The
Nervous
System
Focus on the Autonomic NS,
neurons, reflex action, brain and
spinal cord, and disorders
Terminology
Nervous coordination: when a Nervous system (brain, spinal
quick response is needed and cord, nerves)
impulses travel through nerves
Endocrine system (glands and
Chemical coordination: when a hormones)
slower response is needed,
hormones travel through blood Stimuli: environmental input and
internal changes
CNS
Central Nervous
System:
Brain
Spinal cord
PNS
Peripheral Nervous System:
All nerves leading to and
from the brain and spinal
cord.
31 pairs of spinal cords
12 pairs of cranial nerves
Peripheral Nervous
System
Sensory Nerves (Receptors): Motor Nerves (Effectors):
Detect stimuli from the Voluntary (Somatic)
environment Skeletal muscle
Convert them into nerve Involuntary (Autonomic)
impulses Smooth muscle
Sends them to the brain Glands
to be interpreted Cardiac muscle
Sensory Receptors
Input/detection of stimuli/things
happening around us, to send to the
brain for interpretation
Motor Effectors
Conduct impulses from the
CNS to effectors (muscles)
to react to whatever the
input stimuli requires.
Motor Nerves
Voluntary Involuntary
Conducts impulses from Conducts impulses from
the CNS to voluntary the CNS to involuntary
muscles to carry out muscles and glands to
conscious actions work automatically
Reading, running, Blinking, breathing, heart
clapping, walking, etc. beat, peristalsis
Autonomic Nervous System
Involuntary actions controlled by the CNS
Conducts impulses to the involuntary muscles like the
heart
Divided into 2 subdivisions:
Sympathetic for emergencies (fight/flight)
Parasympathetic for rest state (normal)
Antagonistic to one another: one stimulates organs, one
inhibits them - parasympathetic stops sympathetic
Motor Nerves - Autonomic
Sympathetic Nervous System
Fight/Flight/Freeze/Fawn Parasympathetic Nervous
Increases heart rate and System
breathing Rest and Digest
Constricts blood vessels in Decreases heart rate
the skin and abdomen Body at rest
Releases adrenalin Muscles relaxed
Dilates pupils Breathing slows
Structure of a Neuron
Axons form Terminal Branches with Cytoplasm has Nissl granules 10
Synaptic Knobs at the ends for protein synthesis and RNA
Myelin Sheath
Insulates (surrounds) nerve fibres (axons and neurons)
Made of individual Schwann Cells
Accelerate the transmission of impulses
Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in between each Schwann cell
These accelerate nerve transmission by making impulses jump
from node to node
11
Types of Neurons
Multipolar neurons
Many outgrowths,
dendrites and one axon
Bipolar neurons
2 outgrowths (axon and
dendrite)
Unipolar neurons
1 outgrowth and branches
into 2
12
Classification and Function
Sensory/Afferent neurons conduct impulses from receptors to CNS
Interneurons neurons connect sensory and motor neurons in the CNS
Motor/Effector neurons conduct impulses from the CNS to the
effectors (nerves, muscles, organs, etc.)
13
Transmission of Nerve Impulses
A nerve impulse is
electrochemical.
Electrical down the axon.
Chemical at the synapse.
Receptors
14
Transmission of Nerve Impulses
Neurons interconnect to form a continuous system
Axon meets dendrite (of the following nerve)
Separated by a small gap (synaptic cleft)
Nerve impulse moves along the axon to the synaptic knobs
Vesicles in the synapse are filled with a neurotransmitter that is
released
Mitochondria supply energy for this transmission
15
Transmission of Nerve Impulses
R: receptor detects stimuli
S: sensory neuron carries it as an electrical impulse down the axon
Once it reaches the axon terminal and the synapse, the released
neurotransmitter is received by the dendrite of the next neuron
I: the impulse moves from one neuron to the next via interneurons
It is carried to the CNS and back to effectors by interneurons
M: the nerve impulse is passed on to the motor neurons to carry out
the response/reflex action
E: the effector carries out the outcome
16
Importance of Synapses
Making sure the signal only moves in one direction along the neuron
Impulses can be transmitted to more than one neuron at a synapse
to target more than one organ
Stimuli of many neurons combine to make the impulse stronger
The synapse determines which stimuli will be transmitted
If the stimulus is too weak or unimportant, the impulse is not
transmitted to the CNS
17
Structure of Nerves
Consist of numerous nerve fibres
surrounded by connective tissue
Individual nerve fibres are surrounded
by connective tissue (endoneurium)
Bundles of nerve fibres bound with
connective tissue (perineurium)
The epineurium (dense connective
tissue) surrounds a number of nerve
bundles to form a single nerve
There are thousands of nerve fibres in
one nerve - each one conducts a nerve
impulse independently because of
individual insulation
18
Central Nervous System
The Brain
The Brain: The Meninges
Pia Mater:
Innermost membrane
Rich in blood vessels
Provides Oxygen and nutrients to the
CNS
Dura Mater:
Outermost membrane
Lines skull and spinal cord
Arachnoid:
Thin membrane between pia mater and
dura mater
Cerebrospinal fluid between pia mater
and arachnoid
Grey Matter vs White Matter
Grey matter has darker cell White matter has myelinated
bodies and dendrites fatty sheaths
Outer brain and surrounds white Outer spinal cord and surrounds
matter grey matter
The Brain - The Cerebrum
Largest part
Cortex folds to increase surface
area
White matter inside, grey outside
Divided into the left and right
hemispheres by a fissure
Four lobes: frontal, temporal,
parietal, and occipital
Hemispheres connected by the
corpus callosum
The Brain - The Cerebrum
Origin of voluntary actions
Receives and interprets impulses
from sense organs
Site of higher mental functioning
Memory, intelligence,
imagination, emotions,
planning, thought and power of
judgement
The Brain - Corpus Callosum
Found between the two halves
of the cerebrum
Has white matter and
myelinated axons that connect
the two hemispheres
The Brain - Cerebellum
Below the cerebrum
Two hemispheres, connected by
the vermis (nerve tissue)
Grey matter on the outside,
white inside (shaped like a tree -
arbor vitae)
Coordinates/controls all
voluntary action and muscle tone
to maintain balance and posture
Ensures precision and timing of
complex muscle movements
The Brain - Medulla Oblongata
Extension of the spinal cord, has the
same structure
Grey matter on the inside, shaped like
an H, white matter on the outside
Transmits impulses between the
spinal cord and brain
Controls autonomic functions:
Rate and Depth of Breathing
Heartbeat and vasomotor activity
Peristalsis and vomiting
Coughing, sneezing, hiccupping
and blinking
The Spinal Cord
Has a central canal full of spinal
fluid that runs from the spinal
cord to the Medulla Oblongata
Grey matter H on the inside
The “horns” of the H are the
dorsal and ventral horns
Two grooves: deep dorsal
groove, shallow ventral groove
Spinal nerves from both sides
Each nerve has a dorsal and
ventral root
The Spinal Cord: Dorsal Root
Dorsal root has sensory
neurons conducting impulses
from the receptors to the
spinal cord
Cell bodies of sensory neurons
form a swelling (ganglion) at
the dorsal root, that controls
pain and temperature
Nerves in the dorsal root enter
the spinal cord at the dorsal
horn of grey matter
The Spinal Cord: Ventral Root
Ventral root has motor
neurons conducting impulses
away from the spinal cord to
the effectors
Dendrites and cell bodies of
motor neurons found in the
ventral horn of grey matter
Axons exit the spinal cord in
the ventral root
The Spinal Cord
The dorsal and ventral roots
join outside the spinal cord to
form a mixed nerve
Has both sensory and
motor neurons
The Spinal Cord
Pathway for impulses to and from the brain
Impulses from receptors enter the spinal cord via spinal nerves
and transmitted along ascending tracts in the spinal cord to the
brain
Impulses are transmitted by the brain via the motor neurons in
descending tracts back down the spinal cord
The spinal cord has reflex centres that initiate reflex actions
Rapid, involuntary responses that happen independently of
the brain
To protect the body from injury
Reflex Arc (Actions)
A rapid, involuntary response of an
effector
Takes place subconsciously
Has a protective function
Reflex centres occur in the spinal cord
Natural or unconditioned reflexes occur
naturally
Coughing, sneezing, blinking
Learned or conditioned reflexes are
learned through recognition
Walking, cycling, etc.
Involves the cerebellum and
cerebrum
Reflex arc
Reflex arc example
[Link] detected by receptors
[Link] impulse conducted along sensory neuron to interneuron
[Link] to dorsal root and grey matter of the spinal cord
[Link] centre
[Link] exits spinal cord through ventral root and spinal nerve
[Link] conducts impulse over synapses to the motor neuron
and effector
[Link] contracts quickly to react
[Link] impulse is then conducted to the brain to be interpreted
[Link] we feel the sensation of pain
Reflex action helps prevent overload of the higher brain centres, and injury
Disorders
[Link]'s disease
[Link] down of myelin sheath, causing memory and personality issues,
leads to lack of bodily control
[Link]'s palsy
[Link]-like symptoms caused by high stress
[Link] palsy
[Link] damage due to lack of oxygen in pregnancy/childbirth/soon after
[Link]
[Link] disorder
[Link] sclerosis (MS)
[Link] break down, lose bodily control
[Link]'s disease
[Link] of muscle control, starts moderate-severe shakiness