
motor commands from cortex for smooth, balance, tremor, poor
Coordination maintains muscle tone, balance
precise voluntary movements, posture, balance coordinated movement

Stores and refines motor patterns through

Allows skilled behaviors like typing, Essential in adaptive learning and
Motor Learning repetition and feedback, supporting muscle
sport, playing instruments rehabilitation
memory

Receives signals from cerebrum, brainstem,

Communication Constantly updates and corrects Forms feedback loops optimizing
spinal cord; sends processed output back to
with CNS motor activity voluntary movement
motor and vestibular centers
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEMS: Brain (Diencephalon)

Component Location / Anatomy Main Functions Key Features & Clinical Notes
Largest, paired, central - Major relay station for sensory Every sensory system (except
diencephalon; joined by input to cortex olfaction) relays here; involved in
Thalamus interthalamic adhesion, - Influences mood and emotion conscious awareness; damage
forms most of the lateral - Registers general pain can impair sensory, motor, or
walls of the third ventricle (unlocalized discomfort) mood function
- Involved in emotional & visceral
Superior and posterior to Pineal gland affected by light/dark
responses to odors
thalamus; includes pineal cycles; tumors can impact puberty
Epithalamus - Houses pineal gland (circadian
gland, habenula, and and circadian rhythm; small but
rhythm/melatonin, timing of
related nuclei critical for biological timing
puberty)
- Masters homeostasis: Essential for basic drives and
Inferior, forms floor of — Regulates temperature, hunger, endocrine regulation; lesions can
third ventricle; connected thirst, emotions, autonomic NS cause serious metabolic and
Hypothalamus to pituitary by - Controls pituitary and hormone behavioral disturbances;
infundibulum; includes secretion mammillary body damage can
mammillary bodies - Mammillary bodies: memory and affect memory/emotional
olfactory emotional responses response to odor
 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEMS: Brain (Cerebrum)
Feature / Lobe Anatomical/Structural Details Main Function(s) & Special Notes
Largest brain region; divided by longitudinal
fissure into right and left hemispheres Higher cognitive functions (conscious thought),
Cerebrum (overall) - Surface has gyri (folds) and sulci (grooves), voluntary movement, sensory processing,
increasing cortical area language, personality
- Each hemisphere has four lobes
Controls voluntary motor activity, motivation,
aggression, mood, personality, planning, social
Anterior portion; separated by central sulcus
Frontal Lobe judgment, smell
from parietal lobes
- Site of prefrontal cortex (executive functions)
- Lesion: Phineas Gage, change in personality
Posterior to frontal lobe, superior to temporal Sensory perception of touch, pain, temperature,
Parietal Lobe
lobe spatial awareness, and balance
Posterior portion, not sharply demarcated from
Occipital Lobe Visual processing and interpretation
other lobes
Auditory processing (hearing), olfaction (smell),
Temporal Lobe Lateral side of cerebrum, below lateral sulcus memory formation, language comprehension
(Wernicke's area)
 Category Description & Mechanism Anatomical Details Functional/Clinical
& Pathways Significance
Unconscious sensory
SENSORY CNS
The CNS (brain, spinal
cord) receives a constant
Sensory neurons
(often pseudo-
input (needed for
reflexes, posture,
FUNCTIONS Sensory
Input
stream of input from the
body’s sensory receptors
unipolar) deliver
signals to CNS
homeostasis);
conscious sensation is
only a fraction
Only some input reaches
Thalamus Many crucial responses
consciousness and
Sensation vs filters/relays most (e.g., posture, pain) are
becomes perception;
Awareness input (except managed
most is processed
olfaction) unconsciously
subconsciously
Bundles of axons carry - Spinothalamic
sensory information from tract: pain, Tracts decussate
Ascending
periphery→brain; each temperature, touch (cross), often in spinal
Tracts
tract specialized for a - DCML: fine touch, cord or brainstem
sensory type proprioception
Ascending tracts project
Parietal lobe
Primary to primary sensory Each modality has a
(touch, pain),
Sensory cortices (e.g., primary area for signal
occipital (vision),
Areas somatosensory, visual, reception/analysis
temporal (hearing)
auditory areas)
Adjacent to each Enable complex
Receive signals from primary cortex interpretation,
Association primary areas, compare (e.g. recognition, memory;
Areas with past experience, and somatosensory, lesions may cause
integrate for perception visual association agnosias (recognition
areas) deficits)
 Feature / Structural Organization Function / Example Key Clinical/Functional
Pathway & Location Movements Notes
Maintains posture,
Motor
Brain (cerebrum, balance, coordinates Includes both voluntary and
System
Motor Function (General)
brainstem) + spinal cord movement of limbs, head,
trunk, face, eyes, speech
involuntary (reflex) pathways

Fast, automatic
Reflexes
Mediated via spinal cord movements—e.g., Do not require conscious
(Involuntar
and brainstem circuits withdrawal reflex, posture thought; protect homeostasis
y)
adjustments
Initiated by upper motor Walking, writing, speaking,
Voluntary Allow controlled and complex
neurons—precentral reaching—goal-directed,
Movements motor skills
gyrus (motor cortex) consciously planned
Upper Send axons (descending
Cell bodies in primary Voluntary movement control;
Motor tracts) into spinal cord,
motor cortex and lesions cause spasticity,
Neurons synapsing onto lower
premotor area weakness
(UMN) motor neurons
- Pyramidal
tracts: corticospinal,
corticobulbar (voluntary)
Carry movement Pyramidal lesions cause
Descending - Extrapyramidal
instructions; corticospinal weakness, loss of fine motor
Motor tracts: rubrospinal,
tract essential for fine, skills; extrapyramidal lesions
Tracts reticulospinal,
precise control affect tone/posture
vestibulospinal,
tectospinal
(involuntary/automatic)
Lower
Cell bodies in anterior Axons exit via ventral root Directly cause muscle
Motor
horn (spinal cord) or or cranial nerve, innervate contraction; lesions cause
Neurons
cranial nerve nuclei skeletal muscles flaccid paralysis
(LMN)
 Motor Area Location & Function / Role Key Notes / Clinical

MOTOR AREAS Structure

Precentral gyrus Initiates voluntary
Significance
Stimulation causes
OF THE of frontal lobe, movements of precise muscle
Primary Motor just anterior to skeletal muscles; contraction; controls
CEREBRAL Cortex central sulcus “motor homunculus” opposite

CORTEX (Brodmann area

4)
maps regions to body
parts
(contralateral) side of
body
Anterior to Involved in
Plans and organizes
primary motor preparing/proximal
movements before
Premotor Area cortex, in frontal limb movements,
initiating them in
lobe (Brodmann coordinating
primary motor cortex
area 6) complex actions
Assists with postural
Medial and
stabilization, bilateral
superior to Damage can affect
Supplementary (two-sided)
premotor area, coordination and
Motor Area coordination,
anterior to movement planning
sequencing complex
precentral gyrus
movements
Lesions impair
Motivation, foresight,
Most anterior planning, judgment,
Prefrontal Area executive function;
part of frontal problem-solving,
(Cortex) plans and initiates
lobe social behavior
voluntary movements
(executive deficits)
 DESCENDING TRACTS
Feature / Pathway Structural Organization Main Function Clinical/Functional Notes
Originate in upper motor neurons of Most fibers decussate at pyramids
Corticospinal Voluntary control of precise, skilled
motor cortex; descend directly to (contralateral control); lesions
Tracts limb movements (esp. hands/fingers
lower motor neurons in spinal cord produce weakness & loss of fine
(Direct/Pyramidal) for lateral tracts)
(lateral & anterior corticospinal) motor skills
Corticobulbar Motor cortex → brainstem cranial Voluntary movement of face, jaw, Controls muscles for speech,
Tract nerve nuclei tongue, pharynx, larynx swallowing, facial expression
Originate in brainstem; synapse
Indirect Involuntary/autonomic control of Interact with basal nuclei &
indirectly with lower motor neurons
(Extrapyramidal) posture, muscle tone, balance, reflex cerebellum to modulate movement
(rubrospinal, vestibulospinal,
Tracts movement patterns
tectospinal, reticulospinal tracts)
Goal-directed, fine motor limb
Lateral Travel in lateral columns (lateral Lateral corticospinal tract most
movements (reaching, manipulating,
Descending Tracts corticospinal, rubrospinal) important for fine movements
skilled hand actions)
Anterior/medial columns (anterior
Medial Descending Control of trunk/girdle muscles, Damage may cause deficits in whole-
corticospinal, vestibulo-, reticulo-,
Tracts posture, balance, gross movement body posture/balance
tectospinal)
Linked via neural circuits to cortex,
Basal Nuclei Deep cerebral nuclei (incl. corpus thalamus, and each other;
Plan, organize, and coordinate motor
(Basal Ganglia & striatum, substantia nigra of dysfunction produces movement
movements and posture
Substantia Nigra) midbrain) disorders (Parkinsonism,
Huntington’s)
 CEREBELLUM
Feature / Structure Description & Anatomy Main Functions / Mechanisms Clinical/Functional Notes
Attached to brainstem via paired
cerebellar peduncles Provides afferent and efferent Damage affects coordination,
Connections - Superior (to midbrain) pathways between cerebellum and balance, and rapid
- Middle (to pons) rest of CNS communication
- Inferior (to medulla oblongata)
Outer gray matter; highly folded with
fine gyri (folia) and sulci (narrow Processes incoming signals and Cortex consists of molecular
Cerebellar Cortex grooves) regulates outgoing motor layer, Purkinje cell layer, and
- Underlying white matter (arbor vitae) adjustments granular layer
- Deep cerebellar nuclei
Receives motor commands from Compares intended movement with Allows precise, smooth
Comparator
cerebral cortex and sensory feedback actual performance, sends execution of voluntary
Function from periphery correctional signals if needed movement
Lesions cause ataxia,
Modifies motor signals to maintain
Balance & Muscle Integrates inputs from vestibular dysmetria (misjudgment of
equilibrium and appropriate muscle
Tone system and proprioceptors movement range), poor muscle
tone
tone
Orchestrates timing and force of Essential for rapid and complex Deficits may result in intention
Coordination of
muscle groups for smooth, skilled movements (speech, instrument tremor, uncoordinated
Fine Movement action playing) movement
Stores and refines new, complex Once learned, skills become
Participates with cerebrum in learning
Motor Learning motor skills by repetition and practice
movement patterns (procedural automatic and require less
memory) conscious effort
 Other Brain Functions:
Communication Between the Right and Left
Hemispheres

Function/Topic Structure & Mechanism Core Process or Circuit Clinical/Functional Notes

Split-brain surgery separates
Corpus callosum (largest Integrates/interconnects left and right
Hemispheric hemispheres; disrupts
commissure); anterior, posterior, hemispheres; shares and transfers sensory,
Communication integration but maintains basic
hippocampal commissures motor, and cognitive information
function
Inhibitory & Inhibitory circuits suppress antagonist Disinhibition may cause
Motor circuits in cortex, basal
Stimulatory muscles for precise movement and reduce spasticity, tremor, unwanted
nuclei, brainstem, spinal cord
Circuits random movements/muscle tone at rest movements
Sensory speech area (Wernicke’s), Information from auditory input (word heard)
Left hemisphere dominance for
Speech auditory cortex/association cortex, perceived—comprehended—relayed to motor
language; lesions cause aphasia
Pathways motor speech area (Broca’s); speech area—movement planned in premotor
(speech/language disorder)
connected by arcuate fasciculus cortex—executed by primary motor cortex
Measured by Alpha: awake/relaxed EEGs diagnose epilepsy, sleep
Brain Waves electroencephalogram; patterns Beta: awake/alert/mental activity disorders, brain death; changes
(EEG) reflect electrical activity of cortical Theta: children/frustration in adults reflect arousal/consciousness
neurons Delta: deep sleep/brain disorders levels
Working: frontal cortex; short-term: Working memory: seconds-minutes; Short- Amnesia—loss of memory;
limbic system, hippocampus; long- term: up to days; Long-term: repetition & association vital for
Memory
term: stored in cortex with engram consolidation/engrams moving short → long-term
networks Declarative (facts), procedural (skills) memory
 Component/Region Location/Structure Main Functions Clinical/Functional
Relevance
Medial aspect of
Unique: only sensory
temporal lobe (piriform Smell perception; links odors to
Olfactory Cortex input that bypasses
Limbic System cortex); receives smell
input
emotion & memory
thalamic relay

and Emotions Amygdala

Deep temporal lobe,
anterior to hippocampus
Key in processing fear, pleasure,
aggression, anxiety; assigns
emotional valence
Lesions may blunt
emotional response;
hyperactivity in anxiety
Medial temporal lobe, Encodes and consolidates new
Bilateral damage causes
Hippocampus within parahippocampal declarative (factual) memories;
anterograde amnesia
gyrus spatial navigation
Medial cortex, above Emotional processing, pain Involved in depression,
Cingulate Gyrus
corpus callosum perception, motivates behavior neuropathic pain
Damage/disconnection
Parahippocampal Medial temporal lobe, Memory encoding & retrieval;
impairs new memory
Gyrus surrounds hippocampus links sensory input to memory
formation
Integrates autonomic and Lesions disrupt appetite,
Floor of diencephalon,
Hypothalamus endocrine response with emotion drive states, stress
below thalamus
(physiologic “feeling” of emotions) response
Thalamus (anterior Central diencephalon, Relays limbic input (esp. memory Damage impairs memory
nuclei) relay nuclei signals) to cortex circuits
C-shaped white matter
Lesions disrupt
tract connecting Pathway for memory circuit
Fornix communication between
hippocampus to (Papez circuit)
limbic structures
mammillary bodies
Inferior and anterior to Reward, pleasure, emotional Part of limbic reward
Septal Nuclei
corpus callosum modulation system
Destruction (Korsakoff
Underside of Memory relay (to thalamus);
Mammillary Bodies syndrome) produces
hypothalamus emotional response to odors
memory deficits
Other: Limbic Lobe, Cortical/subcortical Modulates
Integration of emotion with
Orbitofrontal Cortex, areas interfacing limbic & social/emotional
thought and behavior
Entorhinal Cortex neocortex judgment
 Layer / Space Description & Location Main Function(s) Key Structural/Clinical Notes
Outermost, thick, tough
Protects CNS, Dural folds (falx cerebri,
connective tissue; in skull,
anchors brain tentorium cerebelli); drains
Meninges Dura Mater
adheres to periosteum; two
layers in brain (periosteal,
within skull, forms venous blood; epidural
dural folds & space (spinal cord only,
meningeal), one in spinal
venous sinuses anesthesia site)
cord
Dura projects inward to form Support/protect Sinuses (e.g., superior
Dural
partitions and venous brain, venous sagittal sinus) return
Folds/Sinuses
channels blood drainage CSF/blood to circulation
Epidural Space between vertebrae and Cushioning for Contains fat, blood vessels;
Space dura mater in spinal canal spinal cord not present in cranial cavity
Thin, web-like middle layer; Maintains
Subdural space (potential,
Arachnoid loosely adherent to dura; subarachnoid
minimal fluid); arachnoid
Mater projects trabeculae to pia space, barrier to
granulations absorb CSF
mater fluid movement
Between dura mater and Can fill with blood Contains a thin layer of
Subdural
arachnoid mater (potential (e.g., subdural serous fluid; usually
Space
space) hematoma) negligible
Follows brain
Helps maintain CNS
Innermost, very vascular, contours, contains
nutrition/stability; also
Pia Mater tightly attached to small blood
present as denticulate
brain/spinal cord surface vessels; supports
ligaments in spinal cord
neural tissue
Filled with
Main CSF reservoir; critical
Subarachnoid Between arachnoid and pia cerebrospinal fluid
for cushioning, waste
Space mater (CSF), contains
removal, nutrient supply
blood vessels
 VENTRICLE LOCATION & STRUCTURE CONNECTIONS & PATHWAYS MAIN FUNCTION(S) /
CLINICAL NOTES

One in each cerebral

Main CSF production
Ventricles
hemisphere; largest Each connects to third
Lateral site (choroid plexus);
cavities, C-shaped with ventricle via interventricular
Ventricles variations/expansion
anterior, posterior, and foramen (of Monro)
seen in hydrocephalus
inferior horns
Connected to lateral
Narrow, midline cavity ventricles (anteriorly) by the Relays and circulates
within diencephalon, foramina of Monro; CSF; tumors can
Third Ventricle
between right/left connected posteriorly to obstruct flow, leading
thalamus fourth ventricle via cerebral to hydrocephalus
aqueduct (of Sylvius)
Connected to third ventricle
by cerebral aqueduct
Rhomboid-shaped cavity (midbrain); continuous with Circulates CSF into
posterior to central canal of spinal cord; subarachnoid space;
Fourth Ventricle
pons/medulla, anterior to opens to subarachnoid interface for
cerebellum space via lateral (Luschka) brainstem/cerebellum
and median (Magendie)
foramina
Narrow channel traversing Conducts CSF through
Continuous with fourth
Central Canal spinal cord from the fourth spinal cord, less
ventricle
ventricle significance in adults
Foramina Any obstruction
Channels/holes linking Critical for flow and
(Monro, causes buildup—
ventricles/distributing communication between all
Luschka, hydrocephalus,
CSF major ventricles
Magendie) increased pressure
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Feature / Key Clinical/Anatomic
Structure Location & Pathway Main Functions Notes
Produces 500–700 mL/day; Active secretion, not
Choroid plexus in lateral, third,
CSF Production entire CSF volume renewed ultrafiltration; specialized
and fourth ventricles
~4×/day ependymal cells
Lateral ventricles →
interventricular foramina → third
ventricle → cerebral aqueduct → Cushions brain/spinal cord; Blocked flow leads to
Flow/Circulation fourth ventricle → exits via neutral buoyancy; waste hydrocephalus; sampling
foramina of Magendie/Luschka → removal; nutrient transport via lumbar puncture
subarachnoid space → arachnoid
granulations (venous system)
Mechanical protection,
CNS Spaces Ventricles, central canal of spinal Maintains CNS pressure
chemical stability,
Filled (by CSF) cord, subarachnoid space and homeostasis
immunological defense
Arachnoid villi and granulations Reabsorption into venous Flow affected by pressure
Exit/Clearance (major), dura lymphatic pathways system; drainage of gradients, posture,
(minor) metabolites and fluids disease
 Cranial Nerves

Feature / Structure Location & Pathway Main Functions Key Clinical/Anatomic Notes

Some (e.g., optic, vestibulocochlear) relay

Cranial Nerves: Specialized for detection and Assess for loss to diagnose
sensations (vision, hearing, touch, smell,
Sensory transmission to brain disease/injury
taste)

Somatic: Control head/neck skeletal

Cranial Nerves: Support eye movement, chewing, facial Damage causes deficits such as
muscle
Motor & expression, swallowing, facial palsy, dry mouth,
Parasympathetic: Innervate glands,
Parasympathetic gland secretion, HR arrhythmia
smooth/cardiac muscle
Peripheral Nervous System (Autonomic vs.
Somatic)
 Peripheral Nervous System (Autonomic vs. Somatic)

System Organization & Anatomy Functions / Effectors Neurotransmitters & Clinical/Functional Notes
Special Features
Single neuron pathway: cell body Acetylcholine (ACh) at Motor neuron damage
Somatic Nervous Voluntary control of skeletal muscle
in CNS, axon travels via spinal or neuromuscular causes flaccid paralysis;
System (movement, posture); reflexes
cranial nerves to skeletal muscle junctions fast, precise muscle control
Two-neuron chain: preganglionic
Preganglionic (ACh), Autonomic dysfunction
(CNS origin) and postganglionic Involuntary control: smooth & cardiac
Postganglionic (ACh in affects multiple organ
Autonomic Nervous (PNS ganglia) muscle, glands, viscera; regulates
para; NE in symp; systems; dual innervation
System (ANS) Divisions: Sympathetic, HR, BP, digestion, body temp, pupil
exceptions for sweat for many organs supports
Parasympathetic, (Enteric—see size, gland secretion
glands) balance
below)
Thoracolumbar outflow (T1–L2); “Fight or flight”: increases HR, BP, Preganglionic (ACh), Damage may impair stress
a. Sympathetic ganglia in sympathetic dilates pupils, inhibits digestion, Postganglionic (NE; response; chronic activation
trunk/chain or prevertebral mobilizes energy stores ACh at sweat glands) damages health
Mostly
Craniosacral outflow (CN III, VII, “Rest and digest”: lowers HR,
Both pre- restorative/homeostatic;
b. Parasympathetic IX, X; S2–S4); ganglia near/in enhances digestion, contracts pupils,
/postganglionic (ACh) imbalance can affect GI,
viscera conserves energy
HR, glands
Network within GI tract walls
Can operate independently
(myenteric and submucosal Controls motility, secretion, and
Enteric Nervous ACh, various peptides, of CNS; affected in GI
plexuses); can function blood flow of gastrointestinal tract
System (ENS) serotonin (5-HT), more disorders (IBS,
independently or be modulated by (“second brain,” reflexes)
Hirschsprung’s)
ANS
 Autonomic Nervous System
ANS Feature /
Division Description & Anatomy Pathway / Neuron Organization Neurotransmitters Used Major Functions / Notes
Motor neurons from CNS to periphery, Always uses two-neuron chain Preganglionic: ACh Coordinates visceral organ
General Features innervate smooth/cardiac muscle and (preganglionic in CNS → Post: NE (symp), ACh activity; modulates body
glands; involuntary postganglionic in PNS ganglia) (parasymp) systems
Somatic System Somatic motor neuron extends axon all the One long myelinated neuron, no Rapid, voluntary control of
Acetylcholine (ACh)
(comparison) way from CNS to skeletal muscle ganglionic relay skeletal muscles
Cell body in CNS (spinal cord or brainstem), Synapses with postganglionic neuron Short in sympathetic, long in
Preganglionic Neuron Always acetylcholine
axon exits via spinal/cranial nerve in autonomic ganglion parasympathetic division
NE in sympathetic
Postganglionic Cell body in autonomic ganglion, axon Receives preganglionic input, axon Effect depends on target
division, ACh in
Neuron projects to effector organ/tissue (unmyelinated) to target tissue and division
parasympathetic
Thoracolumbar outflow (T1–L2); ganglia in Preganglionic: ACh “Fight or flight” response:
Short preganglionic fibers (spinal
sympathetic chains or prevertebral ganglia; Postganglionic: NE increases HR, BP, dilates
Sympathetic Division cord → ganglion), long postganglionic
includes splanchnic nerves, collateral (except sweat glands: pupils, mobilizes glucose,
fibers
ganglia ACh) inhibits digestion
“Rest and digest”: slows HR,
Craniosacral (CN III, VII, IX, X, S2–S4); Long preganglionic fibers
Parasympathetic Both pre- and stimulates digestion,
ganglia near/within target organs; key nerve (brainstem/spinal cord → ganglion),
Division postganglionic: ACh constricts pupils, stores
= vagus (to heart, lungs, GI, etc.) short postganglionic
energy
Divisions can produce stimulatory or E.g., parasymp initiates
Dual Action / Most organs receive fibers from both Both can cooperate or
inhibitory effects depending on erection; symp triggers
Coordination divisions (dual innervation) oppose
organ/system ejaculation in males
 Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
Feature / Structure Description & Anatomy Functional Role / Mechanism Clinical/Functional Notes

Network of neurons (500 million+) in the wall of

“Second brain”—most complex PNS
the GI tract
Controls GI motility (muscle contractions, network, numerous
Location & Structure Two main plexuses: Myenteric (Auerbach’s)
peristalsis), secretion, blood flow neurotransmitters; more neurons
plexus (between muscle layers), Submucosal
than spinal cord
(Meissner’s) plexus (in submucosa)

- Sensory neurons (afferents) detect stretch,

chemical changes Local reflexes: stretch/chemical change triggers ENS reflexes can function without
Neuronal Components - Interneurons process signals sensory neuron → interneuron → motor neuron → CNS input; can integrate signals for
- Motor neurons control muscle, glands, effector (e.g., secretion, contraction) local control
vessels

Sympathetic: generally inhibits GI motility and

Integration with
Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons secretion CNS input can override, but ENS
Autonomic Nervous
connect CNS to digestive tract Parasympathetic: (mainly via vagus nerve) mostly regulates independently
System
stimulates GI activity

Important for maintaining GI motility

Capable of independent function (when CNS Enables ongoing GI function in disease/injury;
Autonomy even in certain neurological
input is severed) adapts to dietary and mechanical changes
disorders

Uses acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, and Diverse neurotransmitters modulate contraction, ~90% of body’s serotonin, ~50%
Neurotransmitters
many others secretion, blood flow, immune response dopamine in GI tract

ENS research area for gut-brain axis,

Disorders: Hirschsprung’s disease Disrupted ENS can lead to severe GI dysfunction,
Clinical Significance Parkinson’s, microbiome
(aganglionosis), IBS, chronic constipation pain, or infection
interactions
Representative Diseases and Disorders:
Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders:
Nervous System
Videos to WATCH
• [Link] The Nervous System In 9 Minutes CTE [Link]
• [Link] The Central Nervous System: The Brain and Spinal Cord
Professor Dave Explains
• [Link] The Structure and Physiology of the Human Brain Professor
Dave Explains
• [Link] The Central Nervous System: The Brain and Spinal Cord
• [Link] Action Potential - Firing of a Neuron – Depolarization Psych
Explained
• [Link] What is a Neuron? Parts and Function Psych Explained
• [Link] Major Brain Structures and Their Functions
Neuroscientifically Challenged
• [Link] How a synapse works Harvard Online
•