1

BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Evaluating the Necessity of the Traditional '3 Sets of 12 Repetitions' Protocol for

Muscle Hypertrophy: A Comparative Study with Low-Volume, Maximal-Effort

Training in Novice Bodybuilders

____________________

An Undergraduate Thesis presented to the Faculty of the College of Sports, Exercise, and
Recreation
of the Bulacan State University
City of Malolos

____________________

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Exercise and Sports Science
major in Fitness and Sports Management

Dacutanan, Jaymart
Matias, Marco Polo
Samonte, Ian Christopher

May 5, 2025
 2
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Resistance training is a form of physical activity where individuals work their muscles against

external loads like free weights, resistance bands, machines, or their own bodyweight to

enhance strength or promote muscle growth. It involves variables like sets, repetitions, volume,

and intensity that are tailored to meet the desired goals of an individual (Baechle et al. 2008).

Resistance training provides many benefits, and one of them is how it significantly promotes

muscle hypertrophy through mechanical tension, metabolic stress and muscle damage. These

mechanisms lead to the activation of signaling pathways that promotes muscle protein

synthesis, resulting in the growth of the muscle fiber size. (Benito et al. 2019).

Novices in resistance training with the aim of building muscle mass usually use structured

training protocols. One widely used model is the “3 sets of 12 repetitions” or other similarly

high volume training protocols, emphasizing the total amount of repetitions done to stimulate

muscle hypertrophy (Schoenfeld et al. 2016). This also allows novice individuals to enhance

muscular endurance and develop neuromuscular coordinations through the performance of

more repetitions. However, for some populations like college students, this resistance training

protocol may be too time demanding and results in poor adherence rates or not participating in

resistance training at all (Macario et al. 2023). This is why we must search for an alternative

resistance training strategy that are effective, while still being time efficient, especially for

individuals that want to get into fitness without sacrificing their daily responsibilities. The
 3
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

alternative approach is low volume, high intensity resistance training, characterized by fewer

sets (1 to 2 sets) and performed until failure at >80% of 1RM (Klemp et al. 2016). The

principle behind this model is maximizing mechanical tension as opposed to the targeted

accumulation of metabolic stress in higher volume training. Understanding training

prescriptions for novices is very important, as this can lead to longer and healthier lifestyle

changes.

With traditional high volume approaches, though effective, comes a very significant time

commitment and may discourage individuals with personal constraints and responsibilities

(Plotnikoff et al. 2015). On the other hand, the low volume, high intensity training may be a

much more time efficient alternative if proven to be as effective or superior in inducing muscle

hypertrophy for novices. This study seeks to determine whether low volume, high intensity

resistance training can produce comparable or superior hypertrophic outcomes compared to the

traditional 3 sets of 12 repetitions high volume training in novice bodybuilders. It specifically

aims to assess the muscle growth changed across the biceps, chest, shoulders, and the

quadriceps after the intervention period.

This study is important for both theoretical and practical applications. Theoretically, it can help

with our understanding behind muscle hypertrophy by clarifying the effects of two different

training variables on muscle growth. Practically, it offers insights and a much sustainable and

efficient alternative to resistance training programs for individuals looking to improve their

overall fitness levels, as well as improving adherence rates among novices.

Statement of the problem

 4
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

The research aims to assess the viability of a low volume, high intensity resistance training in

stimulating the muscle growth and hypertrophy of novice bodybuilders, in comparison to the

traditional high volume training like the "3 sets by 12 repetition" protocol. Specifically, it seeks

to answer the following questions:

1. When evaluating the effectiveness of a low-volume, high-intensity resistance training

protocol (1-6 reps at >85% 1RM) for muscle hypertrophy in novice bodybuilders, how do the

following variables determine the results:

1.1 Volume

1.2 Duration

1.3 Load

2. When assessing the necessity of the traditional high-volume training (3 sets of 12 repetitions)

for muscle hypertrophy in novice bodybuilders, how do the following variables determine the

results?

2.1 Volume

2.2 Duration

2.3 Load

3. When comparing the traditional high-volume training(3 sets of 12 repetition) to low-volume,

maximal-effort training (1-6 reps at >85% 1RM) in novice bodybuilders, do the following

muscle groups show similar or different results in muscle hypertrophy?

3.1 Biceps brachii

3.2 Pectoralis major

 5
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

3.3 Deltoids

3.4 Quadriceps femoris

4. Does low volume,maximal-effort training (1-6 reps at >85% 1RM) elicit comparable or

superior hypertrophy to the 3x12 protocol in novices, despite significantly lower training

volume?

5. What training protocol should be prioritized by Novice Bodybuilders aiming for muscle

hypertrophy?

Significance of the Study

Muscle hypertrophy is one of the most common goals for individuals that are in the gym, yet it

is still unclear what training protocol is the most optimal one. An exception to this however, is

in the cases of novice or beginner bodybuilders, where traditional high volume training

protocols are the standard for hypertrophy. Despite existing studies, conflicting evidence on the

efficacy of high-volume vs. low-volume training creates uncertainty about optimal protocols

for novices, which this study directly addresses. An alternative to consider is the low volume

high intensity training, in which according to some studies, gives comparable outcome in terms

of hypertrophy, at a significantly lower time demand. Given the possible benefits towards the

practical and theoretical aspects of resistance training, this study aims to be beneficial to

various individuals in the field of fitness and health by determining which training protocol is

more effective for muscle hypertrophy in novice bodybuilders.

Novice Bodybuilders
 6
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

This study is particularly important towards individuals that are just starting out with resistance

training, providing them with the recommended training protocol that are backed by evidence

and is the most efficient for muscle hypertrophy. By comparing the two different training

protocols, this study can help novice bodybuilders in deciding about which training method

they'll choose, allowing them to grow their muscles while minimizing unnecessary fatigue,

excessive training, and risks of injury.

Personal Trainers

Personal trainers often prescribe high volume training to novice bodybuilders due to its long

history rather than its actual necessity. If the low volume, high intensity training protocol

proves to be equally or more effective, trainers can offer a more time efficient program while

still efficiently growing muscles. This would allow them to be more specific and flexible on the

training plans they provide, without having their clients neglect their previous commitments

and responsibilities in order to train.

Exercise Physiologist

The findings of this study will be beneficial to physiologists by providing information on

whether the high volume training for muscle hypertrophy is necessary for novice bodybuilders.

Other studies and researches have provided results that support low volume and high volume

training respectively, claiming that both training protocols can lead to growth in muscle mass.

By focusing on novice bodybuilders, this study aims to provide a more definitive conclusion on

which is more efficient and sustainable for beginners aiming to commit to resistance training.

Future Researchers
 7
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

This study will build a framework that other researchers can work on for further investigations

into a more efficient and optimal training protocol for muscle hypertrophy. This serves as a

reference for future researchers that are investigating hypertrophic response to different training

protocols, encouraging the exploration of additional variables aside from training volume and

intensity. Findings from this research could also be expanded to other populations like

experienced lifters, or individuals with goals like strength and power improvements.

Scope and Delimitations

This study evaluates the effectiveness of the low volume, high intensity resistance training (2-6

repetitions at >85% 1RM) for growing muscle in novice bodybuilders in comparison to the

traditional high volume training (3 sets of 12 repetitions). It specifically focuses on comparing

the growth in key muscle groups such as the biceps brachii, pectoralis major, deltoids, and

quadriceps femoris, that are produced by both training protocols. The study also investigates

the influence of training session duration, training frequency, and the intensity of the exercise

to muscle hypertrophy. The participants for the study will be individuals that want to prioritize

stimulating muscle hypertrophy that have minimal or no experience in resistance training. The

study will be conducted in a controlled gym environment, execution of the exercises will be

observed to ensure consistency.

Some aspects are excluded from this study in order to not stray from the main focus.

Intermediate and advanced bodybuilders are excluded due to the different responses that may

occur due to their more developed neuromuscular efficiency. Things like nutrition,

supplements, sleep quality, and genetics, all plays an important role in muscle hypertrophy, but

wont be accounted for as it is beyond the study's scope. Additionally, the study will be focusing
 8
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

on using machine assisted and free weight exercises for stimulating muscle hypertrophy. Other

resistance training methods like body weight exercises and plyometrics are not implemented to

maintain a direct comparison between the results of the two training protocols. The research is

conducted over a 6-8 week period, which means that the study will not be able to examine

factors like long term hypertrophic adaptations and injury risks. Additionally, the study has a

limited number of participants and focuses on individuals with little to no experience, which

may impact the generalizability to a larger bodybuilding population. The study will be

implementing the usage of circumference measurements to assess muscle growth. While they

still provide useful information on the growth of the muscle, it may not offer the same level of

precision that an ultrasound imaging can measure. By strictly following the scope and

delimitations of this study, the resulting insights from the comparison between the traditional

high volume training and low volume, high intensity training will be more reliable. The study

aims to provide useful information that can help coaches, trainers, and exercise scientists on

optimal training methods for hypertrophy development.

Definition of Terms

Resistance Training - it is a type of exercise in which an individual exerts force against an

outside resistance such as free weights, machines, elastic bands, or body weight to build muscle

strength, power, and endurance. Resistance training is most commonly prescribed to improve

neuromuscular function and induce muscle hypertrophy (American College of Sports

Medicine, 2009; Baechle et al., 2008).

Muscle Hypertrophy - this is the increase in size and cross-sectional area of muscle due to

increasing the size of the original fibers. The accommodation is done with enhanced
 9
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

myofibrillar protein synthesis (myofibrillar hypertrophy) and enlargement of the non-

contractile components like the sarcoplasm (Schoenfeld, 2010).

Low-Volume, High-Intensity Resistance Training - is a training protocol performed with

fewer sets and repetitions (usually 1–6 reps per set) with heavy loading, usually over 80% of an

individual's 1RM. It is designed to recruit a larger number of muscle fibers in order to reach

high neuromuscular tension and stimulate hypertrophy through mechanisms different from

conventional high-volume protocols (Schoenfeld et al., 2017).

Traditional High-Volume Resistance Training - defined as performing more sets and reps

per exercise, an example being the commonly recommended 3 sets of 12 reps. This training

involves greater overall training volume to enhance time under tension and metabolic tension,

both of which are implicated in inducing muscle hypertrophy (American College of Sports

Medicine, 2009; Schoenfeld, 2010).

One-Repetition Maximum (1RM) - refers to the maximum weight an individual can lift to

perform one repetition of an exercise with good technique. It is commonly used to prescribe

intensity for exercise and prescribe resistance training programs (Baechle et al., 2008).

Novice Bodybuilders - they are individuals that are new to resistance training, having less than

6 months of experience with resistance training. They tend to respond to training stimulus by

showing rapid strength and hypertrophic adaptations because their baseline neuromuscular

adaptation is still low (ACSM, 2009).

Load - expressed as a percentage of an individual's 1RM, reflecting the load as a proportion of

maximal capacity. High-intensity training (loads >85% of 1RM) is intended to recruit

maximum muscle fiber and intense anabolic responses (Schoenfeld et al., 2017).
 10
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Duration - this determines the overall duration of time used in one workout session, such as

time spent resting and exercise sets, during which the warm-up is included. It influences total

training volume and recovery and is one of the variables that influences the quality and quantity

of the training stimulus (Kraemer & Ratamess, 2004).

Volume - described as the total amount of repetitions per set performed in each exercise. High

volume training are usually performed with 3-6 sets with 10-15 repetitions, while low volume

training are performed with 1-2 sets until failure at >80% 1RM. Schoenfeld et al. (2019)
 11
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter shows the relevant theories, related literature, related studies, and the conceptual

framework that are used in this study

Relevant Theories

These theories form the theoretical basis for comparing the hypertrophic effects of low-volume,

high-intensity resistance training and traditional high-volume protocols.

Size Principle of Motor Unit Recruitment (Henneman, 1957)

The Size Principle of Motor Unit Recruitment, proposed by Elwood Henneman in 1957, is a

principle in exercise science explaining the order in which motor units are recruited during

voluntary muscular contractions. Henneman’s principle states that motor units are recruited

from smallest to largest based on the force demands of the activity. In low-intensity efforts,

only the smallest motor units, which control Type I (slow-twitch) muscle fibers, are activated.

These fibers are fatigue-resistant and primarily utilized for endurance activities and light loads.

As the demand for force increases, larger motor units controlling Type II (fast-twitch) fibers are

progressively recruited. These Type II fibers possess greater strength and hypertrophic

potential, but fatigue more quickly than Type I fibers.

This principle is directly applicable to the present study’s comparison of low-volume, high-

intensity training and traditional high-volume protocols in novice bodybuilders. Low-volume,

high-intensity resistance training requires lifting loads greater than 80% of one-repetition

maximum (1RM), which immediately recruits high-threshold, fast-twitch motor units

responsible for producing maximal force and exhibiting the greatest potential for muscle

hypertrophy. This recruitment pattern occurs with minimal reliance on lower-threshold units,
 12
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

optimizing the hypertrophic stimulus within fewer repetitions. On the other hand, traditional

3×12 repetition protocols typically begin by activating lower-threshold units, gradually

recruiting higher-threshold units as fatigue builds across multiple repetitions and sets. While

this still results in motor unit recruitment sufficient to stimulate hypertrophy, it requires greater

total volume and time under tension to achieve similar levels of motor unit activation compared

to heavier, low-rep training. It explains why low-volume, high-intensity training might elicit

hypertrophic effects equal to or greater than high-volume protocols in novice lifters, despite

involving fewer repetitions and shorter sessions.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Theory

The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Theory, proposed by Hans Selye (1936), describes

the body's physiological response to stress through three stages: the alarm stage, the resistance

stage, and the exhaustion stage. When applied to exercise science, GAS suggests that the body

initially reacts to the stress of training by experiencing fatigue (alarm phase), then adapts by

becoming stronger (resistance phase), and eventually may regress if recovery is insufficient or

if the stress is excessive (exhaustion phase). In resistance training and muscle hypertrophy, the

GAS model explains how training can lead to improvements in muscle size and strength.

Noting the importance of proper recovery in order to move from the alarm phase into the

resistance phase or else there won't be as much adaptation that occurs and it will lead to the

exhaustion phase. This theory is particularly relevant to our study, where we compare two

resistance training protocols,the traditional high-volume training and low-volume maximal

effort training. By evaluating hypertrophic outcomes under different loading models, this study

aligns with the GAS framework by seeking to find out which protocol can lead to a much more
 13
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

efficient resistance phase without putting excessive stress to the point of reaching exhaustion

phase.

Related Literature

Muscle Hypertrophy

According to Refalo et al. (2023), muscle hypertrophy is the physiological adaptation of the

body in response to an outside stimulus, with resistance training being the most known. This

adaptation leads to an increase in skeletal muscle mass and cross sectional area. According to

Schoenfeld et al. (2021), muscle hypertrophy is determined by the balance of the mechanism of

muscle protein synthesis and muscle protein breakdown, leading to muscle growth when

muscle protein synthesis is higher. This further highlights why resistance training is one of the

primary drivers of muscle hypertrophy as according to Phillips (2014), it enhances muscle

protein synthesis while slowing down muscle protein breakdown, leading to a higher net gain

in muscle growth. Furthermore, the study conducted by Witard et al. (2022) backs resistance

training as the main driver to muscle hypertrophy, as it increases myofibrillar proteins which is

one of the main components of muscle fibers.

Mechanisms of Hypertrophy

Roberts et al. (2023) described muscle hypertrophy as driven by the three interconnected

mechanisms that are experienced during resistance training. Understanding these mechanisms

will lead to a better understanding on how muscle hypertrophy occurs as well as the factors that

contribute to it.

Mechanical tension is known to be the primary stimulus among the three as identified by

Roberts et al (2023). It is defined as the force generated within the muscles when contracting
 14
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

against an external load and during resistance training, our muscles generate mechanical

tension. This force activates mechanosensors in the muscles which start the signalling pathways

responsible for promoting muscle protein synthesis, Schiaffino et al. (2021). While mechanical

tension is present in both Low Volume, High Intensity Protocol and the Traditional High

Volume approach, it is notable that mechanical tension is more prominent with the heavier

loads Chae et al. (2023), justifying the case of our study.

Roberts et al. (2023) defined Metabolic Stress as the accumulation of metabolites such as

lactate and inorganic phosphate in muscles during intense or prolonged exercises. It occurs

when muscles are repeatedly contracted and in the case of resistance training, it is more present

during moderate to high volume workouts according to Sartori et al. (2021). This also serves to

activate the signaling pathways that promote muscle protein synthesis and lead to muscle

growth. While it may seem unfavorable towards the case of the Low Volume, High Intensity

Approach, a study conducted by Biazon et al. (2019) shows that metabolic stress leading to

muscle growth is only significantly greater in the Traditional High Volume Approach when

paired with blood flow restriction training.

Muscle damage was also mentioned as one of the primary mechanisms according to Roberts et

al.(2023), stating that it results in inflammatory responses which triggers muscle growth. While

Lim et al. (2022) states that muscle damage is not a reliable mechanism in promoting muscle

protein synthesis during the later stages of resistance training, he also stated that it is more

prominent in novices. While the researchers have no way of measuring the muscle growth that

is caused by muscle damage, it is still important to take note of this for future researchers.

Resistance Training Variables

 15
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

According to Korakakis et al. (2023), resistance training is a form of exercise involving weights

or other external loads where our muscles contract against and it is the main driver for muscle

hypertrophy according to Refalo et al. (2023). An effective resistance training program

involves variables like Load and Volume to maximize muscle growth. These variables are

important in understanding how resistance training ultimately results in muscle growth through

the mechanisms of hypertrophy.

Volume, defined as the total amount of work performed during a workout session, typically as

the amount of sets and repetitions done according to Schoenfeld et al. (2019). They have found

out that higher training volume resulted in more hypertrophic outcomes, with lower volumes

showing mainly strength gains. Figueiredo et al. (2017) also defined volume as the total amount

of sets and repetitions done in a session.

Load is also a very notable variable when it comes to resistance training. Defined by Lopez et

al. (2020) as the amount of weight or resistance used in an exercise, it is typically expressed as

a percentage of one repetition maximum. Schoenfeld et al. (2017) also stated that High Load

Training is considered as above 60% of the 1RM and Low Load Training as anything below

60% of 1RM. With both studies showing that high load training results in the same amount of

muscle growth as low load training when performed to failure. This shows the importance of

understanding how to effectively implement these variables into an individual's training

program, while the volume and frequency may be beneficial for muscle growth, Schoenfeld et

al. (2016) and Korakakis et al. (2023) both acknowledged that it is important to balance

frequency with the load and volume of exercises to effectively allow recovery and support
 16
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

muscle growth. While prioritizing one variable can still lead to muscle growth, creating an

optimized program allows individuals to grow their muscles more effectively.

Traditional High Volume Resistance Training

In general, high volume resistance training is characterized by a high total number of

completed repetitions per muscle group according to Baz-Valle et al. (2021). Meanwhile, The

traditional 3x12 training approach shares the same principle of using low to moderate load that

allows them to reach 12 repetitions maximum, Kubo et al. (2020). This method provides a lot

of metabolic stress and sufficient mechanical tension which stimulates muscle protein

synthesis, making it useful for athletes and individuals focusing on hypertrophy. Hammarstrom

et al. (2020) backs this with evidence showing how a higher volume training leads to repetitive

activation of the signaling pathways responsible for muscle growth. Damas et al. (2018)

describes the traditional high volume protocols as having a high weekly number of sets per

muscle group, often in the ranges of 15-25+ sets, and often performed at loads not greater than

75% of 1RM which allows for a higher number of repetitions. Damas et al. also stated how by

performing each sets to or close to failure, it ensures that this training protocol provides enough

hypertrophic stimulus. A study by Vann et al. (2022) further shows that traditional high volume

training can lead to muscle mass and strength adaptations, showing growth in the muscle cross

sectional area of the vastus lateralis and leg strength. Despite the effectiveness of traditional

high volume resistance training, the analysis done by Grgic (2020) showed that this form of

training, even when performed to failure may not be as effective for some people as compared

to others, meaning that muscle growth does vary from person to person. Bartolomei (2017) also

stated how traditional high volume training can lead to greater reduction in performance, while
 17
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

also requiring longer to fully recover, not to mention that this approach also takes much longer

sessions to complete. This shows that while this training approach is effective, it still has its

downsides.

Low-Volume, High-Intensity Resistance Training

Low volume, high intensity resistance training is characterized by the usage of heavy loads,

typically greater than 80% of 1RM, while keeping the overall training volume low. Klemp et al.

(2016) showed a perfect example of a low volume, high intensity resistance training in their

study, with groups performing 4 to 6 repetitions per set. Lixandrao et al. (2017) provided

additional insights on how low volume high intensity resistance training should be structured,

they stated that the high load and fewer repetitions approach should be accompanied by

sufficient rest intervals for individuals to recover, allowing them to focus on the quality of each

repetition. This approach emphasizes maximum mechanical tension and the recruitment of type

II muscle fibers through the heavier loads. This statement is backed by Lasevicius et al. (2018)

when they examined how training at high intensities affects muscle adaptations. Their findings

show that heavy loads lead to a faster and robust recruitment of high threshold motor units,

which results in better strength gains and muscular adaptations. They stated that while

hypertrophy can be achieved through other alternative methods like higher volume, this

approach with the heavier loads tends to result in maximal strength gains as well. The same

outcome was also seen in the study by Schoenfeld et al. (2017), showing that while muscle

hypertrophy gains are similar in high volume and low volume training when taken to failure,

there are greater strength gains in the lower volume training. However, they also noted the risks

and drawbacks of this training, just like with the traditional high volume, some individuals
 18
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

won't show the same outcomes when training under the low volume, high intensity approach.

They also noted that the risk for injury is much greater, especially with the heavier loads that

are present. This shows that while low volume, high intensity training is a promising alternative

to the traditional high volume training, it still has its own drawbacks and would need further

investigations on how to fully optimize it for different populations.

Local Literature

The researchers were not able to find a lot of local articles and literature that backs and

supports the main idea of low volume and high intensity approach. However, studies show a lot

of evidence on why Low Volume, High Intensity resistance training can be a viable alternative

to the Traditional High Volume Resistance training for Filipino individuals.

While resistance training is mostly for hypertrophy, and some individuals may not have muscle

growth as their goal and focus, it is still beneficial for the health of filipinos. Lentejas et al.

(2024) demonstrated that resistance training improved the body composition and inflammatory

markers anong overweight Filipinos, showing its importance for individuals that are looking to

reduce their bodyweight. Gabat et al. (2018) highlights how low muscle mass leads to reduced

physical function and can affect individuals on their day to day basis, showing the importance

of resistance training for maintaining strength and health. Moreover, resistance training is

beneficial for athletes and students, with Pituk et al. (2019) stating that higher physical activity

levels resulted in higher fitness markers in Filipino students. Israel et al.(2024) highlights this

by showing improvements in agility and power of high school athletes even with a shorter

period of exposure to resistance training routines. This shows the importance of resistance

training in the Filipino populations outside of aesthetic and bodybuilding purposes.

 19
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Acampado et al. (2018) found in their study that 67% of the student population in a university

were physically inactive. Similarly, newer studies by Salvador et al. (2024) and Santiago et al.

(2023) shows that a large percentage of Filipino students and working adults rarely participate

in physical activities, with some only doing low intensity activities like walking and light jogs.

Participants said that time constraints and fatigue were one of the main barriers why they avoid

structured workouts like resistance training. Regardless of this, Calixtro et al. (2021) and

Macario et al. (2023) showed that Filipinos are interested in fitness, and that they are aware of

the benefits that are provided in participating in physical activities. However, both studies still

show that while awareness is high, participation still remains low due to time constraints and

motivation barriers. Another similar study by Dela Cruz et al. (2018) showed that older citizens

were also restricted by time less opportunities to exercise despite awareness of the benefits of

physical activities.

This shows that while Filipinos are aware of the possible benefits they would get from

participating in physical activities, they are not willing to commit due to personal barriers like

lack of time. Given that the most common barrier to physical activity is lack of time, the low

volume, high intensity training approach emerges as the practical solution and a viable

alternative to the traditional high-volume training. Low volume, high intensity focuses on fewer

sets and reps with higher intensity, providing enough stimulus to grow muscles with shorter

training durations.

Papa (2017) backs this by showing that untrained Filipino students were able to experience

large strength gains from just a single-set deadlift training over just a three week period. While

the result focuses on strength, it still shows the effectiveness of a low volume, high intensity
 20
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

training approach, showing how even shorter duration of training can still lead to muscular

adaptations. Studies by Landicho et al. (2023), and Inovero et al. (2014), similarly found results

that support the effectiveness of low volume, high intensity resistance training in maximizing

strength and power adaptations among athletes. The findings in their results however doesn’t

state any hypertrophic outcomes, leaving a gap for our study to answer

Overall, the combination of physical inactivity, outcome based motivation, and constraints such

as lack of time, provides a perfect setting to implement low-volume, high-intensity resistance

training. While it does prove the effectiveness of this resistance training approach in terms of

strength adaptations, there is still a lack of evidence in terms of its effect on muscle

hypertrophy, especially when compared to the traditional high volume approach.

Related Studies

Effectiveness of Low-Volume, High-Intensity Training Protocols

Krieger et al. (2010), performed a meta analysis of studies comparing single set and multiset

resistance training protocols. Results showed that performing multiple sets per exercise resulted

in approximately 40% greater muscle hypertrophy than single set routines. A more recent study

by Ralston et al. (2017) however, found that while a higher weekly volume tend to result in

greater hypertrophy than the lower volume, the difference was not that vast especially after a

certain threshold where the difference between the two were insignificant. The study that was

done by Baz Valle et al. (2022) also found that high volume resistance training protocols

resulted in significantly higher hypertrophic responses compared to a moderate volume

approach. While these studies may justify the necessity of the traditional high volume training,

it doesn't directly compare or utilize heavier loads and higher intensity of training.
 21
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Additionally, it doesn't involve subjects with less than a year of training, highlighting the need

for the current study to be conducted. Additionally, Schoenfeld et al. (2019) evaluated the

effects of low, moderate, and high volume resistance training on the muscular adaptations of

resistance trained men over an 8 week period. The results from the study shows that among the

three, only the high volume training resulted in notable muscle hypertrophy growth, and that

the individuals under the low and moderate groups experienced muscular strength and

endurance. This shows that there are adaptations that present even lower volume protocols,

however, a gap still remains in the fact that heavier loads and higher intensity were not

considered during the low volume training, which could have provided stimulus for muscle

growth. The study by Giessing et al. (2016) provides evidence on the importance of intensity in

muscle hypertrophy. The study compared a low volume High Intensity Training protocol to a

Traditional 3 Set type of resistance training protocol over a 10 week period in physically active

university students. The high intensity training is characterized by a single set performed to

failure and followed by a drop set, producing comparable results to the traditional training

protocol. While this highlights how a lower volume approach can lead to the same hypertrophic

outcomes, the study only identified “high intensity” as drop sets after training to failure, which

still takes a considerable amount of time to perform when compared to heavier loads.

Haun et al.(2019) provided a critical evaluation on the adaptations of muscles in response to

training strategies. They stated that muscle hypertrophy is more driven by mechanical loading

and training effort rather than just total amount or volume of training. Further backing that low

volume, high intensity is an effective alternative, especially when given that mechanical tension
 22
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

is higher with heavier loads. The following studies further support the findings of the

evaluation.

Morton et al. (2016) studied the effects of resistance trained men using low load and high load

resistance training. The study examined the effect of both groups on muscle hypertrophy when

performed to failure and found that there were no significant differences in muscle hypertrophy

between the high load and low load groups. These results suggest that training load is not as

critical compared to training intensity in stimulating hypertrophic responses and the study done

by Terada et al. (2022) supports this when they compared the effects of low-load and high-load

resistance training to failure on muscle hypertrophy and strength. They found that both methods

led to significant hypertrophy gains, reinforcing that intensity of effort, rather than sheer

volume, plays a pivotal role in muscle growth. Jenkins et al. (2017) also analyzed the

neuromuscular adaptations from high load versus low load when performed to failure, showing

further proof that as long intensity is taken into consideration, there will be no significant

differences in terms of [Link] findings does support the idea that the low volume

high intensity approach can be an effective and more time efficient alternative but the studies

did leave a gap for us to address as they did performed both groups to failure and involved

subjects that have experience in resistance [Link] et al. (2021) examined the effects of

short term low volume, high intensity training on the muscle quality and hypertrophy in

younger and older populations. The results demonstrated significant improvements in both age

groups, with no notable disadvantage in hypertrophy for low-volume high-load protocols. The

findings underscore the adaptability of the neuromuscular system to intense, low-volume

training offering support for its practical application across populations.

 23
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

The following studies further provides justifications for a study regarding the efficacy and

necessity of the traditional “3 sets of 12 repetitions” training approach for muscle hypertrophy

in beginners. A review done by Plotnikoff et al. (2015) shows that one of the major barriers to

resistance training are time constraints and low motivation. Cagas et al. (2014) also found that

among Filipino college students, lack of time was also the primary barrier because of their

academic workload. These studies emphasize the need for a more time efficient approach onto

physical activity like the low volume, high intensity approach.

The study conducted by Macario et al. (2023) concluded long duration strength training

programs were often not done in PE students and faculties due to time constraints,

recommending the usage of shorter but intense programs to improve adherence. Santiago

(2023) also studied adherence rates in training programs among Filipino college students and

found that programs with longer durations led to frequent dropout especially during when

academic activities pile up. Evidence provided by Mungcal et al. (2021) backs this claim

showing how Filipino college students often skipped training when their schedules are more

strict due to academics. Their study showed that when the sessions were made shorter, the

training adherence of the students improved. This further supports the need for more time

efficient workouts, highlighting the relevance of low volume, high intensity as a potential

alternative for the longer duration training approach.

Fisher et al. (2017) examined the effects of single-set vs. multiple-set training on adherence and

psychological response. While both groups gained strength, participants in the single-set group

reported higher satisfaction and reduced training fatigue, showing that lower volumes can lead

to more adherence rates among beginners. Papa (2017) also examined the different results of
 24
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

single and three set protocols on untrained female participants. While the study found

measurable gains in strength over the three week period, participants reported high fatigue

levels and found it more difficult to perform in the higher volume group, ultimately supporting

that higher training volumes may challenge adherence rates among individuals.

The studies all consistently demonstrate that low volume, high intensity training protocol can

result in similar hypertrophic outcomes when compared to the traditional high volume

approach, suggesting that muscle gains are sufficient even with shorter training durations and

fewer sets. Regardless of this however, it is still seen that the traditional 3 sets of 12 repetitions

approach is the most prescribed program especially for beginners. While the researchers

weren't able to find studies specifically pertaining to the amount of its usage in gym settings, it

is evidently the most common routines provided by coaches and fitness influencers over the

internet. Studies by Schoenfeld et al. (2018) support the older study by Brown et al. (2002)

which suggests that higher volumes, described as 10-20 repetitions of 3-6 sets, may elicit

greater neuromuscular adaptations for beginners. However, this approach is not the most time

efficient option and may challenge the adherence of beginners looking to make a healthy

lifestyle change. A huge population of Filipino college students often skipped or not

participated at all in physical activities due to lack of time, a problem that this study seeks to

answer.

Conceptual Framework

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

 25
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

● Participants: ● Pre-testing (Baseline ● Comparative results of

- Novice Measurements) hypertrophy between
bodybuilders (18–25 groups
years old) ● Evaluation of training
● Assigned Training ● 6 Weeks Resistance efficiency
Protocol: Training ● Recommendations for
- Traditional 3×12 Intervention beginner training
sets programs
- Low-Volume
Maximal Effort - ● Post-testing
Measurement
● Tools:
- 1RM Testing
- Circumference
Measurements

This study focuses on identifying the effects of a traditional high-volume training program and

a low-volume maximal effort training protocol on muscle hypertrophy in novice bodybuilders

aged 18–25 years old. The study is aiming to determine if a low volume, high intensity protocol

can provide comparable or superior hypertrophic outcomes to the traditional high volume

training, and if it can serve as a viable alternative for novices.

Hypothesis of the Study

Null Hypothesis (H₀)

The hypertrophic outcomes provided by the low volume, high intensity training protocol would

not be sufficient to consider it as an alternative option to the traditional “3 sets of 12

repetitions” high volume protocol.

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁):

There is a sufficient hypertrophic outcome to consider the low volume, high intensity protocol

to consider it as an alternative option to the traditional “3 sets of 12 repetitions” high volume

protocol.
 26
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Chapter III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter summarizes the research methods used by the study. It discusses the

following sections: research design, methods and techniques of the study, population

descriptions, the instruments, data collection methods, data processing and data analysis used in

the study.

Methods and Techniques of the Study

The study used quantitative research and utilizes an experimental design to investigate the

effects of the traditional “3 sets of 12 repetitions” training compared to a low volume, maximal

effort training on muscle hypertrophy in novice bodybuilders. The study seeks to determine

whether the traditional high volume approach is necessary for optimal muscle growth in

untrained individuals, or if comparable hypertrophy could be achieved with lower training

volume.

Population and Sample of the Study

The population of this study consists of novice bodybuilders aged between 18 - 25 years old.

Novice bodybuilders are defined as individuals that have less than six months of experience

with resistance training. The study also selected participants that are healthy and have no

history of having any musculoskeletal injuries. With this, a purposive sampling technique was

used to select participants that meets the inclusion criteria. Due to limitations in resources, the

study was conducted with a smaller sample size, with a total of 10 participants. Participants

were randomly assigned into two groups:

1. Traditional High Volume Group

 27
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

2. Low Volume, Maximal Effort Group

While a larger sample size is generally recommended to strengthen the statistical analysis and

for generalizing the findings, the outcome of this study can serve as preliminary insight into the

necessity of the traditional 3 sets of 12 repetitions training protocol for muscle hypertrophy in

novice bodybuilders.

Research Instruments

One-Repetition Maximum (1RM) Test

The 1RM test is the maximum amount of weight than an individual is able to perform for one

full repetition with proper form for a given exercise. It is regarded as the standard in resistance

training studies for assessing maximal strength Levinger et al. (2009). The 1RM test is used to

find the appropriate training load based on the participants capability.

Measuring Tape (Circumference Measurements)

A flexible, non elastic measuring tape is used to measure the circumference of targeted muscle

groups. Measurements were made sure to be consistently taken at the same position throughout

the data gathering procedure to ensure uniformity. While more advanced imaging techniques

provide greater precision, circumference measurements through the usage of a tape measure

have been validated as a reliable instrument for measuring changes in muscle size Heyward et

al. (2004).

Data Gathering Procedures

 28
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Pre-testing Phase

Participants will go through initial assessments to establish their baseline measurements for

strength and muscle size. They will perform the 1RM test to determine their current strength

level and will be used as the basis for their prescribed training load. The circumference of the

selected muscle groups (biceps, pectoralis major, deltoids, quadriceps) will be measured using

a flexible, non elastic measuring tape. These measurements will be used to determine the

changes in muscle mass after the intervention.

Development Phase

After the initial assessments, participants will be randomly assigned into the two groups:

-Traditional High-Volume Training Group (3 sets of 12 repetitions at 65–75% 1RM)

-Low-Volume Maximal Effort Training Group (2 sets to muscular failure at high intensity,

80% 1RM)

This period will last for 6 weeks with participants training three times per week. Each training

session will be closely monitored to ensure correct technique, appropriate load usage, and

protocol adherence. The training protocols were designed based on established hypertrophy

programming principles, adapted to assess the effectiveness of low-volume, high-intensity

training versus traditional high-volume approaches in novice populations.

Validation Phase

Post-intervention testing was conducted at the end of the eight-week training period to validate

the effects of the different training protocols. The same instruments and procedures used in the

pre-testing phase were employed. They will perform the 1RM test to determine strength

changes and Circumference Measurements to assess hypertrophic changes.

 29
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

By using the same measurement procedures and instruments across pre- and post-testing, the

study ensured validity and reduced measurement error. Data collected were prepared for

statistical analysis, where changes in strength and muscle size were compared between groups

to evaluate the efficacy of each training model. Participant confidentiality and ethical standards

were maintained throughout the validation process.

Data Processing and Statistical Treatment

All raw data were first encoded and organized in a spreadsheet for consistency and accuracy.

The measurements included pre-test and post-test circumference measurements for the biceps

brachii, pectoralis major, deltoids, and quadriceps femoris, as well as 1-repetition maximum

(1RM) strength scores for key compound [Link] statistics such as mean, standard

deviation, and percentage change were computed to summarize the central tendencies and

variability in the data for both the traditional high-volume and low-volume maximal effort

groups. To determine whether there was a statistically significant difference in muscle

hypertrophy outcomes within each group (pre-test vs. post-test), a paired sample t-test was

used. To compare the post-test results between the two groups, an independent sample t-test

was employed. This analysis tested whether the low-volume, high-intensity group achieved

hypertrophy outcomes that were comparable or superior to those of the traditional training

group. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences) version 26.0, or Microsoft Excel when applicable.

Ethical Considerations
 30
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Upon approval, the study will go through an extensive review at Bulacan State University. All

ethical considerations relating to the safety, consent and privacy of the participant were

carefully addressed. Participants were also briefed in detail about the purpose, procedures, and

the possible risks of the study. Informed consent will also be collected from each participant

before any data collection to guarantee their voluntary participation. The study also ensures that

the participants have the right to withdraw from participating at any time without

consequences. The study ensures the protection of the participants personal information and are

kept securely. The researchers will be the only ones that have access to any personal data.

Participants are allowed to view their own data upon request and will also be provided with a

summary, comparing their pre test and post test results. Throughout the study, all ethical

guidelines were strictly followed, ensuring that the researchers remained committed to

maintaining the highest ethical standards.

 31
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

REFERENCES

Acampado, E., & Valenzuela, M. (2018). Physical activity and dietary habits of Filipino

college

students. Kinesiology, 50(1), 57–67. [Link]

Baz-Valle, E., Balsalobre-Fernández, C., Alix-Fages, C., & Santos-Concejero, J. (2022). A

systematic review of the effects of different resistance training volumes on muscle

hypertrophy. Journal of Human Kinetics, 81, 199–210. [Link]

2022-0017

Baz-Valle, E., Fontes-Villalba, M., & Santos-Concejero, J. (2018). Total number of sets as a

training Volume Quantification Method for muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic review.

The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 35(3), 870–878.

[Link]

Biazon, T. M. P. C., Ugrinowitsch, C., Soligon, S. D., Oliveira, R. M., Bergamasco, J. G.,

Borghi-Silva, A., & Libardi, C. A. (2019). The association between muscle

deoxygenation and muscle hypertrophy to blood flow restricted training performed at

high and low loads. Frontiers in Physiology, 10.

[Link]

Brigatto, F. A., De Medeiros Lima, L. E., Germano, M. D., Aoki, M. S., Braz, T. V., & Lopes,

C.

R. (2019). High Resistance-Training Volume Enhances Muscle Thickness in

Resistance-Trained Men. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(1),

22–30. [Link]
 32
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Calixtro, V. L., Jr. (2021). Fitness and wellness lifestyles of the personnel of Sultan Kudarat

State

University, Mindanao, Philippines. Indonesian Journal of Teaching in Science, 1(1),

63–68. [Link]

Chae, S., Bailey, C. A., Hill, D. W., McMullen, S. M., Moses, S. A., & Vingren, J. L. (2022).

Acute kinetic and kinematic responses to rest redistribution with heavier loads in

Resistance-Trained men. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 37(5),

987–993. [Link]

Colquhoun, R. J., Gai, C. M., Aguilar, D., Bove, D., Dolan, J., Vargas, A., Couvillion, K.,

Jenkins, N. D., & Campbell, B. I. (2018). Training volume, not frequency, indicative of

maximal strength adaptations to resistance training. The Journal of Strength and

Conditioning Research, 32(5), 1207–1213.

[Link]

Cruz, F. J. S. D. (2018). Participation, barriers and preferences of senior citizens on physical

activities. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 8(11), 1039–1047.

[Link]

Damas, F., Barcelos, C., Nóbrega, S. R., Ugrinowitsch, C., Lixandrão, M. E., Santos, L. M. E.

D., Conceição, M. S., Vechin, F. C., & Libardi, C. A. (2018). Individual Muscle

Hypertrophy and Strength Responses to High vs. Low Resistance Training Frequencies.

The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(4), 897–901.

[Link]
 33
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Figueiredo, V. C., De Salles, B. F., & Trajano, G. S. (2017). Volume for muscle hypertrophy

and

health outcomes: the most effective variable in resistance training. Sports Medicine,

48(3), 499–505. [Link]

Giessing, J., Eichmann, B., Steele, J., & Fisher, J. (2016). A comparison of low volume

‘high-intensity-training’ and high volume traditional resistance training methods on

muscular performance, body composition, and subjective assessments of training.

Biology of Sport, 33(3), 241–249. [Link]

Grgic, J. (2020). The Effects of Low-Load vs. High-Load Resistance Training on Muscle Fiber

Hypertrophy: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Human Kinetics, 74(1), 51–58.

[Link]

Hammarström, D., Øfsteng, S., Koll, L., Hanestadhaugen, M., Hollan, I., Apró, W., Whist, J.

E.,

Blomstrand, E., Rønnestad, B. R., & Ellefsen, S. (2019). Benefits of higher resistance‐

training volume are related to ribosome biogenesis. The Journal of Physiology, 598(3),

543–565. [Link]

Klemp, A., Dolan, C., Quiles, J. M., Blanco, R., Zoeller, R. F., Graves, B. S., & Zourdos, M.

C.

(2016). Volume-equated high- and low-repetition daily undulating programming

strategies produce similar hypertrophy and strength adaptations. Applied Physiology

Nutrition and Metabolism, 41(7), 699–705. [Link]

 34
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Korakakis, P. A., Wolf, M., Coleman, M., Burke, R., Piñero, A., Nippard, J., & Schoenfeld, B.

J.

(2023). Optimizing Resistance training technique to Maximize muscle hypertrophy: A

Narrative review. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(1), 9.

[Link]

Landicho, T. P. M., & Andal, E. Z. (2023). Conditioning Training towards the Development of

Physical Fitness among Junior High School Athletes. International Multidisciplinary

Research Journal, 5(2). [Link]

Lasevicius, T., Ugrinowitsch, C., Schoenfeld, B. J., Roschel, H., Tavares, L. D., De Souza, E.

O.,

Laurentino, G., & Tricoli, V. (2018). Effects of different intensities of resistance

training with equated volume load on muscle strength and hypertrophy. European

Journal of Sport Science, 18(6), 772–780.

[Link]

Lentejas, J. P. R., Sandoval, M. a. S., Evangelista, T. J. P., Buenaluz-Sedurante, M. D., &

Velayo,

C. L. (2023). The effect of resistance, aerobic, and concurrent aerobic and resistance

exercises on inflammatory markers of metabolically healthy overweight or obese adults:

a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Medica Philippina.

[Link]
 35
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Lim, C., Nunes, E. A., Currier, B. S., Mcleod, J. C., Thomas, A. C. Q., & Phillips, S. M.

(2022).

An Evidence-Based Narrative Review of Mechanisms of Resistance Exercise–Induced

Human Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 54(9),

1546–1559. [Link]

Lixandrão, M. E., Ugrinowitsch, C., Berton, R., Vechin, F. C., Conceição, M. S., Damas, F.,

Libardi, C. A., & Roschel, H. (2017). Magnitude of Muscle Strength and Mass

Adaptations Between High-Load Resistance Training Versus Low-Load Resistance

Training Associated with Blood-Flow Restriction: A Systematic Review and Meta-

Analysis. Sports Medicine, 48(2), 361–378. [Link]

Lopez, P., Radaelli, R., Taaffe, D. R., Newton, R. U., Galvão, D. A., Trajano, G. S., Teodoro,

J.

L., Kraemer, W. J., Häkkinen, K., & Pinto, R. S. (2020). Resistance training load

Effects on muscle hypertrophy and strength gain: Systematic review and network meta-

analysis. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 53(6), 1206–1216.

[Link]

Macario, D., & Macario, N. G. (2023). Physical activity as Prevention to Weight gain:

Awareness among selected Middle-Aged Faculty of the West Visayas State University.

American Journal of Physical Education and Health Science, 1(1), 1–6.

[Link]

Cagas, J., Manalastas, E. J., Torres, B. A., & (2014). “Pampapayat, Para Lumakas, To Be
 36
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Healthy”: Exploring Filipino Motives For Exercise. [Link]

id=3892

Mangine, G. T., Hoffman, J. R., Gonzalez, A. M., Townsend, J. R., Wells, A. J., Jajtner, A. R.,

Beyer, K. S., Boone, C. H., Miramonti, A. A., Wang, R., LaMonica, M. B., Fukuda, D.

H., Ratamess, N. A., & Stout, J. R. (2015). The effect of training volume and intensity

on improvements in muscular strength and size in resistance-trained men. Physiological

Reports, 3(8), e12472. [Link]

Pagaduan, J. C., Haddad, M., Chamari, K., Gastin, P., Chen, Y., Farooq, A., Gómez, J. P.,

Mataruna-Dos-Santos, L. J., Hassanmirzaei, B., Bok, D., Trabelsi, K., Cortis, C., James,

C., Saad, H. B., Ammar, A., Krug, I., & Washif, J. A. (2022). Training practices of

Filipino athletes during the early covid-19 lockdown. Kinesiology, 54(2), 335–346.

[Link]

Papa, Emmanuel Liberato. (2017). EFFECT OF SINGLE-AND THREE-SET TRAINING

VOLUMES ON LOWER BODY STRENGTH AND POWER IN UNTRAINED

INDIVIDUALS AFTER A 3-WEEK PERIOD. Journal of Physical Education Research.

Volume 4. 39-48.

Phillips, S. M. (2014). A brief review of Critical Processes in Exercise-Induced Muscular

Hypertrophy. Sports Medicine, 44(S1), 71–77. [Link]

0152-3

Pituk, C. S., & Cagas, J. Y. (2019). PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

AMONG FILIPINO UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. [Link].

[Link]
 37
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Refalo, M. C., Helms, E. R., Trexler, E. T., Hamilton, D. L., & Fyfe, J. J. (2022). Influence of

Resistance Training Proximity-to-Failure on Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy: A

Systematic Review with Meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 53(3), 649–665.

[Link]

Roberts, M. D., McCarthy, J. J., Hornberger, T. A., Phillips, S. M., Mackey, A. L., Nader, G.

A.,

Boppart, M. D., Kavazis, A. N., Reidy, P. T., Ogasawara, R., Libardi, C. A.,

Ugrinowitsch, C., Booth, F. W., & Esser, K. A. (2023). Mechanisms of mechanical

overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy: current understanding and future

directions. Physiological Reviews, 103(4), 2679–2757.

[Link]

Santiago, Ricardo G. (2023). EXERCISE BEHAVIOR AND PHYSICAL FITNESS OF

WORKING GRADUATE STUDENTS: EVIDENCE FROM THE PHILIPPINES.

Malaysian Sports Journal, 4(1), 14–18. [Link]

Sartori, R., Romanello, V., & Sandri, M. (2021). Mechanisms of muscle atrophy and

hypertrophy: implications in health and disease. Nature Communications, 12(1).

[Link]

Schiaffino, S., Reggiani, C., Akimoto, T., & Blaauw, B. (2020). Molecular mechanisms of

skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Journal of Neuromuscular Diseases, 8(2), 169–183.

[Link]

Schoenfeld, B. J., Contreras, B., Krieger, J., Grgic, J., Delcastillo, K., Belliard, R., & Alto, A.
 38
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

(2018). Resistance training volume enhances muscle hypertrophy but not strength in

trained men. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 51(1), 94–103.

[Link]

Schoenfeld, B. J., Grgic, J., Ogborn, D., & Krieger, J. W. (2017). Strength and Hypertrophy

Adaptations Between Low- vs. High-Load Resistance Training: A Systematic Review

and Meta-analysis. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(12), 3508–

3523. [Link]

Schoenfeld, B. J., Ogborn, D., & Krieger, J. W. (2016). Effects of Resistance Training

Frequency

on Measures of Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports

Medicine, 46(11), 1689–1697. [Link]

Schoenfeld, B. J., Wilson, J. M., Lowery, R. P., & Krieger, J. W. (2014). Muscular adaptations

in

low‐ versus high‐load resistance training: A meta‐analysis. European Journal of Sport

Science, 16(1), 1–10. [Link]

Schoenfeld, B., Fisher, J., Grgic, J., Haun, C., Helms, E., Phillips, S., Steele, J., & Vigotsky, A.

(2021). Resistance Training recommendations to maximize muscle hypertrophy in an

athletic population: Position Stand of the IUSCA. International Journal of Strength and

Conditioning, 1(1). [Link]

Vann, C. G., Sexton, C. L., Osburn, S. C., Smith, M. A., Haun, C. T., Rumbley, M. N.,

Mumford,
 39
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

P. W., Montgomery, N. T., Ruple, B. A., McKendry, J., Mcleod, J., Bashir, A., Beyers,

R. J., Brook, M. S., Smith, K., Atherton, P. J., Beck, D. T., McDonald, J. R., Young, K.

C., . . . Roberts, M. D. (2022). Effects of High-Volume versus High-Load resistance

training on skeletal muscle growth and molecular adaptations. Frontiers in Physiology,

13. [Link]

Witard, O. C., Bannock, L., & Tipton, K. D. (2021). Making sense of muscle protein synthesis:

A focus on muscle growth during resistance training. International Journal of Sport

Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 32(1), 49–61. [Link]

0139
 40
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

APPENDICES

Appendix A
 41
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Appendix B
 42
BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SPORTS, EXERCISE AND RECREATION

Appendix C