[Link].

AY20-21

CS Academy, Vallipurathanpalayam, Erode.

IGCSE (0610) BIOLOGY

Classification of living organisms

Classification can be defined as grouping organisms according to their structural similarities. This
means that organisms that share similar features are placed in one group. These groups are
arranged from the largest group of organisms to the smallest group of organisms. The groups,
from largest to smallest, are arranged as follows: kingdom, phylum (plural phyla), class,
order, family, genus (plural genera) and species. The species is the smallest group of
organisms.

A species can be defined as a group of organisms with similar features, and these
organisms are capable of breeding and produce fertile offspring.
Horses and donkeys belong to the same kingdom, phylum, class, order, family as well as genus
but they are from different species. Therefore, if a donkey and the horse happen to breed, they
produce an offspring called a mule. The mule is infertile, meaning that it cannot reproduce
offspring because it is a product of organisms of different species.

Classification hierarchy has many uses-

1] It helps scientists to sort organisms in order.
2] It helps them to identify new organisms by finding out which group they fit.
3] It is easier to study organisms when they are sorted in groups.

The hierarchical classification system

Classification is traditionally based on studies of morphology (the study of the form, or outward
appearance, of organisms) and anatomy (the study of their internal structure, as revealed by
dissection).
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There are various sizes of groups into which living organisms are put. The largest group is the
kingdom. There are five kingdoms: prokaryotes (which includes bacteria), protoctista, fungi, plants
and animals. Each kingdom is further divided into smaller groups called phyla, based on a few
features that are shared by some organisms. For example, the arthropod phylum contains all the
animals without a backbone that also have jointed legs and a hard covering over their body, such
as insects, crustaceans and spiders. A phylum is then subdivided into classes, orders, families,
genera, and finally species. In this system of classification, the various groups are called taxa
(singular: taxon). This chart shows the hierarchical system of classification.
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Table 1 shows how this system can be used to classify a human being.
Kingdom Animalia all animals, same as zebra

Phylum Chordata all animals with a backbone

Class Mammalian animals with a backbone, which have hair

Order Primate mammals with hands and feet

Family Hominidae apes, primitive humans and modern humans

Genus Homo primitive humans and modern humans only

Species sapiens modern humans only

Scientific name: Homo sapiens

Table 1 Classifying the human being

The hierarchical classification system described above is based on two ideas:

• homologous structures
• evolutionary relationships

Homologous structures
Homologous structures are features of organisms that are similar in structure but may look very
different from each other and may be used for different purposes. As shown in Figure 2, a horse’s
front leg, the human arm and a bat’s wing are all homologous structures. They have the same
number and arrangement of bones and this means that they probably evolved from a single type
of structure that was present in a common ancestor millions of years ago. A fly’s wing is not
homologous with a bat’s wing. It may look similar and do the same job but it develops from a
completely different origin. The fly’s wing has no bones and is not covered by feathers. A bat’s
wing and a fly’s wing are termed analogous. A bat and a fly would not be grouped together!
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Questions
A] Each of the vertebrates shown has carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. Name three other bones
shared by all three vertebrates.

B] Describe how the metacarpals of the horse differ from those of the human.

C] How do the phalanges of the bat differ from those of the human?

D] Complete these sentences:

The human arm, the horse’s front leg and the bat’s wing are described as
structures. The wing of the bat and the wing of a fly are described as structures.

Classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships

By classifying organisms, it is also possible to understand evolutionary relationships. Vertebrates all have
the presence of a vertebral column, along with a skull protecting a brain, and a pair of jaws (usually with
teeth). By studying the anatomy of different groups of vertebrates it is possible to gain an insight into their
evolution.

Binomial system of naming species

Define and describe the binomial system
The binomial system of naming species is an internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of
an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and the species.
Binomial means ‘two names’; the first name gives the genus and the second gives the species. For
example, the stoat and weasel are both in the genus Mustela but they are different species; the stoat is
Mustela erminea and the weasel is Mustela [Link] name of the genus (the generic name) is always
given a capital letter and the name of the species (the specific name) always starts with a small letter.
Frequently, the specific name is descriptive, for example edulis means ‘edible’, aquatilis means ‘living in
water’, bulbosus means ‘having a bulb’, serratus means ‘having a jagged (serrated) edge’.
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The use of DNA has revolutionized the process of classification. Eukaryotic organisms contain
chromosomes made up of strings of genes. The chemical which forms these genes is called DNA. The
DNA is made up of a sequence of bases, coding for amino acids and, therefore, proteins. Each species has
a distinct number of chromosomes and a unique sequence of bases in its DNA, making it identifiable and
distinguishable from other species. This helps particularly when different species are very similar
morphologically (in appearance) and anatomically (in internal structure). The process of biological
classification called cladistics involves organisms being grouped together according to whether or not they
have one or more shared unique characteristics derived from the group’s last common ancestor, which are
not present in more distant ancestors. Organisms which share a more recent ancestor (and are, therefore,
more closely related) have DNA base sequences that are more similar than those that share only a distant
ancestor.
All living organisms have certain features in common, including the presence of cytoplasm and cell
membranes, and DNA as genetic material. All living organisms also contain ribosomes in the cytoplasm,
floating freely or attached to membranes called rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Ribosomes are
responsible for protein synthesis.

The five Kingdoms

The main groups of living are the 5 kingdoms. They don’t include virus since it doesn’t obey some
characteristics of life. The five kingdoms are: Bacteria, Protoctista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals.
1] The Animal kingdom
Animals are multicellular organisms whose cells have no cell walls or chloroplasts. Most animals ingest
solid food and digest it internally.
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Arthropods
The name arthropod means ‘jointed limbs’, and this is a feature common to them all. They also have a
hard, firm external skeleton, called a cuticle, which encloses their bodies. Their bodies are segmented and,
between the segments, there are flexible joints which permit movement. In most arthropods, the segments
are grouped together to form distinct regions, the head, thorax and abdomen.

1. Crustacea
● Like all arthropods, crustacea have an exoskeleton and jointed legs.
● They also have two pairs of antennae which are sensitive to touch and to chemicals, and they have
compound eyes. Compound eyes are made up of tens or hundreds of separate lenses with
light-sensitive cells beneath. They are able to form a crude image and are very sensitive to
movement.
● Typically, crustacea have a pair of jointed limbs on each segment of the body, but those on the
head segments are modified to form antennae or specialised mouthparts for feeding.

2. Insects
● Insects have segmented bodies with a firm exoskeleton, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes
and, typically, two pairs of wings.
● The segments are grouped into distinct head, thorax and abdomen regions.
● Insects differ from crustacea in having wings, only one pair of antennae and only three pairs of legs.
There are no limbs on the abdominal segments.
● The insects have very successfully colonised the land. One reason for their success is the relative
impermeability of their cuticles, which prevents desiccation even in very hot, dry climates.

3. Arachnids
● Their bodies are divided into two regions, the cephalothorax and the abdomen.
● They have four pairs of limbs on the cephalothorax, two pedipalps and two chelicerae. The
pedipalps are used in reproduction; the chelicerae are used to pierce their prey and paralyse it with
a poison secreted by a gland at the base.
● There are usually several pairs of simple eyes.

4. Myriapods
● They have a head and a segmented body which is not obviously divided into thorax and abdomen.
● There is a pair of legs on each body segment but in the millipede the abdominal segments are fused
in pairs and it looks as if it has two pairs of legs per segment. As the myriapod grows, additional
segments are formed.
● The myriapods have one pair of antennae and simple eyes.
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Vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals which have a vertebral column. The vertebral column is sometimes called the
spinal column or just the spine and consists of a chain of cylindrical bones (vertebrae) joined end to end.
So-called ‘warm-blooded’ animals, for the most part, have a body temperature higher than that of their
surroundings. The main difference, however, is that these temperatures are kept more or less constant
despite any variation in external temperature. There are internal regulatory mechanisms which keep the
body temperature within narrow limits. It is better to use the terms poikilothermic (variable temperature) and
homoiothermic (constant temperature). However, to simplify the terms, ‘cold blooded’ and ‘warm blooded’
will be referred to in this section.

1. Fish
● Fish are poikilothermic (cold blooded) vertebrates.
● Many of them have a smooth, streamlined shape which offers minimal resistance to the water
through which they move.
● Their bodies are covered with overlapping scales and they have fins which play a part in movement.
● Fish breathe by means of filamentous gills which are protected by a bony plate, the operculum.
● Fish reproduce sexually but fertilisation usually takes place externally; the female lays eggs and the
male sheds sperms on them after they have been laid.

2. Amphibia
● Amphibia are poikilothermic (cold blooded) vertebrates with four limbs and no scales. The class
includes frogs, toads and newts. The name, amphibian, means ‘double life’ and refers to the fact
that the organism spends part of its life in water and part on the land. In fact, most frogs, toads and
newts spend much of their time on the land, in moist situations, and return to ponds or other water
only to lay eggs.
● Amphibia have four limbs. In frogs and toads, the hind feet have a web of skin between the toes.
This offers a large surface area to thrust against the water when the animal is swimming. Newts
swim by a wriggling, fish-like movement of their bodies and make less use of their limbs for
swimming.
● Amphibia have moist skins with a good supply of capillaries which can exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide with the air or water. They also have lungs which can be inflated by a kind of
swallowing action. They do not have a diaphragm or ribs.
● Fertilisation is external.

3. Reptiles
● Reptiles are land-living vertebrates.
● Their skins are dry and the outer layer of epidermis forms a pattern of scales. This dry, scaly skin
resists water loss.
● Also the eggs of most species have a tough, parchment like shell. Reptiles, therefore, are not
restricted to damp habitats, nor do they need water in which to breed.
● Reptiles are poikilothermic (cold blooded) but they can regulate their temperature to some extent.
They do this by basking in the sun until their bodies warm up. When reptiles warm up, they can
move about rapidly in pursuit of insects and other prey.
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4. Birds
● Birds are homeothermic (warm blooded) vertebrates.
● The vertebral column in the neck is flexible but the rest of the vertebrae are fused to form a rigid
structure. This is probably an adaptation to flight, as the powerful wing muscles need a rigid frame
to work against.
● The epidermis over most of the body produces a covering of feathers but, on the legs and toes, the
epidermis forms scales. The feathers are of several kinds. The fluffy down feathers form an
insulating layer close to the skin; the contour feathers cover the body and give the bird its shape and
colouration; the large quill feathers on the wing are essential for flight.
● Birds have four limbs, but the forelimbs are modified to form wings. The feet have four toes with
claws which help the bird to perch, scratch for seeds or capture prey, according to the species.
● The upper and lower jaws are extended to form a beak which is used for feeding in various ways.
● In birds, fertilisation is internal and the female lays hard-shelled eggs in a nest where she incubates
them.

5. Mammals
● Mammals are homeothermic (warm blooded) vertebrates with four limbs.
● They differ from birds in having hair rather than feathers.
● Unlike the other vertebrates they have a diaphragm which plays a part in breathing.
● They also have mammary glands and suckle their young on milk. Humans are mammals.
● All mammals give birth to fully formed young instead of laying eggs.
● The eggs are fertilized internally.

2] The plant kingdom

It is useful to have an overview of the classification of the plant kingdom, although only two groups (ferns
and flowering plants) will be tested in the examination.

1. Ferns
● Ferns are land plants with quite highly developed structures.
● Their stems, leaves and roots are very similar to those of the flowering plants.
● The ferns and seed-bearing plants are sometimes referred to as vascular plants, because they all
have vascular bundles or vascular tissue.
● Ferns produce gametes but no seeds. The zygote gives rise to the fern plant, which then produces
single-celled spores from numerous sporangia (spore capsules) on its leaves. The sporangia are
formed on the lower side of the leaf but their position depends on the species of fern.

2. Flowering plants
● Flowering plants reproduce by seeds which are formed in flowers. The seeds are enclosed in an
ovary.
● Flowering plants are divided into two subclasses: monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
Monocotyledons (monocots for short), are flowering plants which have only one cotyledon in their
seeds. Most, but not all, monocots also have long, narrow leaves (e.g. grasses, daffodils, and
bluebells) with parallel leaf veins.
● The dicotyledons (dicots for short), have two cotyledons in their seeds. Their leaves are usually
broad and the leaf veins form a branching network.
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3] The Fungi kingdom

Most fungi are made up of thread-like hyphae, rather than cells, and there are many nuclei distributed
throughout the cytoplasm in their hyphae. There are also the less obvious, but very important, mould fungi
which grow on stale bread, cheese, fruit or other food. Many of the mould fungi live in the soil or in dead
wood. The yeasts are single-celled fungi similar to the moulds in some respects.

Mould

4] The Prokaryote kingdom

These are the bacteria and the blue-green algae. They consist of single cells but differ from other
single-celled organisms because their chromosomes are not organized into a nucleus.
Bacteria
1. Made from single cells
2. Cells do not contain a nucleus, but have a small piece of circular DNA instead (a bacterial chromosome).
3. Some bacteria can carry out rudimentary photosynthesis, but most are saprophytes
4. They have the structure below

Examples include Lactobacillus bulgaris (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from
milk) and Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that causes Pneumonia)
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5] The Protoctist kingdom

Most are single celled organisms which can either;
1. Have animal-like characteristics (e.g. Amoeba)
2. Have plant-like characteristics (e.g. Chlorella)

However, some protoctists are multicellular e.g. seaweeds,

Viruses
● Much smaller than bacteria.
● They are not made from cells
● Totally parasitic and reproduce inside host cells
● They infect every type of living cell
They have the structure below

The Envelope is used to gain entry into host cells.

The Capsid is a protein coat and is used to protect the genetic information and give the virus structure

The DNA or RNA (a different type of nucleic acid) contain the code for building new viruses.
Examples include the Tobacco Mosaic Virus and the Influenza virus (which causes flu).
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