Basic Power, Energy, and Speed

Relationships

Ø where s is the distance, and t is the time required to travel the

distance.
Ø The metric units for distance, time, and speed are the meter
(m), the second (s), and meters/second (m/s), respectively.
 Distance and Energy Relationship

• The above equation can be rewritten to express the

distance in terms of energy, speed, and power as
follows:
 Aerodynamic Drag
• Aerodynamic drag is the resistance of air to the
movement of the vehicle. The aerodynamic drag force
FD and power PD acting on the vehicle are defined as

• where ρ is the density of air,CD is the aerodynamic drag

coefficient, A is the cross-sectional area of the vehicle,
v is the vehicle speed in m/s, and vair is the wind speed
in m/s.
• it can be seen that the aerodynamic drag power is a
function of the cube of the speed, and this load
generally is the most significant load at high speed.
Thus, at high speeds:

• The energy ED required to overcome the high-speed

drag is directly proportional to the aerodynamic drag
force, or the square of the speed. Thus, at high speeds
it can be approximated by

• For example, if the vehicle speed is doubled, the

energy required goes up by a factor of four if we
consider only the drag force.
• If the vehicle speed is doubled, the energy required goes
up by a factor of four if we consider only the drag
[Link], when dominated by drag, the distance
which a vehicle can travel for a given energy storage is
inversely proportional to the square of the speed:

• The drag force increases with the cross-sectional area of

the vehicle and also increases or decreases depending on
whether the vehicle is experiencing a headwind or a
tailwind.
ØAerodynamic drag increases with vehicle
cross-sectional area.
ØDrag varies with wind direction (headwind
increases drag, tailwind reduces it).
ØPower varies with the cube of speed.
ØAt high speeds, drag dominates energy
consumption.
ØAir density depends on temperature, humidity,
and altitude.
 Air Density & Environmental Effects
ØStandard air density: 1.204 kg/m³ at 20°C, 101
kPa, sea level.
ØVariation:
- 1.514 kg/m³ at −40°C
- 1.293 kg/m³ at 0°C
- 1.127 kg/m³ at +40°C
ØCold weather → higher air density & thicker
motor oils → higher power requirement.
 Drag Coefficient (CD)
• CD depends on vehicle design and streamlining.
• GM EV1: CD = 0.19 with aerodynamic enhancements.
• Modern low-CD examples:
- Tesla Model S: 0.24
- Toyota Prius: 0.25
- Nissan Leaf / Chevy Volt: 0.28
- Toyota Mirai: 0.29
- SUVs like Lexus RX 450h have higher CD.
Example: Aerodynamic Drag
Calculation
 Example: Aerodynamic Drag and Fuel
Consumption

ØDetermine the percentage increase in the

required power and fuel consumption when a
driver who normally drives at 120 km/h
increases the speed to 150 km/h. Consider drag
forces only.
Vehicle Dynamics – Rolling
Resistance, Road Load &
Acceleration in EVs
 Vehicle Load Forces Overview
Major components of vehicle load:
• Rolling resistance
• Aerodynamic drag
• Gradient force (incline/decline)
• Inertial/acceleration force
Importance: Determines efficiency, power
demand & range
Vehicle load forces
 Rolling Resistance
v Definition: All the Frictional load due to tire deformation +
drivetrain friction
Equation: FR = CR m g
v Parameters:
– CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (~0.01 for EV tires)
– m = vehicle mass
– g = 9.81 m/s²
v The weight of the vehicle directly affects the rolling resistance. The
coefficient of rolling resistance tends to be relatively constant at
low speeds. Although it increases at high speeds, the effects are
not as significant, as the vehicle losses are dominated by drag. EVs
use high-pressure tires in order to minimize the rolling resistance.
A typical value for an EV tire is 0.01 or less.
v the energy dissipated by the rolling resistance increases the tire
temperature and pressure.
 Examples of Rolling Resistance Issues
• Ford Explorer (1990s):The Ford Explorer i s a n S U V a nd
consequently has a relatively high center of gravity. A high center
of gravity can make a vehicle more prone to roll over in the case of
a sharp or emergency turn. Ford specified a tire pressure lower
than that recommended by the tire manufacturer in order to
mitigate the effects of rollover and improve road holding. Low tire
pressure → overheating & blowouts
• Mercedes A-Class: Failed moose test due to high CoG → redesign
• Tesla Model S (2013): has an active suspension to raise and lower
the car. Lowering the car results in a lower drag coefficient and
improves road handling. How_x0002_ever, the battery pack is
arranged along the floor of the vehicle, and becomes vulnerable if
the vehicle floor is penetrated, for example, due to debris on the
[Link] suspension lowered drag but exposed battery →
reinforcement
 Rolling Resistance Example
• An electric vehicle has the following attributes: coefficient of
rolling resistance CR = 0.0085 and vehicle mass of 2000 kg.
Instantaneously at a vehicle speed of 10 km/h, calculate the
rolling resistance and power. Let g = 9.81 m/s2
 Road Load Coefficients (EPA Coast-Down
Test)
Road load Force: Fv = A + Bv + Cv²
• The A, B, and C coefficients are determined from the
coast-down test. Typically, coefficient A correlates to the
rolling resistance and coefficient C to the aerodynamic
drag. Coefficient B relates to the spinning or rotational
losses and tends to be relatively small.
• Example: Nissan Leaf 2015 (A=133.3 N, B=0.709 N/ms,
C=0.491 N/(ms)²)
Road-load forces for various vehicles.
 Road Load Power
• The vehicle road power Pv required can be determined by multiplying
the road-load force by the speed:

Pv = Fv V = Av + Bv² + Cv³
• Increases sharply at higher speeds
• Example: Tesla Model S requires ~100 kW at top speed
• The energy consumption is calculated by simply dividing the kilowatt-
hours consumed by one hour’s driving by the distance driven in that
hour. Equation can be rearranged to show that the fuel consumption is

• For example, when driving at 60 km/h the Nissan Leaf consumes 4.7
kWh to drive 60 km for an energy consumption of 4700 Wh/60 km or
78 Wh/km.
Road-load power for various vehicles.
 BEV Range Estimation
The electric vehicle range can be estimated once the load power
is known. An estimation of range is quite complex and depends
on many factors.
Range depends on:
• Battery energy (Eb)
• Powertrain efficiency (ηpt)
• Road load power (Pv)
Example (Tesla Model S, 90 kWh, η=85%):
• ~800 km at 70 km/h
• ~360 km at 140 km/h
 Example: Plot of BEV Range Versus
Speed
• A high-performance vehicle has an available battery energy of
90 kWh. Let the efficiency of the powertrain from the battery
to the transmission be 85%. An estimate of the vehicle range
based on the road-load power and range formulas.
Ø Estimate the range of the same high-performance
vehicle at 120 km/h.
Example: Effect of Auxiliary Loads on Range

• Determine the reduction in range for the BEV in the previous

example if the vehicle has a continuous heating, ventilation
and air conditioning (HVAC) load of 6 kW.
 Gradability
v The vehicle load power can increase or decrease depending on
whether the car is ascending or descending an incline. The
climbing resistance or downgrade force is given by
Fc = m g sinθ
v where θ is the angle of incline and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. The climbing force is positive, resulting in motoring
operation. The downgrade force is negative and can result in
energy regeneration to the battery, a mode commonly used in
electrically propelled vehicles rather than friction braking to
slow the vehicle.
v The gradability is the maximum slope that a vehicle can climb at
a certain speed. In simple terms, it is the ratio of the rise to the
run, or the tangent of the incline angle. It is often quoted as a
percentage, with tan 45° being 100%.
Grade (%) = tanθ × 100
Example: Nissan Leaf on ±6° slope
• Uphill: +80 kW at 130 km/h
• Downhill: −33 kW regenerative braking
Vehicle load forces
 Regenerative Braking
• Converts kinetic energy → electrical energy →
battery
• Traction motor provides negative torque
• Example: Nissan Leaf at −6° slope, 120 km/h
→ Regen power = −32.8 kW
 Example: Downgrade Force and
Regeneration
• The 2015 Nissan Leaf is traveling down a −6° slope at
120 km/h (33.33 m/s). Assuming calm conditions, how
much regenerative power is available to brake the
vehicle while maintaining a constant speed?
Nissan Leaf vehicle road-load power
versus speed for various slopes
 Vehicle Acceleration
• Nominal vehicle power requirements are typically based on vehicle
acceleration requirements, usually specified as the time to
accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) or from 0 to 60 mph.
Under these conditions, the maximum available torque and power
of the propulsion system are likely to be required.
Acceleration force: Fa = m dv/dt
• The motive force Fm required to accelerate the vehicle is the sum of
the acceleration,load, and climbing forces and is given by
Fm = Fa + Fv + Fc
• we can express the motive force as
• The motive force describes the force required for linear motion. The
motive torque Tm is the torque required at the drive axle and is
obtained by multiplying the motive force by the wheel radius r, thus
relating the linear motion to rotating motion:

• where J is the moment of inertia, and ω and α are the angular speed and
acceleration.
• In addition to the motive torque to move the vehicle, we must also consider
the torque to spin the rotating parts within the drivetrain. This is represented
by a drive-axle referenced moment of inertia, Jaxle. Thus, the total torque
required at the drive axle Taxle is the sum of the motive torque and the torque
required to accelerate Jaxle:
Vehicle (a) motoring and (b)
regenerating.
• knowing that v = rω, the axle torque can be rewritten as

• The traction torque Tt is the torque developed on the output shaft of

the IC engine or electric motor.
• The gearing and transmission efficiency ηg can significantly impact the
required motive torque. The axle torque is related to the traction
torque Tt, when motoring, as follows:

• The traction torque Tt can be expressed as follows:

• The gear losses have a characteristic similar to other spinning
components and have two main loss components:
(1) the no-load or spinning loss and (2) the load-torque loss.
• The gearing efficiency in the above equation is an assumed
value for the load-torque loss within the gearing and
transmission, and ignores the no-load spinning loss.
Regenerative Braking of the Vehicle
• The energy used to brake or slow down a vehicle in a conventional vehicle is
dissipated as heat in the braking system and lost to the vehicle. An electric
vehicle can capture or regenerate the energy and store it on the vehicle.
• The traction motor can develop a negative torque, up to the rated value in the
forward direction, which reverses the flow of power such that the kinetic
energy of the vehicle is converted to negative mechanical power on the rotor
shaft, and subsequently converted to electrical power by the machine, which
is used to recharge the battery. This is the principle of regenerative braking, as
shown in Figure (b).
• The same theory as developed for acceleration applies, except that the
efficiency of the gearing must be correctly accounted for as follows:
A simple arrangement for connecting a
motor to a drive wheel
Traction Motor Characteristics

Understanding Torque-Speed and

Power Modes
 Introduction
• Traction motor characteristics determine
vehicle acceleration.
• Torque-speed relationship is simpler and more
linear compared to IC engines.
• Two main modes: Constant-Torque Mode and
Constant-Power Mode.
 Constant-Torque Mode
• Low-speed operation.
• Machine delivers constant rated rotor torque
Tr(rated).
• Rotor power Pr increases linearly with speed:
Pr = Tr(rated) × ωr
• Holds until rated speed ωr(rated), where:
ωr(rated) = Pr(rated) / Tr(rated)
• Base speed = minimum speed for rated power
output.
 Constant-Power Mode
• High-speed operation (above rated speed).
• Machine delivers constant rated power Pr(rated).
• Rotor torque decreases inversely with speed:
Tr = Pr(rated) / ωr
 Motoring vs Regenerating
• Electric motor operates in two modes:
- Motoring: converts electrical energy to
mechanical power.
- Regenerating: converts mechanical energy back
to electrical power.
• Improves vehicle efficiency through energy
recovery.
 Example: 2015 Nissan Leaf Rated Speed

The rated motor torque and power of the

electric motor of the 2015 Nissan Leaf are 254
Nm and 80 kW, respectively. Determine the
rated speeds of the electric motor and vehicle.
 Simple Drive Cycle for Vehicle
Comparisons
• The following assumptions are made in order to simplify the analysis of
the drive cycle:
1) The various machines operate in steady state.
2) The engine, generator and the motor response times are negligible.
3) The transient losses of accelerating and braking and the resultant kinetic
energy gain and loss are negligible due to the few stops and starts in the
drive cycle.
4) The gearing and transmission efficiency, regardless of the vehicle, is 95%.
5) The electric drive efficiency for both motoring and generating is 85%.
 Electric Vehicle Modelling
• Importance of Performance & Range Modelling

• Predicting vehicle performance (acceleration & top

speed) is crucial.

• Ensures EVs can operate safely in urban and highway

traffic.

• Performance should match or exceed that of IC

engine vehicles for market acceptance.
 Role of Computers in Modelling

• Computers simplify performance and range

prediction.
• Quick analysis of:
ü Motor power
ü Battery type and size
ü Vehicle weight

• Enables rapid “what-if” investigations of design

choices.
 Modelling Vehicle Performance

• Focus areas:
– Acceleration: Ability to blend into traffic.
– Top Speed: Meeting safety and performance
expectations.
• Electric vehicles often perceived as low-
performance—modelling helps counter this.
 Range Modelling

• Predicts how far an EV can travel on a single

charge/fuel cycle.
• Considers effects of:
– Battery type and capacity
– Vehicle mass and aerodynamics
– Driving cycle conditions
 Modelling Vehicle Acceleration
Acceleration Performance Parameters
• Acceleration is a key performance indicator for
EVs and motorcycles.
• Common benchmarks:
– 0–30 kph
– 0–50 kph
• Performance determined by simulation or
real-vehicle testing at maximum torque.
 Tractive Effort
• Tractive effort is the total force required at the
wheels to propel an electric vehicle.
• It must overcome resistive forces during
motion.
• Used for performance simulation, motor sizing,
and energy consumption estimation.
 Importance of Tractive Effort
• Determines motor power requirements.

• Affects energy efficiency, acceleration, and

gradeability.

• Essential for vehicle design and modelling.

Components of Tractive Effort
Rolling Resistance Force
Aerodynamic Drag Force
Hill Climbing Force
Acceleration Force
Total Tractive Effort
Power Requirement
Example Vehicle Parameters:
A simple arrangement for connecting a
motor to a drive wheel
 Acceleration Force
• This force will provide the linear acceleration of the
vehicle, and is given by the well-known equation
derived from Newton’s third law,
Fla = ma -------(8.4)
• However, for a more accurate picture of the force
needed to accelerate the vehicle we should also
consider the force needed to make the rotating
parts turn faster. In other words, we need to
consider rotational acceleration as well as linear
acceleration.
• Referring to Figure, clearly the axle torque equals Fter, where r is the
radius of the tyre and Fte is the tractive effort delivered by the
powertrain. If G is the gear ratio of the system connecting the
motor to the axle and T is the motor torque, then we can say that

• We will use this equation again when we develop final equations for
vehicle performance. We should also note axle angular speed
equals v/r radians per second, so motor angular speed is

• and, similarly, motor angular acceleration is

• The torque required for this angular acceleration is

• here I is the moment of inertia of the rotor of the motor. The force
at the wheels needed to provide the angular acceleration (Fωa) is
found by combining this equation with Equation (8.5), giving

• We must note that in these simple equations we have assumed that

the gear system is 100% efficient – it causes no losses. Since the
system will usually be very simple, the efficiency is often very high.
However, it will never be 100%, and so we should refine the
equation by incorporating the gear system efficiency ηg. The force
required will be slightly larger, so Equation (8.7) can be refined to
Rotational Inertia in Tractive Effort
Vehicle acceleration includes linear + rotational
components.
• Typical constants:

• I≈ 0.025 kg m2 for the moment of inertia.

• Vehicle mass ≈ 800 kg (30 kW motor, 7000
rpm at 60 kph)
Impact of Rotational Inertia
 Acceleration as a Performance
Indicator

ü Acceleration is a key performance metric for

vehicles.
ü Common benchmarks:
ü 0–30 kph, 0–50 kph for EVs
ü 0–60 mph in general automotive use.
ü Data obtained via simulation or testing.
ü IC engine vehicles: tested at maximum power.
ü EVs: tested at maximum torque.
 Torque-Speed Behaviour
• The maximum torque of an electric motor is a
fairly simple function of angular speed. In most
cases, at low speeds, the maximum torque is a
constant, until the motor speed reaches a
critical value ωc after which the torque falls.
Motor Types & Torque Characteristics
• Brushed Shunt / Permanent Magnet DC
Motors:
– Torque decreases linearly with speed.
• Other Motor Types (e.g., Brushless):
– Torque decreases such that power remains
constant after ωc.
• The angular velocity of the motor depends on the gear ratio
G and the radius of the drive wheel r as

• Once this constant torque phase is passed, that is ω ≥ ωc, or v

≥ (r/G) ω c , then either the power is constant, as in most
brushless type motors, and we have
<------(8.10)

• or the torque falls according to the linear equation

<------(8.11)

• K (Torque Constant or Slope): This constant represents the

rate at which the torque decreases as the angular velocity
increases. It indicates the sensitivity of the torque to changes
in speed.
• Now that we have the equations we need, we can combine them in order
to find the acceleration of a vehicle. Many of these equations may look
quite complex, but nearly all the terms are constants, which can be found
or estimated from vehicle or component data.
• For a vehicle on level ground, with air density 1.25 kg m−3, Equation
becomes

• Substituting Equation (8.5) for Fte , and noting that a = dν/dt, we have

<------(8.12)

• We have already noted that T, the motor torque, is either a constant or a

simple function of speed [Equations (8.10) and (8.11)]. So, Equation (8.12)
can be reduced to a differential equation, of first order, for the velocity v.
Thus the value of v can be found for any value of t.
• For example, in the initial acceleration phase, when T = Tmax,

<------(8.13)

• Provided all the constants are known, or can reasonably be

estimated, this is a very straightforward first-order differential
equation, whose solution can be found using many modern
calculators, as well as a wide range of personal computer programs.
• This is also possible for the situation with the larger motors. Two
examples will hopefully make this clear.
 Modelling the Acceleration of an Electric Scooter
• The electric scooter has a mass of 115 kg, with a typical passenger of mass 70 kg, so
total mass m = 185 kg.
• The moment of inertia of the motor is not known, so we will adopt the expedient
suggested, and increase m by 5% in the linear acceleration term only. A value of 194
kg will thus be used from m in the final term of Equation (8.13).
• The drag coefficient Cd is estimated as 0.75, a reasonable value for a small scooter,
with a fairly ‘sit-up’ riding style.
• The frontal area of vehicle and rider is 0.6 m2.
• The tyres and wheel bearings give a coefficient of rolling resistance, μrr = 0.007.
• The motor is connected to the rear wheel using a 2:1 ratio belt system, and the
wheel diameter is 42 cm. Thus G = 2 and r = 0.21 m.
• The motor is an 18 V ‘Lynch’-type motor, has been recalculated for 18 V, giving
T = 153 − 1.16 ω --------------(8.14)
• The maximum current is controlled by the maximum safe current, in this case 250 A,
so, the maximum torque Tmax is 34 N m.
• The critical motor speed, ωc , after which the torque falls according
to Equation (8.14), occurs when

• The gear system is very simple, and of low ratio, so we can assume a
good efficiency. A value of ηg of 0.98 is estimated. An effect of this
will be to reduce the torque, and so this factor will be applied to the
[Link] the torque is constant,we have from eq. 8.13

------(8.15)
• This equation holds until the torque begins to fall when ω = ωc = 103 rad
s−1, which corresponds to 103 × 0.21/2 = 10.8m s−1. After this point the
torque is governed by Equation (8.14). If we substitute this, and the other
constants, into equation (8.12) we obtain

---(8.16)

There are many practical and simple ways of solving these differential
equations. Many modern calculators will solve such equations, remembering
that there is a simple initial condition that v = 0 when t = 0. However, the
most versatile next step is to derive a simple numerical solution, which can
then easily be used in Excel or MATLAB®. The derivative of v is simply the
difference between consecutive values of v divided by the time step.
• Applying this to Equation (8.15) gives us

• For a program such as Excel or MATLAB® we need to rearrange this

equation to obtain the value of the next velocity from the current
velocity. This is done as follows:

• This equation holds for velocities up to the critical velocity of 10.8

m s−1, after which we have to use Equation (8.16), approximated
in exactly the same way as we have just done for Equation (8.15),
which gives
MATLAB® script file
A graph showing the acceleration of a
design of electric scooter,
Distance/time graph for an electric scooter, showing
the time to cover 10 and 100 m
from a standing start
• While we are not claiming that our model exactly
represents any particular commercial designs, it is worth
noting the following points from the specification of the
Peugeot Scoot’Elec performance specification:
– Maximum speed: 45 kph (28 mph)
– 10 m from standing start time: 3.2 seconds
– 100 m from standing start time: 12 seconds.
• It is very clear, from previouse plots, that the performance of
our simulated vehicle is remarkably similar
 Modelling Electric Vehicle Range
Driving Cycles:
• It is well known that the range of electric
vehicles is a major problem. In the main this is
because it is so hard to store electrical energy
efficiently.
• In any case, this problem is certainly a critical
issue in the design of any electric vehicle.
There are two types of calculation or test that
can be performed with regard to the range of
a vehicle.
• The first, and much the simplest, is the constant
velocity simulation. Of course no vehicle is really
driven at constant velocity, especially not on level
ground, and in still air, which are almost universal
further simplifications for these tests.
• However, at least the rules for the test are clear
and unambiguous, even if the simulation is
unrealistic. It can be argued that they do at least
give useful comparative figures.
• The second type of test – more useful and complex – is
where the vehicle is driven, in reality or in simulation,
through a profile of ever-changing speeds.
• These test cycles have been developed with some care,
and there are (unfortunately) a large number of them.
The cycles are intended to correspond to realistic
driving patterns in different conditions.
• During these tests the vehicle speed is almost
constantly changing, and thus the performance of all
the other parts of the system is also highly variable,
which makes the computations more complex.
However, modern computer programs make even
these more complex situations reasonably
straightforward.
• These driving cycles (or schedules) have primarily been
developed in order to provide a realistic and practical test for
the emissions of vehicles. One of the most well known of the
early cycles was one based on actual traffic flows in Los
Angeles, and is known as the LA-4 cycle. This was then
developed into the Federal Urban Driving Schedule, or FUDS.
• This is a cycle lasting 1500 seconds, and for each second there
is a different speed, as shown in Figure 8.7. There is also a
simplified version of this cycle known as SFUDS, shown in
Figure 8.8, which has the advantage that it only lasts 360
seconds, and so has only 360 data points.
• This has the same average speed, the same proportion of time
stationary, the same maximum acceleration and braking, and
gives very similar results when used for simulating vehicle
range.
Figure 8.7 The Federal Urban Driving Schedule, as used for emission testing by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Figure 8.8 Graph of speed against time for the Simplified Federal Urban
Driving Schedule
• These cycles simulate urban driving, but other
cycles are used to simulate out-of-town or
highway driving.
• Two notable examples of these are the Federal
Highway Driving Schedule, or FHDS, shown in
Figure 8.9. Although widely used, this cycle
has a rather unrealistic maximum speed for
highway driving, and the newer US06 standard,
is now becoming more widely used instead.
Graph of speed against time for the 765 second Federal Highway
Driving Schedule
 Range Modelling of Battery Electric
Vehicles
• The energy flows in a classical battery electric vehicle are shown in
Figure in next slide. To predict the range, the energy required to
move the vehicle for each second of the driving cycle is calculated,
and the effects of this energy drain are calculated. The process is
repeated until the battery is flat. It is important to remember that
if we use time intervals of 1 second, then the power and the
energy consumed are equal.
• The starting point in these calculations is to find the tractive effort,
which is found from Equation Fte = Frr + Fad + Fhc + Fla + Fωa.
The power is equal to the tractive effort multiplied by the velocity.
• Using the various efficiencies in the energy flow diagram, the
energy required to move the vehicle for 1 second is calculated.
Energy flows in the ‘classic’ battery-powered electric
vehicle, which has regenerative braking
• The energy required to move the vehicle for 1
second is the same as the power, so
Energy required each second = Pte = Fte × v ------(8.23)
• To find the energy taken from the battery to
provide this energy at the road we clearly need
to be able to find the various efficiencies at all
operating points.
• Equations that do this have been developed in
the previous chapters, but we will review here
the most important system modelling equations.
 Modelling Equations
• The efficiency of the gear system ηg is normally assumed to be
constant, as in electric vehicles there is usually only one gear. The
efficiency is normally high, as the gear system will be very simple.
• The efficiencies of the motor and its controller are usually considered
together, as it is more convenient to measure the efficiency of the
whole system. The motor efficiency varies considerably with power,
torque and also motor size. The efficiency is quite well modelled by
the equation

• where kc is the copper losses coefficient, ki is the iron losses

coefficient, kw is the windage loss coefficient and C represents the
constant losses that apply at any speed.
• The inefficiencies of the motor, the controller and the gear system
mean that the motor’s power is not the same as the traction power,
and the electrical power required by the motoris greater than the
mechanical output power according to the simple equations

• These Equations are correct in the case where the vehicle is being
driven. However, if the motor is being used to slow the vehicle, then
the efficiency (or rather the inefficiency) works in the opposite
sense. In other words, the electrical power from the motor is
reduced, and we must use these equations:
• So, These Equations are used to give us the electrical and
mechanical power to (or from) the motor. However, we also need
to consider the other electrical systems of the vehicle, the lights,
indicators, accessories such as the radio, and so on. An average
power will need to be found or estimated for these, and added to
the motor power, to give the total power required from the battery.
Note that when braking, the motor power will be negative, and so
this will reduce the magnitude of the power:
Using MATLAB® or Excel to Simulate an
Electric Vehicle
• To see how far a vehicle can go before the battery is flat, we do this in a step-by-step
process through the driving cycle. The way this is done is represented by the
flowchart shown in Figure next slide.
• The first stage is to load the velocity data for the driving cycle to be used.
• The next stage is to set up the vehicle parameters such as the mass, the battery size
and type, and so on. The electrical power taken by the accessories Pac should be set
at this point.
 Stepwise Process
• Load velocity data for driving cycle.
• Define vehicle parameters: mass, battery type/size,
accessory power Pac
• ​Create end-of-cycle arrays (charge removed, DOD,
distance).
• Create per-cycle arrays (torque, power, current,
etc.).
• Run driving cycle step-by-step (1-second intervals).
A graph of depth of discharge against distance travelled for a simulated GM EV1
electric car on the SFUDS driving cycle. In one case the conditions are benign: no
lights, heating or air-conditioning are in use. In the other case the battery is
degraded slightly by cold weather, and all the vehicle’s headlights are on