NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”

SCIENCE – 10TH STANDARD

Compiled by Renjith T R

 Introduction Q=360C
Electricity originated from the Greek words So, the electric charge that flows through the circuit
“Electrica” and “Elektron”. The greek philosopher is 360 C.
Thales was the first to observe the attracting capacity
of certain materials when rubbed together. 1.2 Electric Potential & Potential Difference
The flow of electric charge in a circuit is similar
1.1 Electric Current and Circuit to water flow in a pipe.

 Electricity is one of the most convenient and widely  The water pipe is analogous to the electric conductor
used forms of energy in the world. and the amount of water flowing across a section per
 Conductors are those substances in which electric second corresponds to electric current.
charge can flow freely. Metals are electric  As water flows from higher pressure (level) to lower
conductors. Copper and aluminium are the two pressure (level), the electric current flows from
most commonly used metals in electricity. higher electric potential to lower electric potential.
 The potential difference across a conductor is
 Electrical insulators are those materials in which
maintained by using a cell or battery.
electric charges do not move freely. Rubber, glass
 The chemical action within a cell generates the
and plastic are examples of insulators.
potential difference between its electrodes, due to
 Current electricity is the electricity which deals which current flows through the circuit.
with moving charges.  Potential difference between two points in an
 A continuous and closed path of an electric current electric circuit carrying current is defined as the
is called an electric circuit. work done to move a unit positive charge from one
 Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of point to another. If be the amount of work done in
taking a charge Q from point B to point A, then
electric charge through a cross-section of a
 The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt
conductor. (V), where
 S.I. unit of electric current is ‘ampere' (A). One-
ampere current is equivalent to the flow of 1 Solved Example
coulomb of charge per second through a section of a How much work is done in moving a charge of 3 C
conductor. Thus, 1 A = 1 C s-1. between two points with a potential difference of 9 V?
 The direction of the flow of electric current is taken Solution:
as opposite to the direction of the flow of negatively The charge Q flowing between the two points with a
potential difference V = 9V is 3 C. The work W done in
charged electrons. In other terms, the direction of moving the charge can be calculated using the formula:
conventional current is taken as the direction along W=V×Q
which positive charges will move if allowed to do so W=9×3C
 In conductors flow of electric current is due to W=27 J
the flow of electrons. The flow of 6.25 x So, 27 J of work is done in moving the charge.
1018 electrons per second across a cross-section of a
1.3 Circuit Diagram
conductor constitutes a current of 1 ampere.

Solved Example
A current of 0.75 A flows through a heater for 8
minutes. Calculate the amount of electric charge
that passes through the circuit.

Solution:  A circuit diagram is a simplified representation of

Given:
the components of an electrical circuit using either
Current, I=0.75A
the images of the distinct parts or standard symbols.
Time, t=8 min = 480s
 It shows the relative positions of all the elements and
Using the formula:
their connections to one another.
Q=It
 It is often used to provide a visual representation of
Q=0.75A×480s

NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”/CLASS X Notes compiled by Renjith T R @ 2025-26 ● 1

 the circuit to an electrician. The following figure  S.I. unit of electrical resistance is ohm(Ω),
shows a simple circuit diagram. where 1 Ω = 1V/1A.

1.3 Components of Circuit Diagram 1.5 Factors Affecting Resistance of a Conductor

 At a given temperature resistance of a conductor

depends on its:
(i) Length (l)
(ii) Cross-section area (A)
(iii) Nature of the material of the conductor ( ).

1.4 Ohm's Law

George Simon Ohm established a relationship between
the electric current flowing through a conductor and the
potential difference across its ends, due to which current
flows.
 It is found that R ∝ l and
 Ohm’s law states that potential difference across Mathematically,
the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to  Where ρ is a constant known as the resistivity of the
the current flowing in the conductor, provided all material of the conductor, its value depends only on
physical conditions, especially the temperature the nature of the material of the conductor and
remains constant. the temperature and is independent of the
dimensions (i.e., length and cross-section area) of
 According to Ohm’s law, the temperature remaining the conductor.
constant, the current passing through a conductor  The resistivity of a given material is defined as the
is directly proportional to the potential difference resistance offered by a cube of that material of side 1
across its ends, i.e., m when current flows perpendicular to the opposite
faces. Its unit is ohm-metre (Ω m).
V ∝ I or  Metals and alloys have low resistivity in the range
V = IR of 10-8 Ω m to 10-6 Ω m and are good conductors of
electricity.
 Insulators like rubber and glass have a resistivity of
 Here, constant R is the order of 1012 to 1017 Ω m.
known as the resistance of the given conductor. For  Resistance, as well as the resistivity of a material,
a given conductor its resistance is constant at varies with temperature. For metallic conductors
a given temperature. resistance as well as resistivity increases with an
 Electrical resistance of a conductor may be increase in temperature.
considered as a measure of the opposition offered by  Resistivity of pure metals is very very low. On
it for the flow of electric charge through it. account of this reason, metals like copper and
aluminium are used for electrical transmission lines.
Mathematically,  Resistivity of alloys is greater than that of pure
metals. However, alloys do not oxidise easily, and
or
their change in resistivity with the temperature rise is
small. Due to these properties, they are used as

NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”/CLASS X Notes compiled by Renjith T R @ 2025-26 ● 2

 electrical elements in most electric appliances. In the series grouping of resistances:
Generally, nichrome elements are used in electric  The current flowing through all the resistances
iron, heater, radiator, geyser etc. is the same.
 Tungsten filaments are used in electric lamps  The total voltage across the combination is
because the melting point of tungsten is extremely equal to the sum of the voltage drops across the
high. individual resistors.
 A rheostat is a variable resistance device used in  The total resistance of the combination is equal
electrical circuits. It is used to regulate the current in to the sum of the individual resistances.
the circuit without changing the voltage source.  If R1, R2, R3,... be the individual resistors joined
in series then the equivalent resistor Rs is given
 An ammeter is an instrument that can measure the
by
electric current flowing in an electric circuit directly
in amperes and their submultiples.
 A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the In the parallel grouping of resistances:
 The voltage across each resistor is the same and
potential difference across two given points in an
equal to the voltage across the whole
electrical circuit directly in volts.
combination.
 The currents in various resistors are inversely
Solved Example 1 proportional to the resistances, and the total
The resistance of a metal wire of length 1.5 m is 30 Ω at
current is the sum of the currents flowing
25°C. If the diameter of the wire is 0.4 mm, what will be
through different resistances, and the sum of the
the resistivity of the metal at that temperature?
reciprocals of the separate resistances is equal to
the reciprocal of equivalent resistance.
Solution:
Given:
If R1, R2, R3,... be the individual resistors joined
Resistance R=30Ω
in parallel then the equivalent resistance Rp is
Diameter d=0.4mm=4×10−4m
given as :
Length l=1.5m
To find the resistivity ρρ of the metal, use the formula:
ρ=RA/l= Rπd2/4l
Substituting the given values: In household electric circuits, a series circuit is not
ρ=2.51×10−6Ωm followed. It is because if one component of the series
The resistivity of the metal at 25°C is2.51×10−6Ωm. circuit fails, the entire circuit is broken and none of the
components works. Moreover, the same current flows
Solved Example 2 through all the components irrespective of their
A wire made of a specific material has a length ll and a operating needs.
cross-sectional area AA, with a resistance of 6 Ω. What
would be the resistance of another wire made of the A parallel circuit divides the current into
same material but with a length of l/3l/3 and a cross- various components (appliances), and each
sectional area of 3A3A? component can draw current as per its
appropriate operation. Separate on/off switches
Solution: can be put with each component in the parallel
For first wire circuit. Moreover, the total resistance in parallel
For second wire circuit arrangement decreases and hence a
R2 = 1/9 ρl/A stronger current can be drawn from a voltage
R2= 1/9 R1 source. Due to these reasons, all appliances are
R2= 1Ω connected in parallel in our household electric
The resistance of the new wire is 1Ω. circuit.

1.6 Resistance of System of Resistors

In an electric circuit resistances may be connected in: Solved Example
An electric lamp of resistance 20Ω and a conductor of
(i) Series
resistance 4Ω are connected to a 6V battery as shown in
(ii) Parallel Arrangement
the circuit. Calculate:
(a) The total resistance of the circuit
(b) The current through the circuit
(c)The potential difference across the (i) Electric lamp
and (ii) Conductor, and
(d) Power of the lamp.

NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”/CLASS X Notes compiled by Renjith T R @ 2025-26 ● 3

Answer:  Joule’s law implies that heat produced in a resistor is:
Given, Resistance of electric lamp, R 1 = 20 ohm o directly proportional to the square of current for a
Resistance of conductor, R 2 = 4 ohm given resistance ∝
Potential difference, V = 6 V o directly proportional to the resistance for a given
(a) Since R 1 and R 2 are connected in series, current ∝ .
o directly proportional to the time for which the
Total resistance, R = R 1 + R 2 current flows through the resistor ∝
= 20 + 4
= 24 ohm Solved Example
Therefore, total resistance of the circuit is 24 ohm. An electric heater uses 900 W of power when operating
(b) Let the current through the circuit be I. at maximum heat and 400 W at minimum heat. The
According to ohm’s law, voltage across it is 240 V. What are the current and
resistance of the heater in each case?
I=V/R
= 6 / 24 Solution:
= 0.25 A Using the formula P=VI the current I can be calculated
Therefore, the current through the circuit is 0.25 A as:
(c) (i) For electric lamp, I=PV
V = I × R1
= 0.25 × 20 (a) Maximum Heating:
=5V P=900W
Therefore, the potential difference across the electric V=240V
lamp is 5 V. I=900240=3.75A
(ii) For conductor,
V = I × R2 The resistance R is:
= 0.25 × 4 R=VI=2403.75=64Ω
=1V
Therefore, the potential difference across the (b) Minimum Heating:
conductor is 1 V. P=400W
(d)Let the power of the lamp be P. V=240V
We know that, I=400240=1.67A
P=V×I The resistance R is: R=VI=2401.67=143.71Ω
= 5 × 0.25
= 1.25 W So, at maximum heating, the current is 3.75 A and the
Therefore, power of the lamp is 1.25 W resistance is 64 Ω. At minimum heating, the current is
1.67 A and the resistance is 143.71 Ω.

1.7 Heating Effect of Electric Current

Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of 1.8 Practical Applications of Heating Effect of
resistance R. Let the potential difference across it be V. Electric Current
Let t be the time during which a charge Q flows through
across. The work done in moving the charge Q through a  Electric heating is also used to produce light in
potential difference is VQ. Therefore, the source must electric bulbs. As bulb filament operates at very high
supply energy equal to VQ time t. hence the power input temperatures, the filament should be thermally
to the circuit by the source is,
insulated. The bulb is filled with chemically inactive
nitrogen and argon gases to prolong the life of the
bulb filament.
Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the source in
time t is , that is, .

This gets dissipated in the resistor as heat. Thus for a

steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time t
is

Applying Ohm’s law, we get

This is known as Joule’s law of heating.

 Electric fuse protects an electric circuit or appliance

NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”/CLASS X Notes compiled by Renjith T R @ 2025-26 ● 4

 by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric 5. Electric Power
current.  Formula: P = VI, P = I²R, P = V² / R
o A fuse consists of a piece of wire of a metal  Explanation: Power is the rate at which electrical
or an alloy of an appropriate melting point
energy is consumed or produced.
and is placed in series with the circuit.
 Units: Watt (W)
o If a current larger than the specified value
flows through the circuit, the temperature of
6. Electrical Energy
the fuse wire rises beyond its melting point,
and the fuse melts. As a result, the circuit  Formula: E = P × t
breaks.  Explanation: Electrical energy is power multiplied
o The fuse of appropriate current capacity is by time.
used in an electric circuit.  Units: E: Joule (J), P: Watt (W), t: second (s)

7. Commercial Unit of Energy

1.9 Electric Power  Formula: 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J
The time rate of doing electric work is called electric  Explanation: 1 kilowatt-hour is the energy used
power. Thus, when 1 kW power is used for 1 hour.
 Units: kWh, Joules (J)
 SI unit of electric power is watt (W), where 1
watt = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 V A
Unit of Energy
 A watt-hour and kilowatt-hour are practical
units of electric energy. The commercial unit of  Formula: Joule (J)
electric energy is a kilowatt-hour (kW h),  Explanation: Energy used when 1 watt of power is
where, 1 kW h = 1000 Wh = 3.6 x 106 J. applied for 1 second.
 Units: Joule (J)

FORMULAS, EXPLANATIONS, AND UNITS 8. Heat Produced by Electric Current (Joule’s Law)
 Formula: H = I²Rt
1. Ohm’s Law  Explanation: The heat produced in a resistor is
 Formula: V = IR proportional to the square of current, resistance, and
 Explanation: Voltage across a conductor is directly time.
proportional to current, provided temperature  Units: H: Joule (J), I: Ampere (A), R: Ohm (Ω), t:
remains constant. second (s)
 Units: V: Volt (V), I: Ampere (A), R: Ohm (Ω)

2. Resistance of a wire FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQS)

 Formula: R = ρ × (l / A)
 Explanation: Resistance of a conductor depends on Q1. What is electricity?
resistivity (ρ), length (l), and cross-sectional area Ans. Electricity is a form of energy resulting from
the movement of charged particles, such as electrons or
(A).
ions. It can be generated from various sources, including
 Units: R: Ohm (Ω), ρ: Ohm metre (Ω·m), l: metre fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable sources like
(m), A: m² wind and solar.

3. Equivalent Resistance in Series Q2. How does electricity flow through a circuit?
 Formula: Req = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + … Ans. Electricity flows through a circuit due to the
movement of charged particles, which create an electric
 Explanation: Total resistance in series is the sum of
current. The current flows from the negative
individual resistances. terminal of the power source to the positive terminal,
 Units: Ohm (Ω) following the path of least resistance through the
circuit. This movement of electrons through the circuit
4. Equivalent Resistance in Parallel creates energy, which can be used to power electrical
 Formula: 1 / R_eq = 1 / R₁ + 1 / R₂ + 1 / R₃ + … devices.
 Explanation: Total resistance in parallel is given by
Q3. What are conductors and insulators?
the reciprocal of the sum of reciprocals. Ans. Conductors are materials that allow electricity to
 Units: Ohm (Ω) flow through them easily, due to the presence of free
electrons. Examples of conductors include metals

NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”/CLASS X Notes compiled by Renjith T R @ 2025-26 ● 5

like copper, aluminium, and gold. Insulators, on the Section B: Short Answer Questions – I (2 marks each)
other hand, are materials that do not allow electrons to 6. Two conductors A and B have resistances R and 0.5R
flow easily. Examples of insulators include rubber, respectively. If the length of A is l, what should be the
plastic, and glass.
length of B assuming both have same material and cross-
Q4. What is resistance in an electrical circuit? sectional area?
Ans. Resistance is the opposition that a material offers 7. In a circuit, a 20 Ω resistor is connected to a voltmeter
to the flow of electrical current. It is measured in ohms which shows a potential difference of 4 V. Calculate the
and can be affected by factors such as the material of the current flowing through the resistor.
conductor, its length, and its cross-sectional area. A 8. Calculate the resistance of a wire of length 5 m, cross-
material with high resistance will require more energy
sectional area 3 × 10⁻⁷ m² and resistivity 1.7 × 10⁻⁸ Ω·m.
to produce a given amount of current, resulting in a
lower flow of electricity. 9. Draw a V–I graph for an ohmic conductor and
determine its resistance.
Q5. What are some common electrical safety 10. Why is the tungsten used for filament in bulbs, while
hazards? copper is not preferred?
Ans. Electrical safety hazards can include electric Section C: Short Answer Questions – II (3 marks each)
shock, burns, fires, and explosions. Some common 11. An electric lamp of resistance 20 Ω and a conductor
causes of these hazards include faulty wiring, damaged
electrical cords, and improper use of electrical of resistance 4 Ω are connected in series to a 6 V battery.
equipment. To reduce the risk of electrical accidents, it Calculate the total resistance, total current, voltage drop
is important to follow safety guidelines and use across each, and power of the lamp.
caution when working with electricity. This can 12. Two resistors of 12 Ω each are connected in (a)
include wearing protective gear, avoiding contact with series and (b) parallel to a 6 V battery. Find the current
live wires, and turning off power sources before and power in each case.
making repairs or adjustments.
13. Write the formula for calculating electrical energy. A
Q6. Why is resistance more in series combination? device of 12 W works for 2 minutes. Find energy
Ans. We know R ∝ L. In a series combination of consumed in joules.
resistors, the effective length of the conductor increases, 14. A 100 W and a 60 W lamp are connected in parallel
so the resistance increases. to a 220 V supply. Calculate the total current drawn
from the supply.
Q7. Why is it not advisable to handle high-voltage
electrical circuits with wet hands? 15. Why are electric bulbs filled with argon or nitrogen
Ans. The resistance of the dry-skin human body is instead of air?
about 50,000 Ω. When the skin is wet, the resistance gets
lowered to about 10,000 Ω. If a person with wet hands Section D: Long Answer Questions (5 marks each)
touches the electrical circuit, a high current will flow 16. Derive the expression for the equivalent resistance of
through the body causing a risk to life. three resistors connected in parallel.
Q.8. How does the use of a fuse wire protect electrical 17. A bulb is rated 220 V and 100 W. Calculate (a) its
appliances? resistance, (b) the current it draws, and (c) monthly
Ans. If a current larger than a specified value flows in a energy consumption for 10 hours daily at ₹6 per unit.
circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases its 18. State Joule’s law of heating. Calculate the heat
melting point. The fuse wire melts and the circuit produced when a current of 3 A flows through a resistor
breaks.
of 5 Ω for 10 minutes.
19. Explain the advantages of parallel combination of
PRACTICE QUESTIONS (2019–2024) resistors in domestic circuits over series combination.
Section A: Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark 20. Three resistors of 6 Ω, 4 Ω, and 4 Ω are combined to
each) give an effective resistance of 8 Ω. Draw and explain the
1. Define 1 kilowatt-hour. arrangement.
2. Define electrical resistivity.
Section E: Case-Based / Source-Based Questions (4–5
3. Write the relation between current and potential
marks)
difference. What does the slope of the V–I graph
21. In a circuit, three identical resistors each of 6 Ω are
indicate?
connected in such a way that their total resistance is 9 Ω.
4. What are the SI values of milliampere (mA) and
Draw the circuit diagram and calculate current through
microampere (μA)?
the circuit if connected to a 9 V battery.
5. State Ohm’s law.

NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”/CLASS X Notes compiled by Renjith T R @ 2025-26 ● 6

22. An electric iron of resistance 20 Ω draws a current of 36. The resistance of a wire is R. What will be its
5 A. Calculate the heat produced in 30 seconds. resistance if it is stretched to double its length without
23. A house has three 100 W bulbs, five 50 W fans, and change in volume?
a refrigerator of 400 W. All run for 10 hours a day. 37. A 60 W bulb is designed to operate at 120 V. It is
Calculate the total energy consumed in one day and the connected to a 240 V power supply. What will be the
cost at ₹5 per unit. power consumed by the bulb and what will happen to it?
24. Two wires A and B are of the same material. A has 38. Explain in detail the working principle of an electric
twice the length and half the area of cross-section fuse. Why is it important to use fuse wires of appropriate
compared to B. Compare their resistances. ratings?
25. If potential difference across a conductor becomes 39. A student connects three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω, and 8 Ω
half and its resistance remains constant, what happens to in parallel and joins them to a 6 V battery. Calculate (a)
the current? Name the law involved. the total resistance, (b) the total current, and (c) the
current through each resistor.
Challenging Questions (Mixed Concepts – 5 marks) 40. In a household, three fans of 80 W each, four tubes
26. Three bulbs rated 60 W, 100 W, and 200 W are of 40 W each, and one heater of 1000 W run for 5 hours
connected in series to a 220 V supply. Which bulb will daily. Calculate the monthly consumption of electricity
glow brightest and why? and cost if 1 unit costs ₹7.
27. What is meant by electric power? Derive the 41. A resistance wire of length L and diameter d is
expressions: P = VI, P = I²R, and P = V²/R. stretched to double its length. What will be the new
28. A student draws a circuit with three resistors of 3 Ω, resistance in terms of original resistance R? Explain with
6 Ω, and 9 Ω in series with a 12 V battery. Find the derivation.
current and potential difference across each resistor. 42. An electric circuit consists of a 5 Ω, 10 Ω, and 15 Ω
29. Explain why household appliances are always resistor connected in series with a 24 V battery. Draw
connected in parallel. Support your answer with suitable the circuit diagram and calculate the current through the
examples. circuit and the potential drop across each resistor.
30. A 1000 W heater, a 500 W cooler, and a 250 W bulb 43. A wire of resistance 5 Ω is bent in the form of a
are operated for 2 hours. Calculate the total energy closed circle. What is the resistance between two points
consumed and the cost at ₹6 per unit. at the ends of a diameter? Explain.
44. In a circuit, 3 resistors each of resistance 3 Ω are
Additional Questions for Practice connected in parallel. This combination is connected in
31. Two resistors of resistance 4 Ω and 6 Ω are series with a 2 Ω resistor and a battery of 5 V. Draw the
connected in parallel. A third resistor of 5 Ω is connected circuit and calculate the total current.
in series with this combination. Find the total resistance 45. Compare the resistance of two wires A and B. Both
of the circuit and the current if the entire circuit is are made of the same material. Length of wire A is twice
connected to a 12 V battery. that of B and diameter is half. What is the ratio of their
32. A wire of resistance 10 Ω is stretched uniformly to resistances?
thrice its original length. Calculate the new resistance. 46. Calculate the heat produced in a 10 Ω resistor when a
33. A copper wire and a nichrome wire of the same current of 3 A is passed through it for 5 minutes. Also
length and cross-sectional area are connected in parallel. find the work done.
Compare the heat produced in both when the same 47. A device draws 880 W power when connected to a
potential difference is applied across the combination. 220 V source. Calculate (a) the resistance of the device
34. Derive the relation and explain the factors and (b) energy consumed in 2 hours in kWh.
affecting resistance. A wire of length 1 m and cross- 48. State and prove the law of combination of resistances
sectional area 1 mm² has a resistance of 2 Ω. Calculate in series and parallel with proper diagrams.
its resistivity. 49. An electric bulb is rated at 220 V and 100 W. It is
35. Three resistors of values 2 Ω, 3 Ω, and 6 Ω are used for 5 hours daily. Calculate the (a) energy
connected in such a way that the total resistance is less consumed in kWh per day, and (b) cost of electricity for
than 2 Ω. Draw the circuit diagram and calculate the 30 days at ₹6 per unit.
effective resistance. 50. Explain why electrical appliances with metallic
bodies are earthed. What happens if the earth wire is not
connected properly?

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NOTES ON “ELECTRICITY”/CLASS X Notes compiled by Renjith T R @ 2025-26 ● 7