📘 Computer Networks ( HSSC,
SSC, Delhi Police)
A Computer Network is a group of two or more computers (or devices) connected
together to share resources, files, information, memory, printers, etc.
It allows communication between devices using wired (Ethernet cables) or wireless
(Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) connections.
2. Types of Computer Networks
(i) HAN – Home Area Network
Used within a home.
Connects devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart TVs, printers,
speakers, etc.
Example: Wi-Fi network inside a house.
(ii) PAN – Personal Area Network
The smallest network.
Connects devices of a single person within a short range.
Example:
Connecting laptop ↔ mobile using Bluetooth.
Mobile ↔ wireless speaker connection.
Usually created by wire (USB cable) or wireless (Bluetooth, Infrared).
(iii) LAN – Local Area Network
Range → Up to 1 km.
Used in buildings, offices, schools, college campuses.
Mainly uses Ethernet cables for connection.
Speed → 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps).
If used wirelessly → called WLAN (Wireless LAN).
Wireless Standard → IEEE 802.11.
(iv) CAN – Campus Area Network
Larger than LAN.
Covers an entire university or large institution campus.
Connects multiple LANs across the campus.
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
MAN connects multiple LANs within a city.
Range: 10–50 km.
Example: Cable TV Network.
Used by: Government offices, city-wide organizations, or service providers.
5. WAN – Wide Area Network
Largest network in the world.
Covers countries and continents.
Connects many LANs + MANs together.
Example: Internet (biggest WAN).
Node (Network Device/Hardware)
A node is any device connected in a network.
It can create, send, receive, or store messages/data.
Examples: Computers, printers, servers, routers, switches.
7. Network Topology
👉 The physical arrangement of computers/devices in a network.
(i) Bus Topology
All computers are connected through a single cable (bus).
Both ends of the cable have a terminator.
Cheap and easy to install.
Disadvantage: If main cable fails → whole network stops.
(ii) Star Topology
All computers are connected to a central hub or switch.
Easy to manage, reliable.
If one computer fails → others work fine.
Disadvantage: If hub fails → whole network down.
(iii) Ring Topology
All computers are connected in a circle (ring).
Data travels in one direction (unidirectional) or both directions (dual ring).
Disadvantage: If one computer/cable fails → network breaks.
(iv) Mesh Topology
Every node is connected to every other node.
Most reliable (no single point of failure).
Expensive and complex due to large number of connections.
Example: Internet backbone uses partial mesh.
(v) Tree Topology
Combination of Star + Bus.
Computers are arranged in parent-child hierarchy.
Used in large organizations.
(vi) Hybrid Topology
Combination of two or more topologies (e.g., Star + Ring, Star + Bus).
Provides flexibility and reliability.
Example: Large business networks, Telecom networks.
Exam-Oriented Quick Points
MAN = city-level network (example: Cable TV).
WAN = world’s largest network (example: Internet).
Node = any device that can send/receive data.
Bus Topology = single cable, cheap but risky.
Star Topology = hub-based, most common in offices.
Ring Topology = data flows in a circle, one failure can stop network.
Mesh Topology = most reliable, expensive.
Tree Topology = hierarchical, like family tree.
Hybrid Topology = mix of two or more.
Network Devices
1. Hub
Also called Dumb Device.
It simply broadcasts data to all computers connected, without checking the
destination.
Works at Physical Layer of OSI model.
Disadvantage → Creates unnecessary traffic (less secure, less efficient).
2. Switch
Similar to a hub, but intelligent.
Works at Data Link Layer.
Stores MAC addresses in a table.
Sends the message only to the correct computer (not to all).
More efficient and secure than a hub.
3. Modem (Modulator–Demodulator)
Converts digital signals ↔ analog signals.
Required for Internet access over telephone lines.
Example: DSL modem used in homes.
Works at both Physical + Data Link Layer.
4. Bridge
Connects two LANs (Local Area Networks) using the same protocol.
Works at Data Link Layer.
Example: Connecting two office floors having separate LANs. Connects two
LANs, controls traffic,
5. Router
Connects different networks and decides the best path (route) for data packets.
Works at Network Layer.
Example: Wi-Fi router at home that connects to the Internet.
6. Gateway
Connects two networks using different protocols.
Works as a protocol converter.
Used for connecting dissimilar systems (e.g., LAN ↔ Internet).
Works at all OSI layers.
7. Repeater
A Repeater is a hardware device used to regenerate weak signals in a network.
When data travels through a cable for a long distance, the signal becomes weak
(attenuation).
The repeater receives the weak signal → regenerates it → retransmits it at the
original strength.
Works at the Physical Layer of OSI Model.
8. NIC (Network Interface Card)
Also called Ethernet Card or LAN Card.
A hardware device installed inside the computer to connect it to a network.
Each NIC has a unique MAC Address.
Works at Data Link Layer.
8. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)
Also called Physical Address / Hardware Address.
Unique for each device.
Length → 48 bits (6 bytes).
Written in Hexadecimal (example: 3A:5F:9B:11:2C:7E).
First 24 bits → Manufacturer Code, last 24 bits → Device Serial Number.
✅ Exam-Oriented Quick Points
Hub = Dumb device, works at Physical Layer, sends to all.
Switch = Intelligent device, works at Data Link Layer, uses MAC address.
Modem = Converts digital ↔ analog, needed for Internet.
Bridge = Connects two LANs with same protocol.
Router = Connects networks, finds best path, works at Network Layer.
Gateway = Protocol converter, connects different types of networks.
NIC = Provides MAC address, connects computer to network.
MAC Address = 48-bit unique address in hexadecimal.
🌐 OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)
Developed by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1984.
It is a conceptual framework that explains how communication happens in a
network.
Consists of 7 layers → each with a specific function.
7 Layers of OSI Model
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)
Converts data into electrical / light / radio signals.
Devices: Hubs, Repeaters, Cables, Connectors.
Data Unit: Bits (0, 1).
Physical medium (wires, ports) is defined here.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
Responsible for error detection, MAC addressing, reliable delivery.
Devices: Switches, Bridges.
Data Unit: Frame
Adds MAC Address to ensure correct delivery to next device.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3)
Handles logical addressing (IP Address), routing of data.
Devices: Routers.
Data Unit: Packet.
Chooses the best route/path for data transfer.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)
Provides end-to-end communication, error recovery, flow control.
Protocols: TCP, UDP.
Data Unit: Segment.
Ensures data is delivered completely and correctly.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5)
Manages sessions (connections) between two systems.
Example: Starting and ending a WhatsApp call.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
Responsible for encryption/decryption, compression, translation of data.
Ensures data is in readable and secure format.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7)
Provides services directly to users.
Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
Examples: Gmail, WhatsApp, Chrome Browser.
OSI Model vs TCP/IP Model
OSI Model → 7 Layers (theoretical).
TCP/IP Model → 4 Layers (practical, used in Internet):
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer (Network)
4. Network Access Layer (Data Link + Physical)
🌐 Subnet Mask
Every device has an IP Address divided into →
1. Network Address (which network it belongs to).
2. Host Address (specific device on that network).
Subnet Mask decides which portion of IP = Network & which = Host.
Works at Network Layer (Layer 3).
👉 Example:
IP Address: [Link]
Subnet Mask: [Link]
Network: 192.168.1
Host: .10
Ethernet Card (NIC – Network Interface Card)
Connects computer to a wired (Ethernet) network.
Acts as an interface between computer & network.
Speed: 1 Gbps to 10 Gbps.
Each NIC has a unique MAC Address.
MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)
Also called Physical Address / Hardware Address.
Length → 48-bit (6 bytes) = 12 Hexadecimal digits.
First 6 digits → Manufacturer ID.
Last 6 digits → Device Serial Number.
Example: FC:F8:1E:CE:7B:16.
3. RJ-45 Connector
Full form: Registered Jack – 45.
An 8-pin plastic connector.
Used to connect Ethernet cable into devices like PC, Switch, Router.