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P RACTICAL R IG H YDRAULICS
...................................
8

.....
Content
1 Pressure losses
2 Hydraulics Fundamentals
3 Flow Regimes
4 Fluid Types
5 Rheological models
6 Bingham Plastic model
7 Power Law Model
8 Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL]) Model
9 Practical Hydraulics Equations
10 Optimisation of Bit Hydraulics
11 Mud Carrying Capacity
12 Learning Milestones

. . . . . . I. .N. .T. R. .O. .D. .U. C. .T. .I.O. .N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

This chapter deals with practical methods of calculating pressure losses in the various parts
of the circulating system and the selection of nozzle sizes. Several models exist for the
calculation of pressure losses in pipes and annuli. Each model is based on a set of
assumptions which cannot be completely fulfilled in any drilling situation. The Bingham
plastic, Power law and Herschel-Bulkley models are the most widely used in the oil industry.

1.0
. . . . . . P. .RESSURE
. . . . . . . . . LOSSES
............................................................
Figure 8.1 gives a schematic of the circulating system. We shall divide the circulating
system into four sections:
1. Surface connections.

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2. Pipes including drillpipe, heavy walled drillpipe and drill collars.

3. Annular areas around drillpipes, drillcollars, etc.

4. Drillbit.

Our objective is to calculate the pressure (energy) losses in every part of the circulating
system and then find the total system [Link] will then determine the pumping
requirements from the rig pumps and in turn the horse power requirements.

Figure 8.1 Schematic of the circulating system

P1
Hose
Standpipe Pump
Swivel

Kelly

Blowout
Preventer
Flowline

Shale
Shaker

Mud
Tank
P2

Drill Pipe
P5

P4 P3 Drill Collars

Pb Drill Bit

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SURFACE CONNECTION LOSSES (P1)
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1.1 SURFACE CONNECTION LOSSES (P1)

Pressure losses in surface connections (P1) are those taking place in standpipe, rotary hose,
swivel and kelly. The task of estimating surface pressure losses is complicated by the fact
that such losses are dependent on the dimensions and geometries of surface connections.
these dimensions can vary with time, owing to continuous wear of surfaces by the drilling
fluids. The following general equation may be used to evaluate pressure losses in surface
connections:

P1 = E x ρ0.8 x Q1.8 x PV0.2 psi (8.1)

where
ρ = mud weight (lbm/gal)
Q = volume rate (gpm)
E = a constant depending on type of surface equipment used
PV = plastic viscosity (cP)
In practice, there are only four types of surface equipment; each type is characterised by the
dimensions of standpipe, kelly, rotary hose and swivel. Table 8.1 summarises the four types
of surface equipment.

Table 8.1 Types of surface equipment

The values of the constant E in Equation (8.1) are given in Table 8.2.

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Table 8.2 Values of constant E

Value of E
Surface equipment type Imperial units Metric units
1 2.5 x 10-4 8.8 x 10-6
2 9.6 x 10-5 3.3 x 10-6
3 5.3 x 10-5 1.8 x 10-6
4 4.2 x 10-5 1.4 x 10-6

1.2 PIPE AND ANNULAR PRESSURE LOSSES

Pipe losses take place inside the drillpipe and drill collars and are designated in Figure 8.1
as P2 and P3, respectively. Annular losses take place around the drill collar and drillpipe and
are designated as P4 and P5 in Figure 8.1. The magnitudes of P2, P3, P4 and P5 depend on:

(a) dimensions of drillpipe (or drill collars), e.g. inside and outside diameter and length; (b)
mud rheological properties, which include mud weight, plastic viscosity and yield point; and
(c) type of flow, which can be laminar, or turbulent.

It should be noted that the actual behaviour of drilling fluids downhole is not accurately
known and fluid properties measured at the surface usually assume different values at the
elevated temperature and pressure downhole. Another point to remember is the large
possible discrepancy between the pressure values calculated using the annular flow models
(see later).Three models will be discussed: Bingham Plastic, Power law and Herschel-
Bulkley. These models approximate the annulus as two parallel plates, with the effects of
rotation being ignored. In this chapter the Power law and Bingham Plastic models will be
used to calculate the annular pressure losses. They are chosen primarily because they are
widely applied in the oil drilling industry.

1.3 PRESSURE DROP ACROSS BIT

As will be discussed in Chapter 9 , drillbits are provide with nozzles to provide a jetting
action, mainly required for cleaning and cooling, but can also help with rock breakage in soft
formations. The largest nozzle is one inch in size, often termed open, but more often the
nozzles used are a fraction of an inch. Hence, the pressure requirements to pass, say 1000
gpm, through such small nozzles will be large.

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Hydraulics Fundamentals
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For a given length of drill string (drillpipe and drill collars) and given mud properties,
pressure losses P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 will remain constant. However, the pressure loss across
the bit is greatly influenced by the sizes of nozzles used, and volume flow rate. For a given
flow rate, the smaller the nozzles the greater the pressure drop and, in, turn the greater the
nozzle velocity.

For a given maximum pump pressure, the pressure drop across the bit is obtained by
subtracting Pc (= P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5) from the pump pressure. If the hydraulics at the bit
is to be optimised, then the pressure drop across the bit will have to be calculated using the
methods presented in “Optimisation of Bit Hydraulics” on page 257.

The equations necessary for the calculation of jet velocity, pressure drop across bit and
nozzle sizes are given later in this chapter.

2.0
. . . . . . H. . YDRAULICS
. . . . . . . . . . . . F. .UNDAMENTALS
.......................................................
The following are definitions of terms required to understand the various hydraulics
equations a,b,c. The symbols and units are given with the definitions.

Shear rate,γ (sec -1): This is a term most applicable to laminar flow. It refers to the change
in fluid velocity divided by the width of the channel through which the fluid is flowing in
laminar flow.

Shear stress, τ (lb/100 ft2): The force per unit area required to move a fluid at a given shear
rate.

Viscosity, µ (centipoises (cP)): This is the ratio of shear stress to shear rate.

Plastic viscosity, PV (cP): Plastic viscosity represents the contribution to total fluid
viscosity of a fluid under dynamic flowing conditions. Plastic viscosity is dependent on the
size, shape, and number of particles in a moving fluid. PV is calculated using shear stresses
measured at 600 and 300 rpm on the Fann 35 viscometer.

Effective viscosity, µ (cP): This term takes account of the geometry through which the fluid
is flowing and is therefore a more descriptive term of the flowing viscosity.

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Yield point, YP (lb/100 ft 2):The minimum force required to initiate flow, see Bingham
Plastic model.

Yield stress (lb/100 ft2): This is the calculated force required to initiate flow and is obtained
when the rheogram (a plot of shear stress vs shear rate) is extrapolated to the y-axis at γ = 0
sec -1. In practice the yield point is calculated using Equation (8.2).

(Note a: Yield stress is a time-independent measurement and is usually denoted in the

Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL]) model as τ o and Bingham model as YP. It can
also be considered a gel strength at zero time.)

Gel strength (lb/100 ft2): All drilling fluids build a structure when at rest. The gel strength is
a time-dependent measurement of the fluid shear stress when under static conditions. Gel
strengths are commonly measured after 10 seconds, 10 minutes, and 30 minutes intervals.

Reynolds number, Re: This is a dimensionless umber which determines whether a flowing
fluid is in laminar or turbulent flow. A Reynolds number greater than 2,100 marks the onset
of turbulent flow in most drilling [Link] laminar flow (Re < 2,100) and for turbulent flow
(Re > 2,100).

Critical Reynolds number, Rec: This value corresponds to the Reynolds number at which
laminar flow turns to turbulent flow.

Friction factor (f) a: This is a dimensionless term used for power law fluids in turbulent
flow and relates the fluid Reynolds number to a "roughness" factor for the pipe.

3.0
. . . . . . F. .LOW
. . . . . R. .EGIMES
..............................................................
There are three basic types of flow regimes:
5. Laminar

6. Turbulent

7. Transitional

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Fluid Types
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Laminar flow: In laminar flow, fluid layers flow parallel to each other in an orderly fashion.
This flow occurs at low to moderate shear rates when friction between the fluid and the
channel walls is at its lowest. This is a typical flow in the annulus of most wells.

Turbulent flow: This flow occurs at high shear rates where the fluid particle move in a
disorderly and chaotic manner and particles are pushed forward by current eddies. Friction
between the fluid and the channel walls is highest for this type of flow. This is a typical flow
inside the drillpipe and drillcollars.

Unlike laminar flow, mud parameters (viscosity and yield point) are not significant in
calculating frictional pressure losses for muds in turbulent flow.

Transitional flow occurs when the fluid flow changes from laminar to turbulent or vice
versa.

4.0
. . . . . . F. .LUID
. . . . . T. .YPES
..............................................................
There are two basic types of fluids: Newtonian and non-Newtonian.

Newtonian fluids are characterised by a constant viscosity at a given temperature and

pressure.

Common Newtonian fluids include:

• Water
• Diesel
• Glycerin
• Clear brines

Non-Newtonian fluids have viscosities that depend on measured shear rates for a given
temperature and pressure. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include:
• Most drilling fluids
• Cement slurries

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In drilling operations, practically all drilling fluids are non-Newtonian. Even brines which
are used as completion fluids are not truly Newtonian fluids, as the dissolved solids in them
make them behave in a non-Newtonian manner.

5.0
. . . . . . R. . HEOLOGICAL
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . MODELS
.......................................................
Rheological models (Figure 8.2) are mathematical equations used to predict fluid behaviour
across a wide range of shear rates and provide practical means of calculating pumping
(pressure) requirements for a given fluid. Most drilling fluids are non-Newtonian and
pseudoplastic and, therefore, hydraulic models use a number of approximations to arrive at
practical equations.
Figure 8.2 Rheological models, after Baroid a

The three rheological models that are currently in use are:

1. Bingham Plastic model

2. Power Law model

3. Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL]) model

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Bingham Plastic model
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Full mathematical derivations of all the above model can be found in reference (c), written
by the author of this book.

6.0
. . . . . . B. .INGHAM
. . . . . . . . .P. .LASTIC
. . . . . . . MODEL
...................................................
The Bingham Plastic model describes laminar Figure 8.3 Bingham Plastic model
flow using the following equation:

τ = YP + PV × (γ) τ
where
PV
τ = measured shear stress in lb/100 ft2
YP
YP = yield point in lb/100 ft2
γ
PV = plastic viscosity in cP
γ = shear rate in sec –1

The values of YP and PV are calculated using the following equations:

PV = θ600 – θ300 (8.2)
YP = θ300 – PV (8.3)
YP = (2 × θ300) – θ600 (8.4)

Figures 8.3, 8.4 and 8.5 describe the Figure 8.4 Bingham Plastic model
Bingham Plastic model. The slope of a
line connecting any point on the straight
line to the origin is described as the
apparent viscosity at that particular τ
shear rate, Figure 8.4.
PV

YP µa = Apparent Viscosity

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The Bingham Plastic model usually overpredicts yield stresses (shear stresses at zero shear
rate) by 40 to 90 percent.

The following equation produces more Figure 8.5 Bingham Plastic model
realistic values of yield stress at low shear
rates:
τ Linear approximation
YP (Low Shear Rate)= (2 × θ3) - θ6

This equation assumes the fluid exhibits 4/3 YP Slope =PV

true plastic behaviour in the low shear-
rate range only a.
YP True curve

γ
7.0
. . . . . . P. .OWER
. . . . . . .L. AW
. . . .M
. . .ODEL
......................................................
The Power Law model assumes that all fluids are pseudoplastic in nature and are defined by
the following equation:

τ = K (γ)n (8.5)
where
τ= Shear stress (dynes / cm2)
K = Consistency Index
γ= Shear rate (sec-1)
n = Power Law Index
θ 600
n = 3.32 log  ---------- (8.6)
 θ 300

θ 300
K = ---------------
-
n
(8.7)
( 511 )

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Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL]) Model
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The constant “n” is called the POWER LAW INDEX and its value indicates the degree of
non-Newtonian behaviour over a given shear rate range. If 'n' = 1, the behaviour of the fluid
is considered to be Newtonian. As 'n' decreases in value, the behaviour of the fluid is more
non-Newtonian and the viscosity will decrease with an increase in shear [Link] constant
“n” has no units.

The “K” value is the CONSISTENCY INDEX and is a measure of the the thickness of the
[Link] constant 'K' is defined as the shear stress at a shear rate of one reciprocal second.
An increase in the value of 'K' indicates an increase in the overall hole cleaning effectiveness
of the fluid. The units of 'K' are either lbs/100ft2, dynes-sec or N/cm2.

The constants n and K can be calculated from Fann VG meter data obtained at speeds of 300
and 600 rpm through the use of Equation (8.6) and Equation (8.7).

Hence the Power Law model is mathematically more complex than the Bingham Plastic
model and produces greater accuracy in the determination of shear stresses at low shear
rates.

The Power Law model actually describes three types of fluids, based on the value of 'n':

i) n = 1: The fluid is Newtonian

ii) n < 1: The fluid is non-Newtonian

iii) n > 1: The fluid is Dilatent

8.0
. . . . . . H. . ERSCHEL
. . . . . . . . . .-B. .ULKLEY
. . . . . . . . .(.YIELD
. . . . . .-.POWER . . . . .[YPL])
. . . . . . . .LAW . . . . . . . .M. .ODEL
.................
The Herschel-Bulkley (yield-power law [YPL]) model describes the rheological behaviour
of drilling muds more accurately than any other model using the following equation:

τ = τo + K × (γ) n (8.8)
where
τ = measured shear stress in lb/100 ft2

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τo= fluid's yield stress (shear stress at zero shear rate) in lb/100 ft2
K = fluid's consistency index in cP or lb/100 ft sec2
n = fluid's flow index
γ= shear rate in sec-1

The YPL model reduces to the Bingham Plastic model when n = 1 and it reduces to the
Power Law model when τo = 0.

The YPL model is very complex and requires a minimum of three shear-stress/shear-rate
measurements for a solution c.

9.0
. . . . . . P. .RACTICAL
. . . . . . . . . . .H. .YDRAULICS
. . . . . . . . . . . .E. .QUATIONS
..........................................
The procedure for calculating the various pressure losses in a circulating system is
summarised below:
1. Calculate surface pressure losses using Equation (8.1)

2. Decide on which model to use: Bingham Plastic or Power Law

3. Calculate pressure loses inside the drillpipe first then inside drillcollars as follows:

• Calculate critical velocity of flow

• Calculate actual average velocity of flow
• Determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent by comparing average velocity
with critical velocity. If average velocity is less than critical velocity the flow is
[Link] average velocity is greater than critical velocity the flow is turbulent.
• Use appropriate equation to calculate pressure drop
4. Divide the annulus into an open and cased sections

5. Calculate annular flow around drillcollars (or BHA) as follows:

• Calculate critical velocity of annular flow

• Calculate actual average velocity of flow in the annulus

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Bingham Plastic Model
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• Determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent by comparing average velocity
with critical velocity. If average velocity is less than critical velocity the flow is
[Link] average velocity is greater than critical velocity the flow is turbulent.
• Use appropriate equation to calculate annular pressure drop
6. Repeat step four for flow around drillpipe in the open and cased hole sections.

7. Add the values from step 1 to 5, call this system losses

8. Determine the pressure drop available for the bit = pump pressure - system losses

9. Determine nozzle velocity, total flow area and nozzle sizes

The following equations are given for the Bingham Plastic and Power Law models. The field
units used here are:

OD = outside diameter (in),ID = inside diameter (in),L = length (ft),ρ = density (ppg)

V = velocity (ft/sec) or (ft/min),PV = viscosity (cP),YP = yield point (lbf/100ft2)

9.1 BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL

A. Pipe Flow

Determine average velocity and critical velocity( V′ and Vc):

V′ = 24.5Q
--------------- (8.9)
2
D

2 2
97xPV + 97 PV + 8.2ρD YP
V c = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (8.10)
ρD

If V′ > Vc, flow is turbulent; use

–5 0.8 1.8 0.2
8.91 × 10 × ρ × Q × ( PV ) × L
P = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.8
(8.11)
D

If V′ < Vc, flow is laminar; use

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L × PV × V′ L × YP
P = ------------------------------
- + -------------------
2 225 × D
(8.12)
90, 000 × D

B. Annular Flow

Determine average velocity and critical velocity( V′ and Vc):

24.5Q -
V′ = --------------------------
2 2
(8.13)
D h – OD

2 2
97PV + 97 PV + 6.2ρD e YP
V c = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (8.14)
ρD e

where De = Dh - OD

If V′ > Vc, flow is turbulent; use

–5 0.8 1.8 0.2
P = 8.91 × 10 × ρ × Q × ( PV ) × L
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 1.8
(8.15)
( D h – OD ) ( D h + OD )

If V′ < Vc, flow is laminar; use

L × YP
L × PV × V′- + ---------------------
P = --------------------------------
2 225 × D
(8.16)
60, 000 × D e e

9.2 POWER LAW MODEL

Determine n and K from:

θ 600
n = 3.32 log  ---------- (8.17)
 θ 300

θ 300
K = ---------------
-
n
(8.18)
( 511 )

where θ600 = 2 PV + YP and θ300 = PV + YP

A. Pipe Flow

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Power Law Model
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Determine average velocity and critical velocity( V′ and Vc)

24.5Q-
V′ = --------------
2
Equation (8.9)
D
1 -
 ----------- n -
 -----------
4  2 – n  1 – n
5.82 × 10 × K 1.6 × ( 3n + 1 )
V c =  ------------------------------------ ×  ---------------------------------- (8.19)
 ρ   D × 4n 

:If V′ > Vc, flow is turbulent; use

–5 0.8 1.8 0.2
P = 8.91 × 10 × ρ × Q × ( PV ) × L
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 1.8
Equation (8.10)
( D h – OD ) ( D h + OD )

If V′ < Vc, flow is laminar; use

KL 1.6V′ × ( 3n + 1 ) n
P =  ------------- ×  ---------------------------------------- (8.20)
 300D  D × 4n 

B. Annular Flow

Determine average velocity and critical velocity( V′ and Vc):

24.5Q -
V′ = --------------------------
2 2
Equation (8.13)
D h – OD

1 
 ----------- n 
 -----------
- -
4  2 – n  1 – n
3.878 × 10 × K 2.4 × ( 2n + 1 )
V c =  --------------------------------------- ×  ---------------------------------- (8.21)
 ρ   D e × 3n 

where De = Dh – OD

If V′ > Vc, flow is turbulent; use

–5 0.8 1.8 0.2
8.91 × 10 × ρ × Q × ( PV ) × L
P = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 1.8
Equation (8.15)
( D h – OD ) ( D h + OD )
If V′ < Vc, flow is laminar; use:

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KL 2.4V′ × ( 2n + 1 ) n
P =  ---------------- ×  ---------------------------------------- (8.22)
 300D e  D e × 3n 

9.3 PRESSURE LOSS ACROSS BIT

The object of any hydraulics programme is to optimise pressure drop across the bit such that
maximum cleaning of bottom hole is achieved.

For a given length of drill string (drillpipe and drill collars) and given mud properties,
pressure losses P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 will remain constant. However, the pressure loss across
the bit is greatly influenced by the sizes of nozzles used, and the latter determine the amount
of hydraulic horsepower available at the bit. The smaller the nozzle the greater the pressure
drop and the greater the nozzle velocity.

In some situations where the rock is soft to medium in hardness, the main objective is to
provide maximum cleaning and not maximum jetting action. In this case a high flow rate is
required with bigger nozzles. These points are discussed later under “Optimisation of Bit
Hydraulics” on page 257''.

To determine the pressure drop across the bit, add the total pressure drops across the system,
i.e. P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5, to give a total value of Pc (described as the system pressure loss).
Then determine the pressure rating of the pump used. If this pump is to be operated at, say,
80-90% of its rated value, then the pressure drop across the bit is simply pump pressure
minus Pc.

Procedure

A. From previous calculations, determine pressure drop across bit, using

Pbit = Pstandpipe - (P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5)

B. Determine nozzle velocity (ft/s)

P bit
V n = 33.36 --------
- (8.23)
ρ

C. Determine total area of nozzles (in2)

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Pressure Loss Across Bit
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Q
A = 0.32 ------ (8.24)
Vn

D. Determine nozzle sizes in multiples of 32 seconds

Example 8.1: Hydraulics cal culations

Using the Bingham plastic and power-line models, determine the various pressure drops,
nozzle velocity and nozzle sizes for a section of 12.25 in (311mm) hole. Two pumps are used
to provide 700 gpm (2650 1/min).

Data:
plastic velocity = 12 cP
yield point = 12 lb/100 ft2
mud weight = 8.8 lb/gal
drillpipe ID = 4.276 in
OD = 5 in
length = 6,480 ft
drill collars ID = 2,875 in
OD = 8 in
length = 620 ft (189 m)
Last casing was 13.375 in with an ID of 12.565 in. 13.375 in casing was set at 2,550 ft. The
two pumps are to be operated at a maximum standpipe pressure of 2,200 psi. Assume a
surface equipment type of 4.

Solution

The solution to this example will be presented in Imperial units only.

1. Bingham Plastic Model

a. Surface losses

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Surface losses in surface equipment P1 are given by

P1 = E x ρ0.8 x Q1.8 x PV0.2 Equation (8.1)

From Table 8.2, the value of the constant E for type 4 is 4.2 x 10-5; hence, Equation (8.1)
becomes

P1 = 4.2 x 10-5 x ρ0.8 x Q1.8 x PV0.2

= 4.2 x 10-5 x 8.80.8 x 7001.8 x 120.2 = 52 psi

b. Pipe losses

Pressure losses inside drillpipe

24.5Q × 700
V′ = 24.5Q
--------------- = ------------------------------
2
= 937.97 ft/min
2
D ( 4.276 )

Critical velocity
2 2
97PV + PV + 8.2ρD YP
V c = --------------------------------------------------------------------
ρD

2 2
97x12 + 97 12 + 8.2 × 8.8 × 4.276 × 12-
V c = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 356 ft/min
8.8 × 4.276

Since V′ >Vc, flow is turbulent and pressure drop inside drill pipe is calculated from:
–5 0.8 1.8 0.2
8.91 × 10 × ρ × Q × ( PV ) × L
P = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.8
D

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Pressure Loss Across Bit
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8.91 x 10-5 x 8.80.8 x 7001.8 x 120.2 x 6,480
= ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(4.276)4.8

= 670 psi

Pressure losses inside drill collars

Following the same procedure as for drillpipe losses, we obtain

24.5Q × 700
V′ = 24.5Q
--------------- = ---------------------------------------
2
= 2,074.9 ft/min
2
D ( 2.875 ( 4.276 ) )

2 2
97x12 + 97 12 + 8.2 × 8.8 × 2.875 × 12
V c = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =373 ft/min
8.8 × 2.875

Since V′ >Vc, flow is turbulent and pressure loss inside drill collars P3 is determined from

8.91 x 10-5 x 8.80.8 x 7001.8 x 120.2 x 620

P3 = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– = 431 psi
(2.875)4.8

Annular pressure losses

A rough sketch always helps in simplifying the problem. From Figure 8.6
Figure 8.6 it can be seen that part of the drillpipe is inside the
Drillpipe
casing and the rest is inside open hole. Hence, pressure loss
calculations around the drillpipe must be split into (a) losses around
the drillpipe inside the casing and (b) losses around the drillpipe in ID = 12.565”

open hole.
13 3/8” casing
2550 ft
Pressure losses around drillpipe: Cased hole section
12.25” hole

24.5Q -
V′ = ---------------------------------
2 2
ID c – OD dp
Drillcollars

where the subscripts 'c' and 'dp refer to casing and drillpipe
respectively. 7100 ft

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24.5 × 700
V′ = -----------------------------
2
-
2
= 129.1 ft/min
12.565 – 5

2 2
97PV + 97 PV + 6.2ρD e YP
V c = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
ρD e

2 2
V c = 97x12 + 97 12 + 6.2x8.8x ( 12.565 – 5 ) x12-
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 299.6 ft/min
8.8x ( 12.565 – 5 )

Since V′ <Vc, flow is laminar and the pressure loss around the drillpipe in the cased hole is
determined from:

L × YP
L × PV × V′- + ---------------------
P = --------------------------------
2 225 × D
60, 000 × D e e

(where L=2,500 ft)

2550 × 12 × 129.01 2, 550 × 12

P a = --------------------------------------------------------
- + -----------------------------------------
2 225 × ( 12.56 – 5 )
- = 21 psi
60, 000 × ( 12.565 – 5 )

Open hole section- Around Drillpipe

24.5 × 700-
V′ = --------------------------
2 2
= 137 ft/min
12.25 – 5

Vc= 300.4 ft/min

Since V′ < Vc, flow is laminar and the pressure loss around the drillpipe in the open-hole
section is determined from:

3, 930 × 12 × 137 3, 930 × 12 -

P b = -----------------------------------------------------
- + -----------------------------------------
2 225 × ( 12.25 – 5 )
= 35 psi
60, 000 × ( 12.25 – 5 )

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(where L = 6,480 - 2,550 = 3,930 ft, and L = length of drillpipe in the open-hole section).

Hence, total pressure drop around drillpipe is the sum of Pa and Pb. Thus,

P5 = Pa + Pb = 21 + 35 = 56 psi

Pressure losses around drill collars

24.5 × 700-
V′ = --------------------------
2 2
= 199.3 ft/min
12.25 – 8

Vc= 314 ft/min

Since V′ < Vc, flow is laminar and pressure loss around drill collars is calculated from:

620 × 12 × 199.3 620 × 12

P 4 = -----------------------------------------------------
- + -----------------------------------------
2 225 × ( 12.25 – 8 )
- = 10 psi
60, 000 × ( 12.25 – 8 )

Pressure drop across bit

Total pressure loss in circulating system, except bit.

=P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5

=52 + 670 + 431 + 10 + 56 =1,219 psi

Therefore, pressure drop available for bit (Pbit)

=2,200 - 1,219 = 981 psi

Determine nozzle velocity (ft/s)

P bit
V n = 33.36 --------
- = 33.36 981
--------- = 351.7 ft/s
ρ 8.8

Determine total area of nozzles (in2)

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Q 700
A = 0.32 ------ = 0.32x ------------- = 0.6369 in2
Vn 351.7

Nozzle size (in multiples of (1/32)

4×A
= 32 × ------------
- = 16.64
3xπ

Hence, select two nozzles of size 17 and one of size 16. The total area of these nozzles is
0.6397 in2, which is slightly larger than the calculated area of 0.6369 in2.

2. Power Law Model

Surface losses

P1 = 4.2 x 10-5 x ρ0.8 x Q1.8 x PV0.2 = 52 psi

θ600 = 2 x PV x YP = 2 x 12 + 12 = 36

θ300 = PV + YP = 12 + 12 = 24
θ 600
n = 3.32 log  ---------- = 0.585
 θ 300
θ 300
- = 0.626
K = ---------------
n
( 511 )
Remaining calculations are left as an exercise.

(P2 = 670, P3 = 431, P4 = 5, P5 = 19, Pbit = 1023, Nozzles= 2 x 16’s and one 17)

3. Comparison of the two models

From the above results, it is obvious that the two models produce different nozzle sizes: the
Bingham plastic model produced two 17s and one 16, whereas the power law model
produced two 16s and one 17. In practice, this difference is not considered serious, and if the

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Optimisation of Bit Hydraulics
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mud pumps are capable of producing more than 2,200 psi, then it is likely that three nozzles
of size 16 will be chosen.

The reader should note also that the turbulent flow equations presented here use a turbulent
viscosity term equal to (PV)/3.2 and not the plastic viscosity. If the plastic viscosity term is
used instead, then pressure losses will be 26% higher than those calculated by our turbulent
flow equation. It is the author's experience that the use of the turbulent viscosity term (i.e.
(PV/3.2) provides pressure loss values that are in agreement with field results.

10.0 OPTIMISATION OF BIT HYDRAULICS

.............................................................................
All hydraulics programmes start by calculating pressure drops in the various parts of the
circulating system. Pressure losses in surface connections, inside and around the drillpipe,
inside and around drill collars, are calculated, and the total is taken as the pressure loss in the
circulating system, excluding the bit. This pressure loss is normally given the symbol Pc.

10.1 SURFACE PRESSURE

Once the system pressure losses, Pc, is determined, the questions is how much pressure drop
can be tolerated at the bit (Pbit). The value of Pbit is controlled entirely by the maximum
allowable surface pump pressure.

Most rigs have limits on maximum surface pressure, especially when high volume rates - in
excess of 1000 gpm are used. In this case, two or three pumps are used to provide this high
quantity of flow. On land rigs typical limits on surface pressure are in the range 2,500 - 3000
psi for well depths of around 12,000 ft. For deep wells, heavy duty pumps are used which
can have pressure ratings up to 5,000 psi.

Hence, for most drilling operations, there is a limit on surface pump pressure, and the criteria
for optimising bit hydraulics must incorporate this limitation.

10.2 HYDRAULIC CRITERIA

There exist two criteria for optimising bit hydraulics: (1) maximum bit hydraulic horsepower
(BHHP); and (2) maximum impact force (IF). Each criterion yields difference values of bit

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pressure drop and, in turn, different nozzle sizes. The engineer is faced with the task of
deciding which criterion he is to choose. Moreover, in most drilling operations the flow rate
for each hole section has already been fixed to provide optimum annular velocity and hole
cleaning. This leaves only one variable to optimise: the pressure drop across the bit, Pbit. We
shall examine the two criteria in detail and offer a quick method for optimising bit
hydraulics.

10.3 MAXIMUM BIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER

The pressure loss across the bit is simply the difference between the standpipe pressure and
Pc. However, for optimum hydraulics the bit pressure drop must be a certain fraction of the
maximum available surface pressure. For a given volume flow rate, optimum hydraulics is
obtained when the bit hydraulic horsepower assumes a certain percentage of the available
surface horsepower.

In the case of limited surface pressure, the maximum pressure drop across the bit, as a
function of available surface pressure, produces maximum hydraulic horsepower at the bit
for an optimum value of flow rate as shown below:
n
P bit = ----------------- × P s (8.25)
(n + 1)

In the literature several values of n have been proposed, all of which fall in the range 1.8 -
1.86. Hence, when n = 1.86, Equation (8.25) gives Pbit = 0.65 Ps. In other words, for
optimum hydraulics, the pressure drop across the bit should be 65% of the total available
surface pressure.

The actual value of n can be determined in the field by running the mud pump at several
speeds and reading the resulting pressures. A graph of Pc(=Ps - Pbit) against Q is then drawn.
The slope of this graph is taken as the index n.

10.4 MAXIMUM IMPACT FORCE

In the case of limited surface pressure, it can be shown c that for maximum impact force, the
pressure drop across the bit (Pbit) is given by:
n
P bit = ----------------- × P s (8.26)
(n + 2)

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Nozzle Selection
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where n = slope of Pc VS Q
Ps = maximum available surface pressure.

The bit impact force (IF) can be shown to be a function of Q and Pbit according to the
following equation.

Q × ρ × P bit
IF = --------------------------------
- (8.27)
58

where ρ = mud weight (ppg)

10.5 NOZZLE SELECTION

Smaller nozzle sizes are always obtained when the maximum BHHP method is used, as it
gives larger values of Pbit than those given by the maximum IF method. The following equations may be
used to determine total flow area and nozzle sizes:

ρ-
TFA = ( 0.0096 × Q ) -------- (8.28)
P bit

4xTFA
d n = 32 ------------------ (8.29)
3xπ

where
TFA = total flow area (in2)
dn = nozzle size in multiples of 1/32 in.

10.6 OPTIMUM FLOW RATE

THE Optimum flow rate is obtained using the optimum value of Pc, n and maximum surface
pressure, Ps. For example, using the maximum BHHP criterion, Pc is determined from
Pc = Ps - Pbit (8.30)
n
P c = P s –  ------------ P s (8.31)
 n + 1

1
P c =  ------------ P s (8.32)
 n + 1

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The value of n is equal to the slope of the Pc - Q graph. The optimum value of flow rate, Qopt
is obtained from the intersection of the Pc value and the Pc - Q graph.

Example 8.2: Hydraulics Optimi sation

Hydraulic Horse power of pump =1211 hp

Maximum permitted surface pressure Ps = 3500

Hole size = 12.25”, Mud density = 13 ppg

Drillpipe= 5”/4.276”

Pc = K Q n , K =0.01, n =1.86

Use the BHHP to calculate:

Pc, Pbit, BHHP and IF

Solution

[Link] Criterion
n
P bit = ----------------- × P s
(n + 1)
1.86
P bit = ------------------------ × 3500 = 2276 psi
( 1.86 + 1 )
2276
% Power at bit = ------------ = 65
3500

Pc = Ps – Pbit = 3500 – 2276 = 1224 psi

n
P c = kQ

1.86n
1225 = 0.01xQ

Q = 544 gpm

Hence the optimised values are: Pc = 1224 psi, Q = 544 gpm and Pbit = 2276 psi

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Mud Carrying Capacity
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ρ-
TFA = ( 0.0096 × Q ) --------
P bit

13 -
TFA = ( 0.0096 × 544 ) ----------- = 0.3947 in2
2276

4xTFA 4x0.3947
d n = 32 ------------------ = 32 ----------------------- = 13.1
3xπ 3xπ

(ie select three 13’s nozzles for a tricone drillbit)

Q × ρ × P bit
IF = --------------------------------
-
58

IF = 544 × 13 × 2276
------------------------------------------- = 1613 lbf
58

11.0 MUD CARRYING CAPACITY

.............................................................................
11.1 INTRODUCTION

For effective drilling, cuttings generated by the drill bit must be removed immediately. The
drilling mud carries the drill cuttings up the hole and to the surface, to be separated from the
mud.

The carrying (or lifting) capacity of mud is dependent on several parameters including fluid
density, viscosity, type of flow, annulus size, annular speed, particle density, particle shape
and particle diameter. Other factors such as pipe rotation, pipe eccentricity also have some
influence on the carrying capacity of mud.

The effects of the above parameters on the carrying capacity of mud and, in turn, hole
cleaning were studied in great detail by several authors, Williams and Bruce9, Moore4,
Sample and Bourgoyne10,11.

Important conclusions from their work can be summarised as follows:

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1. Turbulent flow is most desirable for efficient removal of cuttings.

[Link] viscosity, low gel strength of mud are desirable properties for removal of cuttings.

[Link] mud density helps to efficiently remove cuttings.

[Link] rotation aids the removal of cuttings.

11.2 HOLE CLEANING

Efficient hole cleaning is directly dependent on the ability of mud to suspend and carry the
drill cuttings to the surface. The problems associated with inefficient hole cleaning include:

1. Decreased bit life and slow penetration rate resulting from regrinding of drill cuttings.

2. Formation of hole fills near the bottom of the borehole during trips when the mud pump is
off.

3. Formation of bridge in the annulus which can lead to pipe sticking.

4. Increase in annular density and, in turn, annular hydrostatic pressure of mud. The
increased hydrostatic pressure of mud may cause the fracture of an exposed weak formation
resulting in lost circulation.

In practice, efficient hole cleaning is obtained by providing sufficient annular velocity to the
drilling mud and by imparting desirable fluid properties.

11.3 SLIP VELOCITY

A rock particle falling through mud tends to settle out at constant velocity (zero acceleration)
described as slip or terminal velocity and is given by:

For transitional flow:

0.667
dp × ( ρp – ρf )
V s = 174.7 -------------------------------------------
0.333 0.333
- (8.33)
ρf xµ e

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Transport Velocity
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For turbulent flow, the equation becomes:
( ( ρ p – ρ f ) × d p ) 0.5
V s = 92.6 × -------------------------------------- (8.34)
ρf

where
ρp = density of particle, ppg
ρf = density of drilling fluid, ppg
µe = effective viscosity of fluid, cp
dp = equivalent diameter of drill cutting, in

11.4 TRANSPORT VELOCITY

Transport or lift velocity is defined as the difference between the annular velocity of mud
and the slip velocity of particle; ie
Vt = Va - Vs (8.35)
where
Vt = transport velocity
24.5Q
Va = annular velocity = -----------------------------
2 2
D h – OD p
Dh = hole diameter
ODp = outside diameter of pipe

It is obvious that for efficient hole cleaning, Va must be greater the Vs. Sample et al 10,11
observed that at annular velocities of less than 100 ft/min, particle slip velocity in both
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids is independent of the fluid annular velocity. Above an
annular velocity of 100 ft/min, there appears to be a dependence of slip velocity on annular
velocity.

Example 8.3: Transport Velocity

Determine the slip velocity and transport velocity for the following well:

Depth = 9,000 ft

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Hole diameter = 12.25 in

Drill pipe = 5 in/4.276 in
Flow rate = 500 gpm
Mud density = 10 ppg
Density of rock = 21 ppg
Average particle size = 0.28 in
Viscometer readings: θ600 = 90
θ300 = 50

Solution
Assume the fluid to obey a power law model.
θ 600
n = 3.32 log  ---------- = 0.848
 θ 300
θ 300
- = 0.253
K = ---------------
n
( 511 )

Effective viscosity is given by:

2.4 × V′ × ( 2n + 1 ) n 200K ( D h – OD p )
µ e = ---------------------------------------------- × ------------------------------------------- (8.36)
( D h – OD p )3n V′

Average Velocity around drillpipe

24.5Q - 24.5 ( 500 )

V′ = --------------------------
2 2
= --------------------------
2
-
2
= 98 ft/min
D h – OD 12.25 – 5

2.4 × 98 × ( 2x0.848 + 1 ) 0.848 200x0.253 ( 12.25 – 5 )

µ e = ------------------------------------------------------------ × -----------------------------------------------------
( 12.25 – 5 )x3x0.848 98

= 20.08 x 3.743 = 75 cp

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Drill Cuttings Concentration
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Using Equation (8.33) for the transitional flow to calculate the slip velocity, we obtain:
0.667
0.28 × ( 21 – 10 )
V s = 174.7 -------------------------------------------------
0.333 0.333
- = 27 ft/min
10 x75

Transport velocity = Va - Vs

= 98 - 27 = 71 ft/min

11.5 DRILL CUTTINGS CONCENTRATION

To prevent hole problems, it is generally accepted that the volume fraction of cuttings (or
concentration) in the annulus should not exceed 5%. Therefore, the design programme for
mud carrying capacity should also include a figure for the drill cuttings concentration in the
annulus. The cuttings concentration is given by:
2
1 ROPxD h
C a = ------ × ---------------------------------------------------------------- (8.37)
60 ( V – V ) × ( D 2 – OD 2 )
a s h p

where
Ca = drillcuttings concentration
ROP = penetration rate, ft/hr

Example 8.4: Cuttings Concentrati on

Using the same data as given in Example 8.3 determine the concentration of cuttings in the
[Link]:

ROP = 40 ft hr
Dh = 12.25 in

Solution
2
1 40x12.25
C a = ------ × ------------------------------------------------------------
- = 0.011 or = 1.1%
60 ( 98 – 27 ) × ( 12.25 2 – 5 2 )

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In this example, the concentration of cuttings is well below the maximum of 5% and one can
increase penetration rate to 177.5 ft/hr without causing hole problems. The figure 177.5 ft/hr
is obtained by manipulating Equation (8.37) as follows:

2 2
60 × C a × ( V a – V s ) × ( D h – OD p )
ROP = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
2
Dh

2 2
60 × 0.05 × ( 98 – 27V s ) × ( 12.25 – 5 )
ROP = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
- = 177.5 ft/hr
12.25

12.0 Learning Milestones

.............................................................................
In this chapter, you should have learnt to:
1. Describe types of flow in an oil well

2. Describe three rheological models

3. Apply hydraulic equations to calculate pressure drops in the circulating system

4. Calculate nozzle sizes

5. Apply two hydraulic optimisation criteria

6. Calculate slip and transport velocities

7. Calculate effective viscosity in the annulus

8. Calculate cuttings concentration and optimum ROP

13.0 REFERENCES
.............................................................................
a. Baroid Fluid manual

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REFERENCES
TOC Previous Next . . . . . . . . . ..
b. MI Fluid manual

c. Rabia, H (1989) “Rig hydraulics” Textbook, Entrac

1. CLARK E.H. (1955)” Bottom - hole pressure surges while running pipe”. The Petroleum
Engineer, January.

2. CLARK E.H. (1956) “A graphic view of pressure surges and lost circulation”. Spring
meeting of the Pacific Coast District. Division of Production, Los Angeles, May.

3. BURKHARDT J.A. (1960) “Wellbore pressure surges produced by pipe movement”. 35th
Annual Fall Meeting of SPE. October 2-5, Denver.

4. MOORE P.L. (1974) “Drilling practices manual”. Penwell Books.

5. FONTENOT J.E. and CLARK R.K. (1974) “An improved method for calculating swab
and surge pressures and circulating pressures in a drilling well”. Society of petroleum
Engineers Journal, October, pp 451-462.

6. GOINS W.C. et al (1951)”Down-the-hole pressure surges and there effect on loss of

circulation”. Drill and Prod, Practices, API, 125.

7. CARDWELL W.T. (1953) “Pressure changes in drilling wells caused by pipe movement”.
Drill and Prod Practices, API, 97.

8. ORMSBY G.S. (1954) “Calculate and control of mud pressures in drilling and completion
operations”. Drill and Prod. Practices, API, 44.

9. WILLIAMS C.E. and BRUCE G.H. (1958) “Carrying capacity of drilling muds”. Fall
meeting. New Orleans, La. OC 4-6.

10. SAMPLE K.J. and BOURGOYNE. A.T. (1977) “An experimental evaluation of
correlations used for predicting cutting slip velocity”. 52nd Annual Fall Technical
Conference Denver, Colorado, Oct 9-12.

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11. SAMPLE K.J. and BOURGOYNE, A.T. (1978) “Development of improved laboratory
and field procedures for determining the carrying capacity of drilling fluids”. 53rd Annual
Fall Technical Conference, Texas, Oct 1-3.

14.0 EXERCISES
.............................................................................
Exercise 1

Using the Bingham plastic model, calculate the various pressure drops, nozzle velocity and
nozzle sizes for a section of 8.5 in hole.

Data:
hole depth = 13,000 ft
plastic viscosity = 35 cP
yield point = 25 lb / 100 ft2
mud weight = 13 lb / gal
flow rate = 400 gpm
drillpipe ID = 4.276 in
OD = 5 in
Drill collars ID = 2.875 in
OD = 6.5 in
length = 500 ft
Previous casing = 95/8 in
ID = 8.755 in set at 10,000 ft
Pump pressure = 3000 psi
Surface equipment type = 4
(Answers: Circulating pressure = 1573 psi, Pbit = 1427 psi, Nozzles = 2 x 13 and one 12)
2. List the factors that control hole cleaning.

3. What is meant by hydraulics optimisation?

268 Well Engineering & Construction