8

P1 Vectors
8
Vectors

We drove into the future looking into a rear view mirror.

Herbert Marshall McLuhan

●
? What information do you need
to decide how close the aircraft
which left these vapour trails
passed to each other?

A quantity which has both size and direction is called a vector. The velocity of an
aircraft through the sky is an example of a vector, having size (e.g. 600 mph) and
direction (on a course of 254°). By contrast the mass of the aircraft (100 tonnes)
is completely described by its size and no direction is associated with it; such a
quantity is called a scalar.
Vectors are used extensively in mechanics to represent quantities such as force,
velocity and momentum, and in geometry to represent displacements. They
are an essential tool in three-dimensional co-ordinate geometry and it is this
application of vectors which is the subject of this chapter. However, before
coming on to this, you need to be familiar with the associated vocabulary and
notation, in two and three dimensions.

Vectors in two dimensions

Terminology
In two dimensions, it is common to represent a vector by a drawing of a straight
line with an arrowhead. The length represents the size, or magnitude, of the
vector and the direction is indicated by the line and the arrowhead. Direction is
usually given as the angle the vector makes with the positive x axis, with the
anticlockwise direction taken to be positive.
The vector in figure 8.1 has magnitude 5,
direction +30°. This is written (5, 30°) and 5
said to be in magnitude−direction form or +
in polar form. The general form of a vector 30°
written in this way is (r, θ) where r is its
254 Figure 8.1
magnitude and θ its direction.
 Note

In the special case when the vector is representing real travel, as in the case of
P1
the velocity of an aircraft, the direction may be described by a compass bearing 8
with the angle measured from north, clockwise. However, this is not done in this

Vectors in two dimensions

chapter, where directions are all taken to be measured anticlockwise from the
positive x direction.

An alternative way of describing a vector is in terms of components in given

directions. The vector in figure 8.2 is 4 units in the x direction, and 2 in the
y direction, and this is denoted by  4  .
 2

))
4
2
or 4i + 2j

Figure 8.2

This may also be written as 4i + 2j, where i is a vector of magnitude 1, a unit

vector, in the x direction and j is a unit vector in the y direction (figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3

In a book, a vector may be printed in bold, for example p or OP, or as a line

→
between two points with an arrow above it to indicate its direction, such as OP.
When you write a vector by hand, it is usual to underline it, for example, p or OP,
→
or to put an arrow above it, as in OP.

To convert a vector from component form to magnitude−direction form, or vice

versa, is just a matter of applying trigonometry to a right-angled triangle.

ExamPlE 8.1 Write the vector a = 4i + 2j in magnitude−direction form.

SOlUTION

a
2

θ
4

Figure 8.4 255

 The magnitude of a is given by the length a in figure 8.4.
P1
a = 42 + 22 (using Pythagoras’ theorem)
8 = 4.47 (to 3 significant figures)
Vectors

The direction is given by the angle θ.

2
tan θ = 4
= 0.5

θ = 26.6° (to 3 significant figures)

The vector a is (4.47, 26.6°).

The magnitude of a vector is also called its modulus and denoted by the symbols
| | . In the example a = 4i + 2j, the modulus of a, written | a |, is 4.47. Another
convention for writing the magnitude of a vector is to use the same letter, but in
italics and not bold type; thus the magnitude of a may be written a.

ExamPlE 8.2 Write the vector (5, 60°) in component form.

SOlUTION P

In the right-angled triangle OPX

5
OX = 5 cos 60° = 2.5

XP = 5 sin 60° = 4.33 j

60°
(to 2 decimal places) O
i X
→  2.5 
OP is  or 2.5i + 4.33j. Figure 8.5
 4.33

This technique can be written as a general rule, for all values of θ.

 r cos θ 
(r, θ) →  = (r cos θ)i + (r sin θ)j
 r sin θ 

ExamPlE 8.3 Write the vector (10, 290°) in component form.

SOlUTION
290°
In this case r = 10 and θ = 290°.
10
 10 cos 290°  3.42
(10, 290°) →  = to 2 decimal places.
 10 sin 290°   –9.40

This may also be written 3.42i − 9.40j.

Figure 8.6

256
 In Example 8.3 the signs looked after themselves. The component in the i
direction came out positive, that in the j direction negative, as must be the case for P1
a direction in the fourth quadrant (270° < θ < 360°). This will always be the case
when the conversion is from magnitude−direction form into component form. 8

Vectors in two dimensions

The situation is not quite so straightforward when the conversion is carried out
the other way, from component form to magnitude−direction form. In that case,
it is best to draw a diagram and use it to see the approximate size of the angle
required. This is shown in the next example.

ExamPlE 8.4 Write −5i + 4j in magnitude−direction form.

SOlUTION

4j r
length 4

α θ
–5i O i
length 5

Figure 8.7

In this case, the magnitude r = 52 + 42

= 41
= 6.40 (to 2 decimal places).

The direction is given by the angle θ in figure 8.7, but first find the angle α.
4
tan α = 5 ⇒ α = 38.7° (to nearest 0.1°)

so θ = 180 − α = 141.3°

The vector is (6.40, 141.3°) in magnitude−direction form.

257
 Vectors in three dimensions
P1
8
Vectors

Points

In three dimensions, a point has three co-ordinates, usually called x, y and z.

z This point is
(3, 4, 1).
2

1
–1

–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 y
1
P
2
–1
3
x

Figure 8.8

The axes are conventionally arranged as shown in figure 8.8, where the point P is
(3, 4, 1). Even on correctly drawn three-dimensional grids, it is often hard to see
the relationship between the points, lines and planes, so it is seldom worth your
while trying to plot points accurately.

The unit vectors i, j and k are used to describe vectors in three dimensions.
258
Equal vectors

The statement that two vectors a and b are equal means two things.
P1
●● The direction of a is the same as the direction of b. 8

Vectors in three dimensions

●● The magnitude of a is the same as the magnitude of b.

If the vectors are given in component form, each component of a equals the
corresponding component of b.

Position vectors

Saying the vector a is given by 3i + 4j + k tells you the components of the vector,
or equivalently its magnitude and direction. It does not tell you where the vector
is situated; indeed it could be anywhere.

All of the lines in figure 8.9 represent the vector a.

a
a
a
a

i j

Figure 8.9

There is, however, one special case which is an exception to the rule, that of a
vector which starts at the origin. This is called a position vector. Thus the line
 3
joining the origin to the point P(3, 4, 1) is the position vector  4  or 3i + 4j + k.
 1 
Another way of expressing this is to say that the point P(3, 4, 1) has the position
 3
vector  4  .
 1 

259
 ExamPlE 8.5 Points L, M and N have co-ordinates (4, 3), (−2, −1) and (2, 2).
P1 (i) Write down, in component form, the position vector of L and the vector MN.
→

8 (ii) What do your answers to part (i) tell you about the lines OL and MN?
Vectors

SOlUTION
→
The position vector of L is OL =   .
4
(i)
 3
→
The vector MN is also  4  (see figure 8.10).
 3

→ →
(ii) Since OL = MN, lines OL and MN are parallel and equal in length.

L
3

N
2

–2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x

M –1

Figure 8.10

Note
A line joining two points, like MN in figure 8.10, is often called a line segment,
meaning that it is just that particular part of the infinite straight line that passes
through those two points.

→
The vector MN is an example of a displacement vector. Its length represents the
magnitude of the displacement when you move from M to N.

The length of a vector

In two dimensions, the use of Pythagoras’ theorem leads to the result that a
vector a1i + a2j has length | a | given by

| a | = a 12 + a 22.

260
 ● Show that the length of the three-dimensional vector a1i + a2j + a3k is given by P1
| a | = a21 + a 22 + a 32. 8

Exercise 8a
 2
ExamPlE 8.6 Find the magnitude of the vector a =  −5 .
 3
SOlUTION

|a| = 22 + (−5)2 + 32
= 4 + 25 + 9
= 38
= 6.16 (to 2 d.p.)

ExERCISE 8a 1 Express the following vectors in component form.

(i) y (ii) y

3 3
a
2 2
b
1 1

–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1 –1
–2 –2

(iii) y (iv) y

3 3
c
2 2 d
1 1
0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1 2 3 4 x

2 Draw diagrams to show these vectors and then write them in magnitude−
direction form.
(i) 2i + 3j (ii) 
3  –4 
(iii) 
 –2   –4 
(iv) −i + 2j (v) 3i − 4j
3 Find the magnitude of these vectors.
 1  4
(i)  –2 (ii)  0 (iii) 2i + 4j + 2k
 3  −2

 6
261
(iv) i + j − 3k (v)  –2 (vi) i − 2k
 −3
 4 Write, in component form, the vectors represented by the line segments
P1 joining the following points.

8 (i) (2, 3) to (4, 1) (ii) (4, 0) to (6, 0)

(iii) (0, 0) to (0, −4) (iv) (0, −4) to (0, 0)
Vectors

(v) (0, 0, 0) to (0, 0, 5) (vi) (0, 0, 0) to (−1, −2, 3)

(vii) (−1, −2 , 3) to (0, 0, 0) (viii) (0, 2, 0) to (4, 0, 4)
(ix) (1, 2, 3) to (3, 2, 1) (x) (4, −5, 0) to (−4, 5, 1)
5 The points A, B and C have co-ordinates (2, 3), (0, 4) and (−2, 1).
(i) Write down the position vectors of A and C.
(ii) Write down the vectors of the line segments joining AB and CB.
(iii) What do your answers to parts (i) and (ii) tell you about
(a) AB and OC
(b) CB and OA?
(iv) Describe the quadrilateral OABC.

Vector calculations
multiplying a vector by a scalar

When a vector is multiplied by a number (a scalar) its length is altered but its
direction remains the same.

The vector 2a in figure 8.11 is twice as long as the vector a but in the same
direction.

a 2a

Figure 8.11

When the vector is in component form, each component is multiplied by the

number. For example:

2 × (3i − 5j + k) = 6i − 10j + 2k
 3  6
2 ×  –5 =  –10 .
 1  2

The negative of a vector

In figure 8.12 the vector −a has the same length as the vector a but the opposite
direction.
262
 a –a
P1
8

Vector calculations
Figure 8.12

When a is given in component form, the components of −a are the same as those
for a but with their signs reversed. So
 23  –23
–  0 =  0
 –11  +11

adding vectors

When vectors are given in component form, they can be added component by
component. This process can be seen geometrically by drawing them on graph
paper, as in the example below.

ExamPlE 8.7 Add the vectors 2i − 3j and 3i + 5j.

SOlUTION

2i − 3j + 3i + 5j = 5i + 2j

5i + 2j

2i 3i + 5j
5j

–3j
2i – 3j

3i

Figure 8.13

The sum of two (or more) vectors is called the resultant and is usually indicated
by being marked with two arrowheads. 263
 Adding vectors is like adding the legs of a journey to find its overall outcome (see
P1 figure 8.14).

8 resultant
Vectors

leg 1
leg 3

leg 2

Figure 8.14

When vectors are given in magnitude−direction form, you can find their
resultant by making a scale drawing, as in figure 8.14. If, however, you need
to calculate their resultant, it is usually easiest to convert the vectors into
component form, add component by component, and then convert the answer
back to magnitude−direction form.

Subtracting vectors

Subtracting one vector from another is the same as adding the negative of the
vector.

ExamPlE 8.8 Two vectors a and b are given by

a = 2i + 3j b = −i + 2j.

(i) Find a − b.
(ii) Draw diagrams showing a, b, a − b.

SOlUTION

(i) a − b = (2i + 3j) − (−i + 2j)

= 3i + j

(ii)

b –b

a
a

j
a + (–b) = a – b
i

264 Figure 8.15

 When you find the vector
P1
y
represented by the line segment
6
joining two points, you are in
effect subtracting their position Q(3, 5) 8
5
vectors. If, for example,

Vector calculations
P is the point (2, 1) and Q is the 4

→ 1 
point (3, 5), PQ is   , as
 4 3 ))
1
4
figure 8.16 shows.
2
You find this by saying

→ 
→ 
→
PQ = PO + OQ = −p + q. 1
P(2, 1)
In this case, this gives
0 x

→ 1 2 3 4 5
 2  3  1 
PQ = –   +   =  
 1   5  4  Figure 8.16
as expected.

This is an important result:


→
PQ = q − p

where p and q are the position vectors of P and Q.

Geometrical figures
It is often useful to be able to express lines in a geometrical figure in terms of
given vectors.

aCTIVITY 8.1 The diagram shows a cuboid OABCDEFG. P, Q, R, S and T are the mid-points of
the edges they lie on. The origin is at O and the axes lie along OA, OC and OD, as
shown in figure 8.17.

→   →    →  

6 0 0
OA =  0 , OC =  5  , OD =  0 
 0  0  4 

G S F

T R

D
E

z C B
y
Q

O x P A

Figure 8.17 265

 (i) Name the points with the following co-ordinates.
P1 (a) (6, 5, 4) (b) (0, 5, 0) (c) (6, 2.5, 0)
8 (d) (0, 2.5, 4) (e) (3, 5, 4)

(ii) Use the letters in the diagram to give displacements which are equal to the
Vectors

following vectors. Give all possible answers; some of them have more than one.
 6  6  0  −6  −3 
(a)  5 (b)  0 (c)  5 (d)  −5 (e)  2.5
 4   4   4   4   4 

ExamPlE 8.9 Figure 8.18 shows a hexagonal prism.

G H
r
B
C
q
p I

A
D

F E

Figure 8.18


→ 
→
The hexagonal cross-section is regular and consequently A D = 2BC.

→ 
→ 
→
AB = p, BC = q and BG = r. Express the following in terms of p, q and r.

→ 
→ 
→ →
(i) AC (ii) AD (iii) HI (iv) IJ

→ 
→ → →
(v) EF (vi) BE (vii) AH (viii) FI

SOlUTION q
B

→ 
→ 
→ C
(i) AC = AB + BC
=p+q p
p+q

→ 
→
(ii) AD = 2BC = 2q A

→ 
→
(iii) H I = CD

→ 
→ 
→ C
Since AC + C D = AD

→ p+q
p + q + C D = 2q

→
CD = q − p

→
266 So HI = q − p A D
2q
 → 
→
I J = DE
(iv)

→ B C
P1
= −AB
= −p 8

→ 
→

Vector calculations
(v) E F = −BC
D
= −q

→ 
→ 
→ 
→
(vi) BE = BC + C D + DE
= q + (q − p) + −p
= 2q − 2p E


→ 
→ Figure 8.19
Notice that BE = 2C D.
→ 
→ 
→ → →  →
(vii) AH = AB + BC + CH CH = B G
=p+q+r
→ 
→ → → →  → →  →→  →
(viii) F I = FE + E J + J I F E = B C, E J = B G, J I = AB
=q+r+p

Unit vectors

A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude of 1, like i and j. To find the unit
vector in the same direction as a given vector, divide that vector by its magnitude.

Thus the vector 3i + 5j (in figure 8.20) has magnitude 32 + 52 = 34, and so
3 5
the vector i+ j is a unit vector. It has magnitude 1.
34 34
The unit vector in the direction of vector a is written as â and read as ‘a hat’.

5j

4j

3j
3i + 5j This is the unit vector
3 i+ 5 j
2j 34 34

O i 2i 3i 4i x

Figure 8.20

267
 ExamPlE 8.10 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points A, B and C are given by
P1 −2  −2
→    →  

0 →
8 OA =  3 , OB =  1 and OC =
 −2  −3
 3 .
 1

→
Vectors

(i) Find the unit vector in the direction AB.

(ii) Find the perimeter of triangle ABC.

SOlUTION

→ 
→ 
→
For convenience call OA = a, OB = b and OC = c.

→  0  −2  2
(i) AB = b − a =  1 −  3 =  −2
 −3  −2  −1

→ 
→
To find the unit vector in the direction AB, you need to divide AB by its
magnitude.
| A→B | = 22 + (−2)2 + (−1)2
= 9 This is the

→
=3 magnitude of A B.

 2
→ 1
 2
 2
3
So the unit vector in the direction AB is 3  −2 =  − 3 
 −1  1 
 − 3

→ 
→ 
→
(ii) The perimeter of the triangle is given by | AB | + | AC | + | B C |.


→  −2  −2  0
AC = c − a =  3 −  3 =  0
 1  −2  3

→
⇒ | AC | = 02 + 02 + 32
=3

→  −2  0  −2
B C = c − b =  3 −  1 =  2
 1  −3  4 

→
⇒ | B C | = (−2)2 + 22 + 42
= 24

→ 
→ 
→
Perimeter of ABC = | AB | + | AC | + | B C |
= 3 + 3 + 24
= 10.9

268
 Simplify the following.
P1
ExERCISE 8B 1

 2  4   2  –1 
 3  +  5   –1  +  2
8
(i) (ii)

 3   –3   2  1
 4  +  –4  3  + 2  

Exercise 8B
(iii) (iv)
1   –2

(v) 6(3i − 2j) − 9(2i − j)

2 The vectors p, q and r are given by

p = 3i + 2j + k q = 2i + 2j + 2k r = −3i − j − 2k.
Find, in component form, the following vectors.
(i) p+q+r (ii) p−q (iii) p+r
(iv) 3(p − q) + 2(p + r) (v) 4p − 3q + 2r

→ 
→
3 In the diagram, PQRS is a parallelogram and P Q = a, PS = b.
(i) Write, in terms of a and b,
Q R
the following vectors.

→ 
→
(a) QR (b) PR

→ a
(c) QS
(ii) The mid-point of PR is M. Find

→ 
→
(a) PM (b) QM. P S
b
(iii) Explain why this shows you that the
diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

4 In the diagram, ABCD is a kite.

B
AC and BD meet at M.

→
AB = i + j and

→ A C
AD = i − 2j j M

(i) Use the facts that the diagonals

i
of a kite meet at right angles
and that M is the mid-point of
AC to find, in terms of i and j,
D

→ 
→
(a) AM (b) AC

→ 
→
(c) BC (d) CD.

→ 
→
(ii) Verify that | A B | = | B C | and
| A→D | = | C→D |.

269
 5 In the diagram, ABC is a triangle. A
P1 L, M and N are the mid-points of
the sides BC, CA and AB.
8 
→ 
→ N M
AB = p and AC = q
Vectors


→
(i) Find, in terms of p and q, B C,
→ → 
→
M N, L M and L N. B C
L

(ii) Explain how your results from part (i) show you that the sides of triangle
LMN are parallel to those of triangle ABC, and half their lengths.

6 Find unit vectors in the same directions as the following vectors.

 2 3i + 4j  –2 5i − 12j
(i)  3  (ii) (iii)  –2 (iv)

7 Find unit vectors in the same direction as the following vectors.

 1
(i)  2 (ii) 2i – 2j + k (iii) 3i – 4k
 3

 −2  4
(iv)  4 (v) 5i – 3j + 2k (vi)  0
 −3  0

8 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points A, B and C are

given by

→   
2 →  
−2 →  −1
OA =  1 , OB =  4  and OC =  2 .
 3  3  1

Find the perimeter of triangle ABC.

9 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points P and Q are given
→ →
by O P = 3i + j + 4k and OQ = i + xj − 2k.

Find the values of x for which the magnitude of PQ is 7.

10 Relative to an origin O, the position vectors of the points A and B are given by

→   →  

4 
3
OA =  1 and OB =  2  .
 −2  –4 

→ 
→
(i) Given that C is the point such that AC = 2AB, find the unit vector in the
 →
direction of OC.
→  

1
The position vector of the point D is given by OD =  4  , where k is a
 k 
→ → →
constant, and it is given that OD = mOA + nOB, where m and n are constants.
270 (ii) Find the values of m, n and k.
[Cambridge AS & A Level Mathematics 9709, Paper 1 Q9 June 2007]
The angle between two vectors
P1
8
● As you work through the proof in this section, make a list of all the results that
you are assuming.

The angle between two vectors

To find the angle θ between the y
B
two vectors (b1, b2)

→ A
OA = a = a1i + a2j
(a1, a2)
and
a

→ b
OB = b = b1i + b2j

start by applying the cosine rule to θ

triangle OAB in figure 8.21. O x

OA 2 +OB2 – AB2 Figure 8.21
cos θ =
2OA × OB

→ 
→ 
→
In this, OA, OB and AB are the lengths of the vectors OA, OB and AB, and so

OA = | a | = a 12 + a22 and OB = | b | = b 12 + b22 .


→
The vector AB = b − a = (b1i + b2j) − (a1i + a2j)
= (b1 − a1)i + (b2 − a2)j
and so its length is given by

AB = | b − a | = (b1 – a1)2 + (b2 – a2)2.

Substituting for OA, OB and AB in the cosine rule gives

(a12 + a 22) + (b 12 + b 22) – [(b1 – a1)2 + (b2 – a2)2]
cos θ =
2 a 12 + a 22 × b 12 + b 22
a12 + a 22 + b 12 + b 22 – (b 12 – 2a1b1 + a12 + b 22 – 2a2b2 + a 22 )
=
2a b
This simplifies to
2a1b1 + 2a2b2 a1b1 + a2b2
cos θ = =
2 a b a b
The expression on the top line, a1b1 + a2b2, is called the scalar product (or dot
product) of the vectors a and b and is written a . b. Thus

cos θ = a . b .
a b
This result is usually written in the form
271
a . b = | a | | b | cos θ.