Bio.
II Module 8
DEVELOPMENT
A : Stages of Early Embryonic Development
B : Cellular and Molecular Development
C : Basis of Morphogenesis and Differentiation
LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF MODULE 8
Upon completion of this development module 8 the successful students
should be able to;
1. Explain the stages of early embryonic development
2. Describe both the cellular and molecular development
3. Describe the basis of morphogenesis and differentiation in development
A : Stages of Early Embryonic Development
• The early stages of embryonic development in mammals are generally
the same, only differs on periods they get to those stages.
• Emyonic development starts with fertilisation.
• This union of sperm and egg both haploid to form a diploid zygote.
• This union triggers the activation of the egg's metabolic changes that
start embryonic development.
• However, the process of the union has many barriers and exclusive
mechanisms that does not allow the penetration of the egg by more than
one sperm cell.
For instance;
• 1. The distance it needs to travel to achieve the internal fertilisation
• 2. To break the egg's jelly coat by the use of acrosomal enzymes
• 3. Protein on sperm head should bind to egg receptors
• 4. Plasma membranes of egg and sperm must fuse
• 5. Sperm nucleus must enter the cytoplasm
• 6. The fertilisation membrane forms
7. Finally the egg and sperm nuclei must fuse to form a zygote
Man is made of trillions of cells organised into complex tissues and organs.
The transformation to this multi-cellular state from a zygote is amazingly
phenomenal.
• Order and precision are required at every step.
1) Cleavage:- cleavage produces a ball of cells from the zygote and is one
of the two major phases of early embryonic development.
• This phase involve the quick succession of cell divisions that produces a
ball of cells called morula, apprx 16 to 64 celled ball same size as the
zygote, nutritionally fed from the egg storage.
2) Blastula
• At the completion of Cleavage there is a blastula, with a fluid filled
cavity in the centre of the ball of cells called blastocoel.
3) Gastrulation:- Gastrulation produces a three-layered embryo.
This phase adds more cells to the embryo, more importantly, it sorts all the
cells into distinct cell layers.
The embryo is transformed from blastula into a three layered stage called
the gastrula. These layers are;
• • 1. Ectoderm
• • 2. Endoderm
• • 3. Mesoderm
The embryo is transformed from blastula into a three layered stage called
the gastrula. These layers are;
1. Ectoderm
2. Endoderm
3. Mesoderm
• Ectoderm forms outer layer (skin) of the gastrula.
• Endoderm forms an embryonic digestive tract, and the mesoderm
partly fills the space between the ectoderm and endoderm.
• Eventually these layers develop into all the parts of an adult animal.
e.g epidermis and our nervous system come from the ectoderm; the
innermost lining of our digestive tract arises from endoderm;
and most of the other organs and tissues, such as the kidneys, heart
muscles and the inner lining of our skin (dermis) develop from the
mesoderm
B. Cellular and Molecular Development
1. Cellular development of multicellular organisms, including us “Men” is a
well coordinated process, which starts from the union of two cells, when the
cells' nuclei fuse to form a zygote.
Which becomes a totipotent cell capable of forming any tissue or organ in
our bodies.
B. Cellular and Molecular Development
• The zygote goes into rapid cell division one to two, four, eight, sixteen,
thirty two up to sixty four in a process called cleavage.
• Within a period of six to seven days forming a blastula in other animals,
blastocyst in humans to continue with cellular development into a
process called gastrulation in 8 to 12 days the blastocyst is implanted
into the utrine wall.
• By this 12th day the formation of the three layers of cells are evident;
Ectoderm. Endoderm and mesoderm
• From day 12 to 22-23. the three germ cells start to differentiate into;
neurulation and organogenesis proceed on, this stage starts with
the primitive streak which establishes the bilateral symmetry of the
embryo, giving it the head to tail and front to back orientation.
2. Molecular development of organisms is a complex pathways of
developmental molecules, the major ones are the DNAs and RNA, which
work together to develop a zygote into an adult organism.
• All the diploid cells formed during early embryonic growth are
pluripotent stem cells have the entire genome of the animal species
involved.
• These processes involve master regulatory genes that control the
switches of gene expression on or off
C. Basis of Morphogenesis and Differentiation
• From the previous sub- unit of the module, we have looked at phases of
cleavage from zygote to blastula in a sea urchin and also the phase of
gastrulation from blastula to gastrula in a frog.
• To summarize, the key phases in embryonic development are; cleavage
(which creates a multi cellular animal from a zygote), gastrulation
(which organizes• the embryo into three discreet layers), and organ
formation (differentiation of the three embryonic tissue layers into
embryonic organs.
• These same three phases take place in nearly all animals.
• The third phase which is organ formation start to form after
gastrulation which is the basis of this sub-unit and sets the stage for the
shaping of an animal's morphology (body).
• Once the ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm form, cells in each layer
begin to differentiate into tissues and embryonic organs.
• In a frog, we observe two structures in the embryo which are:
1) Notochord, which develops from the mesoderm.
2) And another structure which will become the hollow nerve cord is
beginning to form in the ectoderm.
• The notochord forms just above the archenterone (digestive area).
• This notochord extends for most of the embryos length and provides
support for other developing tissues.
• Later the notochord will function as a core around which mesodermal
cells gather and form the frog's backbone.
• The beginning's of the frog's hollow nerve cord is a thickened region of
ectoderm called the neural plate.
• From it there rises a neural tube destined to become the brain and
spinal cord.
• The neural tube lies directly above the notochord, therefore the relative
positions of the neural tube, notochord and archenterone gives us a view
of the basic body plan of a frog.
• The spinal cord will lie within extensions of the dorsal surface of the
backbone (which will replace the notochord), and the digestive tract will
be ventral to the backbone.
• Later the notochord will function as a core around which mesodermal
cells gather and form the frog's backbone.
• The beginning's of the frog's hollow nerve cord is a thickened region of
ectoderm called the neural plate.
• This arrangement of organs is seen in all vertebrates.
• As the embryo elongates, the beginnings of an eye and a tail (called the
tail bud).
• Internal ridges called somites are seen, which are blocks of mesoderm
that will give rise to segmental structures such as the vertebrae and
associated muscles of the backbone.
• The mesoderm next to the somites develops into a hollow space called
the body cavity or coelon.
• Cell shape changes, cell migration, and cell aggregation are the key
processes in early embryonic development.
• For instance, two changes in cell shape bring about the formation of the
neural tube, cells of the ectoderm fall inward by first elongating (cell
shape change) and then becoming wedge shaped (cell shape change).
• The result of this is a tube of ectoderm.
• Cluster of ectodermal cells migrating within a gastrula develops
pseudopodia, the finger- like cellular extensions by which the cells move.
• Many embryonic cells migrate to specific destinations by following
chemical trails (which may be secreted by cells near their destination).
• Once a migrating cell reaches its destination specific proteins on its
surface allows it to recognize similar cells (cell migration).
• The similar cells then aggregate or clump together and secrete proteins
that glue them in place (cell aggregation).
• Through the process of differentiation, the cells then take on the
characteristics of a particular tissue.
Embryonic induction initiates organ formation.
• When a cell differentiates some of its genes are turned on and
expressed while others remain inactive.
• Embryonic induction is a mechanism in which one group of cells
influences the development of another group of cells.
• It plays a major role in the early development of tissues and organs from
ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.
• This induction occurs by actual physical contact between two groups of
cells or by chemical signals.
• In either case, the effect is to switch on a set of genes that make the
receiving cells differentiate into a specific tissue.
• For instance, the eyes do take shape when an outgrowth of the
developing brain the optic vesicle induces ectoderm on the body surface
to thicken.
• The thickened ectoderm induces the optical vesicle to form a cup.
• As the optical cup enlarges and begins to form the retina, the cup
induces the thickened ectoderm to indent (to curve inside) and start
forming the lens.
• The developing lens further induces development of the cornea.
Pattern formation in embryonic development organises the animals
body.
• The shaping of an animals major parts involves pattern formation.
• The emergence of a body form with specialized organs and tissues all in
the right places
• Research indicates that the master control genes respond to
chemical signals that tell a cell where it is relative to other cells in the
embryo.
• These positional signals determine which master control genes will
be expressed and consequently which body parts will form.
• All vertebrate limbs develop from embryonic structures called limb
buds.
• In human species, cleavage takes about 7 days resulting into a blastocyst
equivalent to a blastula in sea urchins.
• At this time the blatocyst implants itself into the endometrium an
embryonic disc of two cell layers is formed.
• By the ninth day, the extra embryonic membranes start to form.
These are;
1. -the chorion
2. -the omnion
3. -the yolk sac
4. -the allantois
• The first extra embryonic membrane chorion becomes the embryos
part of the placenta, cells in the chorion secrete a hormone called
human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which contains the corpus
luteum of the ovary during the first three months of pregnancy.
• The corpus luteum continues to secrete ostrogen and progesterone
into the mother's blood.
• Without this hormones, menstruation would occur and the embryo
would abort spontaneously.
2) The second extra embryonic membrane omnion, starts forming from
ectoderm soon after implantation.
• It eventually encloses and protects the embryo, its cavity is filled with
fluid which absorbs shock and prevents the embryo from drying out.
• The omnion usually breaks just before child birth and the amniotic fluid
commonly called water, leaves the mother's body.
3) The third extra embryonic membrane is the yolk sac which develops
from part of the embryonic disc.
• In humans and most other mammals, it contains no yolk but is given the
same name as the same structure in other vertebrates which have eggs
with shells.
4) The fourth and final extra embryonic membrane is the allantois
developing as an extension of the yolk sac.
• In birds and reptiles, which lay eggs outside.
• The allantois becomes an important structure in waste disposal.
• However, in humans and other mammals, it remains small and forms
part of the umbilical cord- the life line between the embryo and the
placenta.
• It also forms part of the embryo's urinary bladder.
• When the embryo gets to one month after fertilization. It reaches about
7 mm long and has a number of features in common with the somite
stage of frog embryo.
• It has a notochord and a coelom, both formed from mesoderm.
• For convenience in studying human development, the period of
gestation from conception to birth is divided into three phases about
three months each;
The first trimester
• Is the time of most radical change.
• At 9 weeks, its 5.5cm long and has all of its organs and major body
parts including a disproportionately large head.
• The somites have developed into the segmental muscles and the bones of
the back and ribs.
• The limb buds have become tiny arms and legs with fingers and toes.
The second trimester
• Is the main developmental stages which continues from second to third
trimester involve an increase in size and general refinement of the
human features.
• During the second trimester, the placenta takes over the task of
maintaining itself by secreting progesterone rather than receiving it
through the corpus luteum.
• At the same time, the placenta stops secreting HCG and the corpus
luteum no longer needed to maintain pregnancy degenerates.
The third trimester
• This starts from 24 weeks to birth is a time of rapid growth as the foetus
gains the strength it will need to survive outside the protective
environment of the uterus.
• Babies born prematurely as early as the 24th week may survive ,but
require special medical care.
• During this period, the foetus' circulatory and respiratory system
undergo changes that will allow the switch to air breathing.
• The foetus also gains the ability to maintain its own temperature, bones
begin to harden and its muscles thicken.
• At birth the typical baby is about 50 cm long and weighs about 2.7 to
4.5kgs.