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Epigraphy- An Introduction
Welcome to the session Epigraphy- An Introduction
Developing a system of communication other than speech was man’s greatest need and this need
contributed to the origin of inscriptions or the art of writing. Various forms of picture writing were
used in different parts of the world for long to record the happenings before the scripts were
devised.
The ancient cave dwellers used complex drawings and paintings to make records of their lives on
the walls of their caves. Hieroglyphs, invented by the ancient Egyptians, were an example for such
pictographic writing.
Man’s interest in past cultures and epochs is an essential part of modernity. By the beginning of the
modern period, the systematizing, preserving, classifying, and studying of the inscriptions of the past
became a concern of the historians. The branch of knowledge that studies the ancient inscriptions is
known as Epigraphy.
The word, epigraphy is derived from two Greek words: Epi meaning ‘on or upon’ and Graphie
meaning ‘to write.’ Thus, epigraphy stands for the study of inscriptions or rather old inscriptions
A person who exploits the methods of epigraphy is called an epigraphist or epigrapher. Epigraphists
are responsible for reconstructing, translating and dating inscriptions and finding the relevant
circumstances under which such were inscribed.
It is the work of the historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the
inscription as an historical document.
History
The history of epigraphy as a branch of study dates back to 16th century and it has been developing
steadily ever since
Epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius (1516–1571); August Wilhelm Zumpt (1815–1877); Theodor
Mommsen (1817–1903); Emil Hübner (1834–1901); Franz Cumont (1868–1947); Louis Robert (1904–
1985) made pioneering and very vital contributions to the study of ephigraphy.
The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars and published in Berlin
from 1863 onwards, is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions.
New lists of ancient inscriptions from Rome are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions
continues. Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered
inscriptions are published to decode the old cultures systematically.
The first Inscriptionum Graecarum, of which four volumes came out, in Berlin, between 1825 and
1877, marked the first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all
over the Greek-speaking world.
The second modern corpus is Inscriptiones Graecae, arranged geographically under categories:
decrees, catalogues, honorary titles, funeral inscriptions etc., all presented in Latin, to preserve the
international neutrality of the field of Classics.
Other such series include the Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum ( the Etruscan inscriptions), Corpus
Inscriptionum Crucesignatorum Terrae Sanctae (Crusaders' inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum
Insularum Celticarum, (Celtic inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum (Iranian inscriptions)
and so forth.
Egyptian hieroglyphs were deciphered through the study of the Rosetta Stone, which is a
multilingual stele in Classical Greek, Demotic Egyptian and Classical Egyptian hieroglyphs. The work
was done by the French scholar, Jean-François Champollion, and the British scientist Thomas Young.
The clues to Maya hieroglyphs have been lost as a result of the Spanish Conquest of Central
America. Recent works by Maya archaeologists and art historians have yielded some information on
this complex language.
Characteristics
Though engraving is the main characteristic of an epigraph, old writings in ink, or on rocks, boulders,
or in caves, are also considered as epigraphs. Inscriptions were also prepared by embossing the
letters on slabs or tablets.
In short, an epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme (such as marks on a pot that
abbreviate the name of the merchant who shipped commodities in the pot) to a lengthy document
(such as a treaty, a work of literature, or a hagiographic prescription).
Epigraphy overlaps other related branches of knowledge such as Numismatics or Paleography.
Most inscriptions are short, compared to books. The media and the forms of the graphemes vary:
engravings in stone or metal, scratches on rock, impressions in wax, embossing on cast metal, cameo
or intaglio on precious stones, painting on ceramic or fresco.
Typically, the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, such as
the baking of a clay tablet in a conflagration.
Epigraphy demands a two-fold qualification: the ability to decipher the script and the ability to
interpret the language and and contents of the epigraph. Thus, it is closely related to the field of
Palaeography and Linguistics.
In the study of Indian epigraphy, paleography plays an important role since it is concerned with the
decipherment of inscriptions without reference to the contents of the record. While epigraphist
deals with old inscriptions, a paleographer is interested in decoding inscriptions.
Manuscripts, though old, are not included in the field of epigraphy. However, manuscripts on palm-
leaves, birch-bark, paper, and excavated materials are taken into consideration by epigraphists.
Why Epigraphy-the study of inscriptions?
The value of old inscriptions as historical material is so great to the contemporary world and hence
the study of such inscriptions.
Epigraphy holds great of importance for the modern world in the study of past civilizations, their
origins and development. Inscriptions shed light on the history and organization of the most
powerful empires of the ancient civilizations.
Epigraphy is a substantial and ever-growing resource for archaeologists and historians. Inscriptions
provide valuable confirmation and amplification of our often meager and selective literary sources.
They can provide details of events of the past empires, or can point towards the activities of officials
otherwise completely unknown. They are major sources of information, which help us to reconstruct
administrative hierarchies and family relationships and thereby illuminate the ancient societies.
Inscriptions cover a wide socio-economic spectrum of the community, bringing before us a vast
number of people of the ancient civilizations, their activities, and their rituals. Inscriptions and the
evidences they create are useful in reconstructing the story of the provinces of past empires and
civilizations.
Many inscriptions are found around the world, some important inscriptions being the Indian
inscriptions, the Roman inscriptions, the Greek inscriptions etc. These inscriptions are the texts
inscribed on a variety of materials.
The importance of inscriptions lies in the fact that they generally offer information about personages
and events of history, about which nothing is known from any other source. Apart from being vital
political documents, inscriptions are endowed with great cultural significance as well.
Perhaps, there is no aspect of life which is not touched upon in inscriptions. For example, had
Epigraphists not laid hands on the Allahabad Prasasti of Samudra Gupta (4th century AD), we would
not have known the political conditions prevalent at that time.
This inscription gives an exhaustive account of the political career of Samudra Gupta and the
kingdoms conquered by him in central and peninsular India.
Inscriptions also give glimpses of the social conditions of the ages to which they belong. One of the
Vijayanagara inscriptions tells us that the emperor settled the disputes between a Vaishnava Jeer
and a Jaina teacher by making them agree to be friends and raise no points of dispute.
Another Vijayanagara inscription gives a graphical account of how the learned scholars in all
branches of sacred studies assembled and signed a document which forbade Kanyasukla and
Varadakshina in any marriage arrangement and threatened punishment by the king and social
exclusion from the community for parties receiving either.
Special privileges like the bride and bridegroom riding the horse in procession being allowed by the
royal command is also gathered from inscriptions.
Inscriptions also throw light on other social customs. For instance, the Brahmadesam inscription
refers to the sati committed by a queen of Rajendra Chola I.
Inscriptions are also useful in understanding the economic life of the past. Agriculture was the
primary occupation as revealed by many records. Our forefathers bestowed great care and attention
to the system of irrigation.
The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman s tates that the lake Sudarsana was constructed during the
reign of Chandragupta Maurya and its conduits were set up during the time of Asoka.
Later on, it was repaired, first during the reign of Rudradaman (2nd century A.D.) and subsequently
in the Gupta period, during the reign of Chandragupta II (4th century A.D.) as known from their
inscriptions.
Inscriptions of post-Mauryan period contain terms like sreshthi, sarthavaha and vanija, all denoting
traders. Some inscriptions from the south of India tell us that Aiyyavole- ainnuttuvar and Disai-
ayirattu ainnuttuvar were the famous mercantile guilds which carried on trade with other countries.
Inscriptions also throw light on the weights and measures used in the ancient and medieval periods.
Different stones such as videlvidugu, pandarakkal etc., were in use. Chola inscriptions refer to
several taxes such as irai, kadamai, echchoru, vetti, etc., collected from the cultivators.
There are many inscriptions which contain the religious conditions that prevailed through the ages.
For instance, the Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription of Heliodoras (113 B.C.) bears witness to the
strong Vaishnavite movement i.e., the Bhagavata cult in north India and its adoption by a foreigner.
The Indore copper-plate inscription of Skanda Gupta, dated in 464 or 465 A.D, is an inscription
referring to Sun worship. It adores the Sun God under the name Bhaskara, who is described as being
worshipped ritualistically by the enlightened Brahmanas, and as the protector of mankind from
mental and physical ailments.
The Mandasor inscription records the repairs carried out in the year 473-74 A.D. by the guild of silk-
weavers to the temple of the Sun God (Dipta-rasmi).
Some very important inscriptions throw light on administration. A unique inscription of Parantaka I
from Uttiramerur dated in his 12th regnal year (919 A.D.) contains a detailed account of the rules
and regulations for the election to the village assemblies at Uttarameru-chaturvedimangalam.
Two very early records—one from Mahasthan (Bogra district, Bangladesh) and the other from
Sohagaura (Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh)—both assigned to 3rd century B.C., speak of the
measures taken to deal with occasions of distress among the people.
The Mahasthan inscription refers to situations such as the outbreak of floods, fire and drought and
states that on such occasions, cash as well as surplus grains stored in the granary were distributed to
the people.
Some inscriptions have references to education and learning. For instance, Tirumukkudal
inscription of Virarajendra refers to a Vedic college, the subjects studied therein, the names of
teachers and their remuneration.
So also, the Ennayiram inscription of Rajendra I gives a detailed list of the subjects taught, teachers'
qualifications and allowances received by them.
There are some inscriptions which inform about the prevalence of the tradition of dance and music.
Perhaps the earliest reference to a dancer is found from an inscription from Jogimara cave of the 3rd
century B.C.
It mentions one Sutunuka, the temple-dancer (devadasi) and her lover Devadatta, a sculptor from
Varanasi. Kudimiyanmalai inscription in Tamil Nadu is one of the earliest inscriptions on music.
The inscription is in characters of about the 7th century A.D. i.e., about six centuries before
Sarangadeva, the author of the Samgitaratnakara. It records the musical notes as understood and
practised during the time of the Pallavas.
The high state of development which the art of music had reached in 11th century A.D. can be
gathered from an inscription of Chalukya king Vikramaditya from Galaganath, in Karnataka, which
mentions a certain Mokhari Barmmayya, a musician of high order, entitled Battisaraga-bahu-kala-
Brahma (skilled in thirty-two ragas).
Inscriptions also have high literary value. As early as the 1st century A.D., elements of Sanskrit
poetry start appearing in the north Indian inscriptions. Thus we come across some ornate metres in
the inscriptions of the time of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula's son Sodasa.
In the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman, dated 150 A.D., we have a clear evidence of the
development of the ornate style of Sanskrit prose. The Allahabad prasasti clearly proves that the
Sanskrit kavya style was fully developed by the middle of the 4th century A.D. Talagunda inscription
of Kadamba Santivarman is another inscription endowed with poetic merit.
It is noteworthy that some inscriptions reflect the ethos and mores of the period under which they
were written. An inscription from Heragu in Hassan District, Karnataka, belonging to the Hoysala
dynasty (1217 A.D.) gives the names of some members of a Kashmiri family which had migrated to
that village in Karnataka from Bhadrahu in Gula-vishaya, a sub-division of Krama-rajya in Kasmira-
rashtra.
It is interesting to note that this migrant Kashmiri family contracted marriage alliances with the local
families. A large number of inscriptions are found in Southeast Asian countries, which are very much
akin to Indian epigraphs in respect of their language and script.
One of the Yupa inscriptions of Mulavarman from Kutei, Borneo refers to the setting up of a Yupa at
Vaprakesvara by the Brahmanas and also refers to gifts made by the king. This inscription amply
proves that the Indian traditions and customs were prevalent in far flung areas as well.
Let us see what we have discussed so far.
In this unit, we learnt the history of epigraphy, how it became a science of inscriptions and a
valuable historical tool to understand the ancient civilizations and empires.
Inscriptions are found in different parts of the world. Epigraphy as tool to decode past culture has
helped historians to understand different aspects of culture, trade, administration, literature, art,
economy and many more in detail.
A person who exploits the methods of epigraphy is known as epigraphist or epigrapher or, and is
responsible for reconstructing, translating and dating inscription and finding any relevant
circumstances
Studying the inscriptions or engravings on rocks, metals, or such objects an epigraph can give an
evaluation of ancient cultures to which the engraving belongs. It helps historians of the present day
to understand and evaluate the process called evolution of civilizations, of formation of cities etc.