POWER CONVERTER DESIGN

Filter capacitor design

The basic selection of the output capacitor is based on the ripple current and ripple voltage, as
well as on loop stability considerations.

The effective series resistance (ESR) of the output capacitor and the inductor value directly
affects the output ripple voltage.

The output ripple voltage can easily be estimated based on the inductor ripple current (∆IL)
and output capacitor ESR.

INPUT FILTERS

Modern converters generally feature switching frequencies from 250 kHz up to 4 MHz.
LC filters are particularly suited to bring the fundamental wave and its harmonics in the
spectrum under control. These filters can achieve a suppression of up to 40 dB per decade
and enable filter cut-off frequencies down to the low kHz range to be realized. The input
filter capacitor should be chosen as large as possible and additional damping elements to
be included.

Filter resonance frequency:

An appropriate rule of thumb for practical applications is to set the cut-off frequency of
the filter to approx. one tenth of the frequency of the switching controller, thus achieving
a suppression of the spectral amplitude by approx. 40 dB at the switching frequency
(fundamental). In the case that the EMC levels are still too high, the cut-off frequency
should also be set even lower, a measure that, however, entails larger components or a
poorer RDC in the filter inductance.

Filter inductance at the specified filter capacity:

The criteria for selection include the maximum current-carrying capacity (ampacity) and
the self-resonant frequency (SRF), which should be higher than the spectrum to be
filtered. In the practical area, generally inductance values ranging from 1 μH to 22 μH are
applied, since these components already exhibit a sufficiently high impedance in the
frequency range of relevance regarding differential-mode interference signals. In this
inductance range, it is also possible to select components that in many cases offer a well-
balanced compromise between size, ampacity, and costs.

An appropriate measure for increasing the impedance of the input filter in particular in
the frequency range over 10 MHz is to complement the LC filter by a WE-MPSB ferrite.
This ferrite is substantially superior to conventional ferrites in terms of maximum pulse
current and thus constitutes an excellent choice when it comes to the suppression of high-
frequency DC power-supply systems.

The higher the switching frequency of the converter, the smaller not only the power
choke and input/output capacitors can be made, but also the LC filters, since this enables
the selection of a higher cut-off-frequency. In addition, smaller passive components also
make it easier to design a more compact CB layout, which in turn promises potentially
better EMC characteristics.

Suitable filter capacitors in this regard are small (Surface Mount Devices) SMD electrolytic
capacitors, Values of 10 μF to 100 μF are standard. The objective in the design procedure
should be to keep the filter inductance as small as possible while at the same time enlarging
the filter capacity. This measure has a positive impact on the efficiency and reduces the risk
of instability due to the negative input impedance.
This negative input impedance can result in a series of problems:

Destabilization of the output regulation loop when the frequency spectrum of the negative

impedance at the input overlaps the bandwidth of the control loop.

Voltage overshoots in the event of resonance, capable of causing damage to active and

passive components.
Cause of other EMC interference signals

The risks posed by a negative impedance are greatest when the input voltage is lowest and
thus the input current is largest.

The best method currently available to avoid these undesirable effects is to actively suppress
the LC circuit. This can be achieved by using an SMD resistor (this resistor has a low self-
inductance) in series with a capacitor that blocks the DC voltage.
The aim of this approach should be to achieve a resonant circuit factor of Q=1 or a damping
factor ζ (zeta) of 0.707. In many cases, an electrolytic capacitor with a correspondingly high
ESR is used instead.

Output filters:

Output filters are frequently used to reduce the residual ripple of the output voltage further
still. In the case that the drop in voltage over the filter inductance cannot be ignored.
Typical values for a filter inductance at the output are 0.47 μH to 2.2 μH.
Suitable for use as filter capacitors here are compact electrolytic capacitors series in the
capacity spectrum from 10 μF to 100 μF.

• LC output filters -3 dB cut-off frequency (damped)

• 0 dB gain crossover frequency of the compensated control loop
Since the output filter in most cases is set at one tenth of the switching frequency, the
0dB crossover frequency of the control-loop compensated gain must be set at least one
decade below the output filter frequency.

In all boost converters that work in continuous mode (voltage mode and CCM), the right half
plane zero (RHPZ) factor must also be considered.
Designing SMPS Transformers

Designing magnetic components for SMPS can be challenging due to the increasing
demands of modern electronics designs. Following these steps can help engineers
navigate the challenges and ensure a successful project.

The following parameters are essential for designing SMPS magnetic components:

• Input voltage range

• Output voltage
• Output power or output current
• Switching frequency
• Operating mode
• Maximum duty cycle of the IC
• Safety requirements
• Ambient temperature
• Size requirements
Current Transformers for current sensing:

Designers often use current transformers to measure high frequency changing

(alternating) current of various waveforms, including continuous and discontinuous
sinusoidal, triangular, trapezoidal, rectified, or pulsed current in the 1 to 100+ Amp range,
while also providing galvanic isolation.

Isolation prevents ground loops and is required in high-voltage circuits to avoid noise
interference between control networks and power circuits. Current transformers are
frequently used in switched-mode power supply (SMPS) control systems to monitor
average or peak current as required for operation and circuit-protection decisions.

Current transformers sense high current levels while dissipating less power than
resistive sensing methods and they can be used at higher frequencies, exceeding 1 MHz.
The usable frequency range depends on the sensitivity of the circuit to measurement
error and phase angle at the frequency of interest. For this discussion, turns ratio is the
secondary-to-primary turns ratio (sec : pri), therefore “higher turns ratio” indicates
higher secondary turns. Current transformers are typically offered in a range of turns
ratios, with the higher turns ratios achieving a better signal-to-noise ratio in the control
circuit than resistive sensing.

The fact that a current sense transformer cannot work with DC currents is usually not
particularly troubling when used in switching power converters where the currents are
repetitively interrupted, allowing time for transformer reset. The current sense
transformer operates the same as any transformer, with the exception that the primary
signal is a current. In a typical switching converter application, the primary winding will
consist of a single tum, with the secondary turns providing the current attenuation. The
primary-to- secondary current relationship is given by

and the resultant output voltage is defined by the load resistor, Rcs, as
The equivalent model for a current sense transformer is usually as shown in Figure
where, in addition to the primary and secondary turn , the magnetizing inductance and
interwinding capacitance have been added to the secondary.

Core Issues - The current in the primary is transformed to the secondary, but the
transformer must be excited through the action of the magnetizing current. The
magnetizing current is supplied by the primary and is therefore subtracted from the
current available to drive the secondary. This leads to one of the design criteria for the
transformer - low magnetizing current - achieved by providing a large magnetizing
inductance. Additional requirements are typically high saturating flux density, low core
loss, and, of course, small size and low cost.
In most high frequency applications (f > 50kHz), ferrite will be a good choice for the core
material, but at least one alternative is a Ni-Fe tape wound core. Materials such as
Supermalloy have very high permeability and saturating flux density compared to
ferrites. Their permeability rolls off with frequency, however, which gives the advantage
to ferrite at frequencies above 50kHz. Tape wound cores also tend to be more expensive
than ferrites for the same core size.
On the other hand, tape wound cores can still be cost effective at low frequencies where
their higher permeability and saturation level may allow for a much smaller core than
would be required if ferrite were used.
Current sense transformer cores are almost always toroids. This shape minimizes leakage
inductance and there is no loss of permeability due to an air gap which would be
unavoidable with any type of cut core configuration. Toroids are normally more
expensive to wind but this disadvantage is minimized with a single turn primary and the
availability of many "off-the-shelf' standard designs.
Since the transformer is transforming current - with zero voltage on the primary - the
secondary winding needs a resistor, Rcs, to convert the secondary current to a voltage
adaptable to the needs of the following current control circuitry. The purpose of the diode
is to allow the transformer's magnetizing current to induce a high reverse voltage on the
secondary when the primary current goes to zero in order to provide a fast reset for the
transformer's core, and also to isolate this negative reset voltage from the control circuit.

Resetting the Core:

A diode in series with the secondary winding of a current transformer will set the core
flux to zero after each cycle. This is advised in applications with high duty cycle. The diode
creates a voltage across the secondary to reset the transformer core while isolating that
voltage from the control circuit. A Zener diode may also be employed to prevent
overvoltage across the secondary. Without the diode to reset the core, flux will build up
with each cycle, leading to core saturation that would make the sensed current appear to
be lower. A lower sensed current would instruct the controller to increase current even
further, which could destroy the circuit.
Current Transformer Selection
Selecting the appropriate off-the-shelf current sense transformer for an application
begins by determining:

1. The maximum current to be sensed

2. The frequency of the current waveform to be sensed
3. The duty cycle of the current waveform to be sensed
4. The desired output voltage across the terminating resistor