DC NETWORKS UNIT-1 DC Networks

Syllabus:
Classification of elements – Active, passive, unilateral, bilateral, linear, nonlinear, lumped and distributed,
classification of voltage & current sources (independent & dependent type) , mesh and nodal analysis, Superposition
theorem , Thevenin‟s theorem (Only independent sources).

1.1 Classification of elements:

Active Elements
The elements which supply energy to the network are called active elements. The active elements may be
constant voltage source or constant current source. Batteries and d.c generators are normally used as voltage source
while most of the semiconductor devices like transistor etc. are treated as current sources. The voltage and current
sources are mutually transferable.

Figure 1.1 Active Elements

Passive Elements
The elements which receive energy from the network are called passive elements, such as resistor, inductor and
capacitor.

Unilateral Elements
A unilateral element is that whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of its operation .A diode
rectifier is a unilateral element, because it cannot perform rectification in both directions.

Bilateral Element
A bilateral element is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either direction. The usual transmission
line is bilateral; because it can be made to perform its function equally well in either direction.

Linear Element
A linear element is one whose parameters are constant with time also they do not change with voltage or current and
circuit obeys ohms law.

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 Figure 1.2 Linear and Non-linear characteristics

Non-linear Element
It is that element whose parameters change with voltage or current.

Lumped Element
A network in which all the network elements are physically separable is known as lumped network. Most of the
electric networks are lumped in nature.
Elements like R,L,C can be physically separable are known as lumped networks.

Figure 1.3 Lumped Elements in a circuit

Distributed Element
A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc. cannot be physically separable for analysis
purposes, is called distributed network. The best example of such a network is a transmission line where resistance,
inductance and capacitance of a transmission line are distributed all along its length and cannot be shown as separate
elements, anywhere in the circuit.

1.2 Classification of voltage & current Sources

Ideal voltage source

An ideal voltage source is defined as the voltage source which provides a constant terminal voltage across the load
for any variation of load current or load resistance .
Figure 1.4 (a) below shows the symbolic diagram of the ideal voltage source having a constant voltage with the
polarities as shown.

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 Figure 1.4 Ideal Voltage Source

Figure1.4 (b) shows the ideal voltage source of voltage supplying a load current through the load resistance
which is connected between the source terminal A and [Link] terminal voltage across the load is given by
ohm‟s law ie.

For any change in , the current changes such that the ideal voltage source maintains the constant voltage
across the terminals AB
.

Figure 1.4 (c) shows the characteristic of the ideal voltage source. It is seen that the load terminal voltage
is always constant at a value for any increase in the load current

Practical Voltage Source

In practice, it is not possible to get the ideal voltage source producing a strictly constant voltage across its terminals
while supplying the current.
Practically, any voltage source has its terminal load voltage which decreases with increase in the load
[Link] decrease in the terminal voltage is due to the voltage drop in the internal resistance of
the voltage source.
Thus a practical voltage source is characterized by a small internal resistance which is in series with the source
emf as shown in figure 1.5 (a)

Figure 1.5 Practical Voltage Source

Figure1.5 (b) shows the practical voltage source delivering the current to the load .The corresponding terminal
voltage is given by

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Thus due to the voltage drop Hence the terminal voltage decreases with increase in or decrease
in .
Figure 1.5 (c) shows the characteristic of the practical voltage source. The voltage falls linearly with the
increase in . Generally internal resistance is very small and hence the voltage drop on load is very
small.
In case of the ideal voltage source, the internal resistance is zero and hence there is no decrease in but it
remains constant on load.

Ideal Current Source

Figure 1.6 Ideal Current Sources

An ideal current source is defined as the current source which provides a constant current through the load for any
variation of load voltage or load resistance

Figure 1.6 (a) shows above the symbolic diagram of the ideal current source having a constant current with the
direction of the source current marked by the arrow inside the circle.
Figure 1.6 (b) shows the ideal current source of current supplying a load current through load resistance
which is connected between the source terminals A and [Link] corresponding load terminal voltage across the
load is given by
by Ohm‟s law
For any change in , the voltage changes such that the ideal current source maintains the constant current
through the load . ie.

Figure 1.6 (c) shows the characteristic of the ideal current [Link] is observed that the load current is
always constant at a value for any increase in the load voltage .

Practical Current Source

Practically it is impossible to visualize the ideal current source supplying a strictly constant current through the load
across terminals A and B.

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In practice, the current source delivers the load IL which decreases with increase in the load voltage V L. this decrease
in IL is due to the current carried by its internal resistance “ R SH” which is in parallel (shunt) with the source current
IS as shown in Figure 1.7 (a) below.

Figure 1.7 : Practical current Source

Figure 1.7 (b) above shows the practical current source delivering a current I L to the load RL. The corresponding
terminal voltage is VL such that,

Thus IL < Is due to the shunt current Ish in the shunt internal resistance RSH. i.e. IL decreases with increases in RL or
VL.
Figure 1.7(c) above shows the VL - IL characteristics of the practical current source. The load current I L falls linearly
with the increase in VL. Generally the internal resistance R sh is very large and hence the reduction Ish in the current

on load is very small ( )

In case of the ideal current source, the internal resistance Rsh and hence there is no decrease in IL but it remains
constant on load.

Independent Sources
The sources whose output characteristics are not dependent on any network variable such as voltage or current are
known as independent sources. However their output characteristics may be time-varying.
The independent sources are divided into two types
i) Independent voltage source
ii) Independent current source
1) Independent voltage source
An Independent voltage source is a two terminal network element that maintains a specified voltage ( fixed in
magnitude and polarity) across its terminals.

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The magnitude and polarity of this voltage at any instant is independent of the magnitude, polarity or direction of
some other voltage or current in the network connected across its terminals. The terminal voltage of such source
may be constant as shown by symbol in Figure 1.8 (a) below or it may be a time varying function as shown if Figure
1.8 (b) below.

Figure 1.8 Independent voltage source

2) Independent Current source

An independent current source is a two terminal network element that maintains and specified current (fixed in
magnitude and direction) through it.
The magnitude and direction of this source current at any instant is independent of the magnitude , polarity or
direction of some other voltage or current in the network connected across its terminals.
The source current of such source may be constant as shown by symbol in figure 1.8 (c) above or it may be a
function of time as shown by symbol of Figure 1.8 (d) above.
Dependent Sources
A dependent voltage and current source is one which depends on some other quantity in the circuit which may be
either voltage or current. These are four possible dependent sources:

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 Figure 1.9 Dependent Sources

1.3 Mesh Analysis

This is an alternative method of circuit analysis. Mesh analysis algorithm is given below and is explained through
the simple circuit of Figure1.10 below.

Figure 1.10

 Identity independent circuit meshes. There are two such meshes in the circuit of Figure above.
 Assign a circulating current to each mesh ( I1, I2 in Figure above).As each mesh current enters as well as
leaves the node, the mesh currents implicitly satisfies KCL. It is preferable to assign the same direction to
the mesh currents-usually clockwise.
 Write KVL equations for each mesh (as many as mesh currents). It is observed here that no circuit branch
can carry more than two mesh currents.
 It is assumed that all circuit sources are voltage sources. Practical current sources, if any, are first converted
to equivalent voltage sources.
Let us write KVL equation for the two meshes of Figure above
Mesh 1: ( ) ……………………………………(1)
Mesh 2: ( ) ……………………………….……(2)

These equations can be organized in the form below:

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Mesh 1: ( ) ………………………………….……(3)
Mesh 2: ( ) ……………………………… ..…(4)
Equations (3) and (4) can be generalized and written down by inspection.
Example1.1

Figure 1.11

For the circuit of Figure 1.11 above determine the value of resistance R such that i1 = 0.37A.
Solution
Mesh equations (applying KVL)
( )

( )
Or
( )

Eliminating i2,
Substituting i1 = 0.37A, we get
R = 15 Ω.
Example1.2 Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in Figure 1.12 below using loop analysis.

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 Figure 1.12

Solution: Since there are three loops, three independent loop equations are required to solve the network. Suppose
the directions of currents are as shown in Figure1.12 Writing equtions for the three loops
Loop I ( )
( ) …………………………………….(1)
Loop2 ( ) ( )
Or ………………………… ……(2)
Loop3 ( )
………………………… ………(3)
In matrix form the equations can be written as

[ ]

Hence det [A] =

= 3(50-4)+1(-5) = 133

| |
( )

From equation 1

or
or
and from equation (3)

Or

Answer
Example1.3 Determine the current , and and the voltage and in the given network of Figure 1.13

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 Figure 1.13
Solution:

Using KVL, we have

( ) Loop I
( ) ( ) Loop II
( ) Loop III
Rearranging the equations, we have
( )
( )
( )
These equations can be written in matrix form as follows:-
( )
[ ( ) ][ ] [ ]

R.I=V
Here R matrix is the loop resistance matrix and is found to be a symmetric matrix along its leading diagonal.
The above set of these equations

[ ][ ] [ ]

Using Cramer‟s rule

[[ ]]

[ ]

[[ ]]

Similarly

Similarly expression for can be written. On solution the approximate values of are found to be 40A,
10A and -10A. Here -10A in the third loop means the direction of current in the third loop should be opposite to
what has been assumed at the beginning of the solution.

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The voltage
( )

and
Example 1.4 : Determine the current in the battery, the current in each branch and the potential difference across AB
in the network shown (Figure 1.14)

Figure 1.14
Solution:
Using KVL, we have the equations in the matrix form.

* +[ ] * +

We can write as
……(1)

and
…………………..(2)

Therefore current through the battery 1.303 A.

Answer

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Example1.5

For the circuit of Figure 1.15 determine the voltage across 20 Ω resistance using mesh analysis.

Figure 1.15
Solution:-

Converting the practical current to a voltage source, we draw the circuit as in Figure1.15 Writing the two mesh
equations.

( ) ……….(1)

… .…………… ..(2).

( ) …… ..(3)

……. .(4)

Figure 1.16
Solving equations (ii) and (iv), we get

Voltage across 20 Ω resistance

( )

Example 1.6

Analyze the circuit of Figure 1.17 (a) by the mesh method. From the results, calculate the current in the 5 Ω
resistance.

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 Figure 1.17
Solution: - The practical current source of Figure 1.17(a) is first converted to voltage source as in Figure 1.17 (b)
Three meshes are immediately identified with associated currents , and KVL equations for the three meshes
are written as follows (directly in organized form)

Mesh 1 ( )

Or …………..(i)

Mesh 2 ( )

Or …………..(ii)

Mesh 3 ( )

Or … …..………..(iii)

Solving Eqs (i), (ii) and (iii)

Current through 5 Ω resistance

=0A

Resistances 6 Ω, 8 Ω, 9 Ω and 12 Ω form a bridge. When any resistance is connected across a balanced bridge, it
will not carry any current. Also observe,

Ω Ω
( )
Ω Ω

1.4 Nodal Analysis

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 This method is dual of the loop-current analysis. It is based on KCL and can be applied to any network. We write
KCL equations at all nodes except one, in such a way that current variables are never formally defined. This is
done by expressing the current in terms of “node voltages”. The procedure for node-voltage analysis consists of
following simple steps:-

1. Define a reference node (also called ground node or datum node). Often, the node with the most wires is
chosen as the reference node. Mark the reference node with r.
2. Count and label the independent nodes. Voltages on these nodes are referenced positive with respect to the
ground node.
3. Label the independent nodes.
4. Write KCL in a special form,

∑ ∑

The procedure is explained with the help of following example.

Example 1.7

Using node-voltage analysis, find the voltage across the 3Ω resistor in the circuit of Figure 1.18.

Figure 1.18

Solution:- The circuit has three nodes in this case, we choose the node at the bottom as reference node. We mark it
as r, as shown in Figure1.18(b), the remaining two nodes, labeled as a and b are the independent nodes, Let the
voltage of these nodes be respectively. We write KCL equations in terms of these node voltages. For node
a, the KCL equation is

( )
( ) …………..(1).

The left side of the above equation represents the current leaving node a in the two resistors connected directly to
node a. the right side represents the current entering from the 5A source. The current flowing through 2Ω resistor is
merely the voltage divided by the resistance between node a and reference node.

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We have written zero(0) for the voltage of the reference node as a reminder. The current from a to b through 3Ω
resistor is simply the voltage at a minus the voltage at b, divided by the resistance between a and b. similarly, we
can write KCL for node b.

( )…………..(2).

Note: The first term on the left side of the above equation (2) is just negative of the second term of Equation (1).
This is so because we are now expressing the current referenced in the opposite direction.
Note also that the current source term on the right side has a negative sign, because this current is leaving the node.
The above two equations can be solved, by using calculator, to get
………..(3).

We can now calculate the primary unknown the voltage across the 3Ω resistor

( )

Example1.8

Determine the current in the branches of the network in Figure 1.19 using nodal analysis.

Figure 1.19
Solution:- There are four nodes A,B,C,D as shown in the network. Taking node D as reference, we left with three
nodes A,B and C . voltages of nodes A and C with respect to reference node are known to be 30V and 40V
respectively. Hence voltage of only one node is not known. Hence we need write only one equation at node B.
+ =

+ =

30- +40- =

4VB =70 or VB =17.5 volts

Hence, = = 3.125A

= = 5.625A

And + =8.75A Ans.

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Example 1.9 Determine the current‟s in all branches of network shown in Figure 1.20.

Figure 1.20
Solution. Taking node E as reference and since the potentials of nodes C and D with respect to E are known hence
only two independent nodes are A and B where the voltages be VA and VB respectively.
Writing nodal equation at node A

- - =0

5= + - +

25= + - +

300 = 3 +4 -4 -6
13 +14 =300……………….(1)
At node B,

+ =

+ =

2 -2 -3 =3VB
2VA – 8VB = -240
-VA + 4VB = 120 ……………….(2)
Adding equation (1) and (2) we have
12 VA = 420
VA = 35 volts
Hence
-35+ 4VB = 120
4VB = 155
VB =38.75 volts
Hence current,

i1 = = =3.25 A

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 i2 = = = - 0.25 A
The value of i2 is coming out to be negative which means in the actual circuit the direction of current should be
opposite to what is shown in fig. E2.7
Hence i3 + = 3.25 + 0.25 = 3.5 A

i4 = = =3.875 A
and hence
i5 + = 0.25 + 3.875 =4.125 A.

Example 1.10 Using Node voltage method, find the current in the 3Ω resistance for the network shown in Fig. 1.21.

Figure 1.21

Solution. As shown in the figure1.21, node 2 has been taken as the reference node. We will now find the value of
node voltage V1. we get

V1 ( ) ( )

The reason for adding the two battery voltages of 2 V and 4 V is because they are connected in additive series.
Simplifying above, we get V1 = 8/3 V. The current flowing through the 3 Ω resistance towards

( )
node 1 = = A

7 V1=32

Also + =

12-2V1 + 20 -5V1= 5V1

12 V1= 32; V1=8/3

Example 1.11. Find the branch currents in the circuit of Figure 1.22 by using nodal analysis.

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 Figure 1.22

Solution. (i) Nodal Method

The equation for node A can be written by inspection as explained in Art. 2-12.

( )

Substituting the given data, we get,

( )

Or =0 ...(i)

For node B, the equation becomes

( )

( ) or …(ii)

From Eq. (i) and (ii), we get,

( ) ( )
A

Example 1.12 Using Nodal analysis, find the node voltages V1 and V2 in Fig1.23

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 Figure 1.23

Solution. Applying KCL to node 1, we get,

( )

Or …(i)

Similarly, applying KCL to node 2, we get,

( )

Or …(ii)

Solving for V1 and V2 from eqn. (i) and (ii), we get

V1= 18V and V2=12V.

Example 1.13 Use nodal analysis method to find currents in the various resistors of the circuit shown in Fig.1.24(a).

Figure 1.24

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Solution. The given circuit is redrawn in Fig.1.24 (b) with its different nodes marked 1, 2, 3 and 4, the last one
being taken as the reference or datum node. The different node-voltage equations are as under :

( )

()

( )

( )

( )

( )

The matrix form of the above three equations is

[ ][ ] [ ]

| |

| |

| |

| |

It is obvious that all nodes are at a higher potential with respect to the datum node. The various currents shown in
Fig1.24.(b) can now be found easily.

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

It is seen that total current, as expected, is 18 + 8 + 2 = 28A

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 ( ) ( )

1.5 Superposition Theorem

This Theorem is applicable to the network having two or more sources.

Statement- “In any linear, bi-lateral network if two or more sources are acting simultaneously then the current
through any branch is algebraic sum of all the current which should flow in that branch if each source are consider
separately and other sources are replaced by their internal resistances.”

That means voltage source are replaced by short circuit (zero resistance) and current source are replaced by open
circuit (infinite resistance).

Figure 1.25

Procedure for Appling Superposition theorem –

1. Consider one active source and replace other sources by their internal resistance
2. Calculate current in various branch using different methods.
3. Repeat above procedure for each source.
4. Now the total current in any branch of the circuit is algebraic sum of current due to each source.

Example1.14 In the figure 1.26 below calculate the node voltage v1 and v2 using the superposition theorem.

Figure 1.26

Solution

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Step (i) Only current source is applied & voltage source is short circuit. The resultant circuit is presented in below
figure. Equivalent resistance parallel to left side 2Ω resistance = 2║2 + 5 = 6Ω

Hence current in 2Ω resistance

i1 = 4 × = 3A

v1 (i) = 3×2 = 6V

i2 = 4 - I, = 1 A

v2 (i) = v1 (i) – (5×1) = 6 – 5 = 1V

Figure 1.27

Step (ii) Voltage source is only applied with current source open circuit. The resultant circuit is in below figure1.28
Using series parallel combination, the equivalent resistance in series with source is

Figure 1.28

Req = (2+5)║7 = = Ω

⁄
v2 (v) = 8 × ( )= V
⁄

v1 (v) = v2 (v) × = = 1V

Using superposition theorem,

v1 = v1 (i) + v1 (v) = 6+1 =7 V

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 v2 = v2 (i) + v2 (v) = 1+ = V

Example1.14 Using super position theorem find the current in the circuit shown in figure 1.28

Figure 1.29
Solution: Let us first consider the response I1 due to the 0.5A (see figure 1.30) current source and turn off 80mV
voltage source by shorting it. Applying current divider, we get

I1 = - 0.5 × = 0.375A

Figure 1.30
Next consider the voltage source(see figure 1.31), & turn off the current source by opening it . Ohm‟s law gives

I2 = = 0.2 A

Figure 1.31
By the principle of superposition theorem, the total current is given as

I = I1 + I2 = - 0.375+0.2 = - 0.175 A

Note: In redrawing the circuit for each source, we are always careful to mark the response current in the original
direction & also assign a suitable subscript to indicate that we are not working with the original variable. This
prevents the possibility of committing errors when we add the individual‟s currents.

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Example1.15Find the current through 3Ω resistor using Superposition Theorem for the circuit shown below Fig 1.32

Figure 1.32
Solution:-Naming all the sources, the circuit now becomes, Figure 1.33

Figure 1.33

Taking E2 =0 and E3 = 0 we have the circuit as shown below figure 1.34

Figure 1.34

Current drawn from battery E1,

Current Through 3Ω resistor,

Taking each of EMFs E1 and E2 equal to zero, the circuit becomes as shown below, figure 1.35

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 Figure 1.35

Current drawn from battery E3,

Current Through 3Ω resistor,

Taking E1 =0 and E3 = 0 we have the circuit as shown below figure 1.36

Figure 1.36

Current drawn from battery E2,

Current Through 3Ω resistor,

Since the direction of IL3 is opposite to that of currents I1 and I2,

Total current through 3Ω resistor when all the three batteries exist in the circuit,

Example1.16 Using Superposition Theorem, determine currents in all the resistors of the network Figure 1.37

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 Figure 1.37

Solution:-Replacing 10 V source by a Short-circuit, the circuit is reduced to a simple circuit as in figure 1.38

Figure 1.38

The current of 2 A is divided into resistances of 5Ω and 5Ω equally as shown in Figure 1.38

Replacing 2 A source by an Open-circuit, the circuit reduced to a simple circuit as shown in Figure 1.39.

Figure 1.39

Equivalent resistance of the circuit,

( )

Current supplied by the source,

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Current of 2 A is divided between resistance arms BE and AGF equally because their resistances are equal, so
current distribution as shown in figure 1.39.

Hence we can write branch currents as ,

Current in 10 Ω resistance (branch BE) = 0 + 1 = 1 AAns.

Current in 5 Ω resistance (branch AG) = 1 - 1 = 1 AAns.

Current in 5 Ω resistance (branch GF) = 1 + 1 = 2 AAns.

Example1.17 Use Superposition Theorem to find I in the circuit shown, Figure 1.40

Figure 1.40

Solution:-At a time, one source acts and the other is de-activated, for applying Superposition theorem. If I1
represents the current in 5-ohm resistor due to 20 V source, and I2due to 30 V source,

Due to 20 V source, current into node B =

Out of this,

Due to 30-V source, current into node B =

Out of this,
Hence, .

1.6 Thevenin’s Theorem

This theorem is used to simplify a complex network and to calculate the current through any branch, the voltage
across any branch or heat dissipated in any branch.
Statement: “In any linear, bilateral network the current through any branch can be calculated by removing that
branch and reducing the remaining network into an equivalent network having an equivalent voltage source
connected in series with the equivalent resistance of the network and reconnecting the load branch to the equivalent
network”.

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 Figure 1.41

From figure 1.41 we can write

Where,
Vth= Thevenin‟s equivalent voltage source. It is the open circuit voltage across load terminals.
Rth= Thevenin‟s equivalent resistance.
It is resistance of the network seen from the open circuited load terminals while the sources are replaced
by their internal resistances.

Procedure:
How to Thevenize a Given Circuit?
1. Temporarily remove the resistance (called load resistance R L) whose current is required.
2. Find the open-circuit voltage Voc which appears across the two terminals from where resistance has been
removed. It is also called Thevenin voltage Vth.
3. Compute the resistance of the whose network as looked into from these two terminals after all voltage sources
have been removed leaving behind their internal resistances (if any) and current sources have been replaced
by open-circuit i.e. infinite resistance. It is also called Thevenin resistance Rth.
4. Replace the entire network by a single Thevenin source, whose voltage is Vth or Voc and whose internal
resistance is Rth or Ri .
5. Connect RL back to its terminals from where it was previously removed.
6. Finally, calculate the current flowing through RL by using the equation,

Example1.18 Apply Thevenins theorem to calculate the current through the 4 Ω resistor of the circuit of Figure 1.42

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 Figure 1.42
Solution As shown in figure 1.43 the 4Ω resistance has been removed thereby open-circuiting the terminals A and
B. we will now find VAB and RAB which will give us Vth and Rth respectively. The potential drop across 5Ω resistor
can be found with the help of voltage-divider rule.

I 5Ω =

Figure 1.43

Figure 1.44
For finding VAB, we will go from point B to point A in the clockwise direction and find the algebraic sum of the
voltages met on the way.

It means that point A is negative with respect to point E, or point B is at a higher potential than point A by one volt.

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In Figure 1.44, the two voltage source have been short-circuited.
The resistance of the network as viewed from points A and B is the same as viewed from points A and C.

Thevenin‟s equivalent source is shown in figure 1.45 in which 4Ω resistor has been joined back across terminals A
and B. Polarity of the voltage source is worth nothing.

Figure 1.45

( )
( )

Example1.19 Using Thevenin theorem, calculate the current flowing through the 4 Ω resistor of figure 1.46
.Solution.
Step (i) Finding Vth
Remove the 4 Ω resistor, the circuit becomes as shown in Fig.1.46 (b).
Since full 10 A current passes through 2 Ω resistor, drop across it is 10 × 2 = 20 V.
Hence, VB = 20 V with respect to the common ground.
The two resistors of 3 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in series across the 12 V battery.

Hence, drop across 6 Ω resistor

( )

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 Figure 1.46
Step (ii) Finding Rth
Replace both the voltage and current sources by their internal resistances.
Since voltage source has no internal resistance, it would be replaced by a short circuit i.e. zero resistance.
The current source would be removed and replaced by an „open‟ i.e. infinite resistance.
The circuit becomes as shown in figure 1.46 (c).
As seen from figure 1.46 (d)
Rth = 6 || 3 + 2 = 4 Ω.
Step-(iii): Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit
It consists of a voltage source of 12 V and a series resistance of 4 Ω as shown in figure 1.47 (a).
Step-(iv): Calculation of load current.
When 4 Ω resistor is connected across terminals A and B, as shown in figure 1.47 (b).

Figure 1.47

Example1.20 Find the current flowing through the 4 Ω resistor in below figure1.48 (a) when (i) E = 2 V and (ii) E
= 12 V. All resistances are in series.

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 Figure 1.48
Solution.
When we remove E and 4 Ω resistor, the circuit becomes as shown in above figure 1.48 (b).
For finding Rth i.e. the circuit resistance as viewed from terminals A and B, the battery has been short circuited, as
shown. It is seen from above figure 1.48 (c) that
Ω
We will find Vth = VAB with the help of Figure 1.49 (a) which represents the original circuit, except with E and 4 Ω
resistor removed.
Here, the two circuits are connected in parallel across the 36 V battery. The potential of point A equals the drop on
30 Ω resistance, whereas potential of point B equals the drop across 9 Ω resistance.

Figure 1.49

Using the voltage divider rule, we have

In the above figure 1.49 (b), the series combination of E and 4 Ω resistors has been reconnected across terminals A
and B of the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit.

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 ( ) ( )
Case 1 E= 2V

( ) ( )
Case 2 E= 12V

Example1.21 Use Thevenin‟s theorem to find the current flowing through the 6 Ω resistor of the network shown
in below figure 1.50 (a). All resistances are in ohms.

Figure 1.50

Solution.
Step (i) Finding Vth
When 6 Ω resistor is removed, as shown in above Fig 1.50 (b), whole of 2 A current flows along DC producing a
drop of (2 × 2) = 4 V with the polarity as shown.
As we go along BDCA, the total voltage is

Step (ii) Finding Rth

For finding Ri or Rth 18 V voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit and the current source by an open-circuit, as
shown in above Fig 1.50(c).
The two 4 Ω resistors are in series and are thus equivalent to an 8 Ω resistance. However, this 8 Ω resistor is in
parallel with a short of 0 Ω.
Hence, their equivalent value is 0 Ω. Now this 0 Ω resistance is in series with the 2 Ω resistor. Hence, Ri = 2 + 0 = 2
Ω. The Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is shown in above Fig 1.50.(d).

- From A to B
( )

Example1.22 Find Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit for the network shown in Fig 1.51 (a) for the terminal pair AB.

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 Figure 1.51

Solution.
It should be carefully noted that after coming to point D, the 6 A current has only one path to reach its other end C
i.e., through 4 Ω resistor thereby creating and IR drop of 6 × 4 = 24 V with polarity as shown in Fig 1.51(b).
No part of it can go along DE or DF because it would not find any path back to point C. Similarly, current due to 18-
V battery is restricted to loop EDFE.
( )
Drop across 6 Ω resistor
( )

For finding VAB, let us start from A and go to B via the shortest route ADFB. As seen from the above Fig 1.51 (b),
there is a rise of 24 V from A to D but a fall of 12 V from D to F. Hence
with point A negative w.r.t. point B. Hence
( )
For finding Rth, 18 V battery has been replaced by a short circuit and 6 A current source by an open-circuit, as
shown in above Fig 1.51 (c).
Ω
Hence, Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit for terminals A and B is as shown in Fig 1.52. It should be noted that if a load
resistor is connected across AB, current through it will flow from B to A.

Figure 1.52
Example1.22 The circuit shown in below Fig1.53 (a) contains two voltage sources and two current sources.
Calculate (a) Vth and (b) Rth between the open terminals A and B of the circuit. All resistance values are in ohms.

34
 Figure 1.53
Solution.
Since terminals A and B are open, 2 A current can flow only through 4 Ω and 10 Ω resistors, thus producing a drop
of 20 V across the 10 Ω resistor, as shown in above Fig1.53 (b).
Similarly, 3 A current can flow through its own closed circuit between A and C there by producing a drop of 24 V
across 8 Ω resistor as shown in Fig1.53.(b).
Also, there is no drop across 2 Ω resistor because no current flows through it.
Starting from point B and going to point A via points D and C, we get
- with point A positive

Figure 1.54
For finding Rth, we will short-circuit the voltage sources and open-circuit the current sources, as shown in above
Fig1.54. As seen
Ω

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