Snake

Snakes are elongated, limbless reptiles of the suborder Serpentes (/sɜːrˈpɛntiːz/).[2] Like all other
squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many
species of snakes have skulls with several more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to
swallow prey much larger than their heads (cranial kinesis). To accommodate their narrow bodies,
snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and
most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws
on either side of the cloaca. Lizards have independently evolved elongate bodies without limbs or
with greatly reduced limbs at least twenty-five times via convergent evolution, leading to many
lineages of legless lizards.[3] These resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless lizards
have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack, although this rule is not universal (see
Amphisbaenia, Dibamidae, and Pygopodidae).

Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica, and on most smaller land masses;
exceptions include some large islands, such as Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, and the islands of New
Zealand, as well as many small islands of the Atlantic and central Pacific oceans.[4] Additionally, sea
snakes are widespread throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans. Around thirty families are
currently recognized, comprising about 520 genera and about 3,900 species.[5] They range in size
from the tiny, 10.4 cm-long (4.1 in) Barbados threadsnake[6] to the reticulated python of 6.95 meters
(22.8 ft) in length.[7] The fossil species Titanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8 meters (42 ft) long.[8]
Snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards, perhaps during the
Jurassic period, with the earliest known fossils dating to between 143 and 167 Ma ago.[9][10] The
diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene epoch (c. 66 to 56 Ma ago, after the
Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event). The oldest preserved descriptions of snakes can be found
in the Brooklyn Papyrus.

Most species of snake are nonvenomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and
subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom that is potent enough to cause
painful injury or death to humans. Nonvenomous snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by
constriction.

Etymology

The English word snake comes from Old English snaca, itself from Proto-Germanic *snak-an- (cf.
Germanic Schnake 'ring snake', Swedish snok 'grass snake'), from Proto-Indo-European root *(s)nēg-
o- 'to crawl to creep', which also gave sneak as well
Snake
as Sanskrit nāgá 'snake'.[11] The word ousted adder,
Temporal range:
as adder went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old
Late Cretaceous – Present,[1]
[12]
English næddre was the general word for snake.
The other term, serpent, is from French, ultimately
from Indo-European *serp- 'to creep',[13] which also
gave Ancient Greek ἕρπω (hérpō) 'I crawl' and
Sanskrit sarpá ‘snake’.[14]
Corallus caninus Crotalus cerastes
Taxonomy

All modern snakes are grouped within the suborder

Serpentes in Linnean taxonomy, part of the order
Squamata, though their precise placement within Naja naja Leptotyphlops distanti
squamates remains controversial.[15]
Scientific classification
The two infraorders of Serpentes are Alethinophidia
and Scolecophidia.[15] This separation is based on Domain: Eukaryota
morphological characteristics and mitochondrial
Kingdom: Animalia
DNA sequence similarity. Alethinophidia is
sometimes split into Henophidia and Caenophidia, Phylum: Chordata
with the latter consisting of "colubroid" snakes
Class: Reptilia
(colubrids, vipers, elapids, hydrophiids, and
atractaspids) and acrochordids, while the other Order: Squamata
[16]
alethinophidian families comprise Henophidia.
While not extant today, the Madtsoiidae, a family of Clade: Ophidia

giant, primitive, python-like snakes, was around until Suborder: Serpentes

50,000 years ago in Australia, represented by genera Linnaeus, 1758
such as Wonambi.[17]
Infraorders
Recent molecular studies support the monophyly of
the clades of modern snakes, scolecophidians, Alethinophidia Nopcsa, 1923
typhlopids + anomalepidids, alethinophidians, core Scolecophidia Cope, 1864
alethinophidians, uropeltids (Cylindrophis,
Anomochilus, uropeltines), macrostomatans, booids,
boids, pythonids and caenophidians.[18]
Families

Approximate world distribution of snakes, all species

Infraorder Alethinophidia 25 families

Taxon
Family[5] Genera[5] Species[5] Common name Geographic range[19]
author[5]

Western India and Sri Lanka through

tropical Southeast Asia to the Philippines,
south through the Indonesian/Malaysian
Bonaparte, island group to Timor, east through New
Acrochordidae 1 3 Wart snakes
1831 Guinea to the northern coast of Australia
to Mussau Island, the Bismarck
Archipelago and Guadalcanal Island in the
Solomon Islands.

Stejneger,
Aniliidae 1 1 False coral snake Tropical South America.
1907

Cundall,
West Malaysia and on the Indonesian
Anomochilidae Wallach, 1 3 Dwarf pipe snakes
island of Sumatra.
1993

Günther,
Atractaspididae 12 72 Burrowing asps Africa and the Middle East
1858

Northern, Central and South America, the

Caribbean, southeastern Europe and Asia
Minor, Northern, Central and East Africa,
Madagascar and Reunion Island, the
Boidae Gray, 1825 14 61 Boas
Arabian Peninsula, Central and
southwestern Asia, India and Sri Lanka,
the Moluccas and New Guinea through to
Melanesia and Samoa.

Hoffstetter,
Bolyeriidae 2 2 Splitjaw snakes Mauritius.
1946

Widespread on all continents, except

Colubridae Oppel, 1811 258[5] 2055[5] Typical snakes
Antarctica.[20]

Weinell &
Cyclocoridae 5 8 Cyclocorids The Philippines
Brown, 2017
 Sri Lanka east through Myanmar,
Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the
Malay Archipelago to as far east as Aru
Fitzinger,
Cylindrophiidae 1 14 Asian pipe snakes Islands off the southwestern coast of
1843
New Guinea. Also found in southern China
(Fujian, Hong Kong and on Hainan Island)
and in Laos.

On land, worldwide in tropical and

subtropical regions, except in Europe. Sea
Elapidae Boie, 1827 55 389 Elapids
snakes occur in the Indian Ocean and the
Pacific.[21]

Bonaparte,
Homalopsidae 28 53 Homalopsids Southeastern Asia and northern Australia.
1845

Lamprophiids
(formerly included
Fitzinger, Atracaspididae,
Lamprophiidae 16 89 Africa (including the Seychelles)
1843 Psammophiidae,
and several other
families)

Mexican Along the Pacific versant from Mexico

Loxocemidae Cope, 1861 1 1
burrowing snake south to Costa Rica.

Das et al., Two-headed

Micrelapidae 1 4 Eastern Africa and the Levant
2023 snakes

Southeast Asia and islands on the Sunda

Snail-eating
Pareidae Romer, 1956 3 20 Shelf (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and their
snakes
surrounding smaller islands).

Kelly, Barker,
Villet & Shovel-snout
Prosymnidae 1 16 Subsaharan Africa
Broadley, snakes
2009

Das et al.,
Psammodynastidae 1 2 Mock vipers Tropical Asia
2024

Bourgeois, Africa (including Madagascar), Asia and

Psammophiidae 8 55 Psammophiids
1968 southern Europe

Pseudaspididae Cope, 1893 2 2 Pseudaspidids Subsaharan Africa

Dowling, Mostly Madagascar and the Comoros; 5

Pseudoxyrhophiidae 22 89 Pseudoxyrhophiids
1975 species in subsaharan Africa, 1 in Socotra
 Subsaharan Africa, India, Myanmar,
Fitzinger, southern China, Southeast Asia and from
Pythonidae 8 40 Pythons
1826 the Philippines southeast through
Indonesia to New Guinea and Australia.

West Indies; also Panama and

Brongersma,
Tropidophiidae 2 34 Dwarf boas northwestern South America, as well as in
1951
northwestern and southeastern Brazil.

Shield-tailed
Uropeltidae Müller, 1832 8 55 Southern India and Sri Lanka.
snakes

The Americas, Africa, and Eurasia east to

Viperidae Oppel, 1811 35 341 Vipers
Wallace's Line.

Southern and southeastern Asia, and

Dragon and odd- islands on the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra,
Xenodermidae Cope, 1900 6 18
scaled snakes Borneo, Java, and their surrounding
smaller islands).

Southeast Asia from the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands, east through Myanmar to
Bonaparte, southern China, Thailand, Laos,
Xenopeltidae 1 2 Sunbeam snakes
1845 Cambodia, Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula
and the East Indies to Sulawesi, as well as
the Philippines.

Wallach &
Spine-jawed
Xenophidiidae Günther, 1 2 Borneo and peninsular Malaysia.
snakes
1998
 Infraorder Scolecophidia 5 families

Common
Family[5] Taxon author[5] Genera[5] Species[5] Geographic range[19]
name

From southern Central America to

Primitive northwestern South America. Disjunct
Anomalepidae Taylor, 1939 4 18
blind snakes populations in northeastern and southeastern
South America.

Vidal, Wynn, Indo-

Southern and southeastern Asia, including Sri
Gerrhopilidae Donnellan and 2 18 Malayan
Lanka, the Philippines, and New Guinea.
Hedges 2010 blindsnakes

Africa, western Asia from Turkey to

northwestern India, on Socotra Island, from the
southwestern United States south through
Mexico and Central to South America, though
Slender blind not in the high Andes. In Pacific South America
Leptotyphlopidae Stejneger, 1892 13 139
snakes they occur as far south as southern coastal
Peru, and on the Atlantic side as far as
Uruguay and Argentina. In the Caribbean they
are found on the Bahamas, Hispaniola and the
Lesser Antilles.

Most tropical and many subtropical regions

Typical blind around the world, particularly in Africa,
Typhlopidae Merrem, 1820 18 266
snakes Madagascar, Asia, islands in the Pacific,
tropical America and in southeastern Europe.

Vidal, Vences,
Round-nosed
Xenotyphlopidae Branch and 1 1 Northern Madagascar.
blindsnake
Hedges 2010

Legless lizards

While snakes are limbless reptiles, evolved from (and grouped with) lizards, there are many other
species of lizards that have lost their limbs independently but which superficially look similar to
snakes. These include the slowworm, glass snake, and amphisbaenians.[22]

Evolution

The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are typically small and fragile
making fossilization uncommon. Fossils readily identifiable as snakes (though often retaining hind
limbs) first appear in the fossil record during the Cretaceous period.[24] The earliest known true
snake fossils (members of the crown group Serpentes) come from the marine simoliophiids, the
oldest of which is the Late A family level phylogenetic overview of modern snakes.
Cretaceous (Cenomanian age) Note: the tree only indicates relationships, not evolutionary
Haasiophis terrasanctus from the branching times. This is not a definitive tree. It is the best that could
be done as of 2024. See original paper for a discussion of
West Bank,[1] dated to between difficulties.[23]
⁠
112 and 94 million years old.[25] ⁠
Leptotyphlopidae
⁠
Gerrhopilidae
Based on genomic analysis it is ⁠Scolecophidia ⁠
⁠ ⁠ ⁠
certain that snakes descend from Typhlopidae
⁠ ⁠ ⁠
lizards.[23] This conclusion is also ⁠ ⁠
Xenophidiidae
⁠
supported by comparative ⁠
Anomalepididae
anatomy, and the fossil ⁠
⁠
record.[26]: 11 [27][23] ⁠ ⁠
Aniliidae
⁠ ⁠
Tropidophiidae
Pythons and boas—primitive ⁠
⁠ ⁠
groups among modern snakes— Xenopeltidae
⁠ ⁠
have vestigial hind limbs: tiny, ⁠ ⁠
Loxocemidae
clawed digits known as anal ⁠ ⁠ ⁠
⁠ ⁠
Pythonidae
spurs, which are used to grasp ⁠ ⁠
during mating.[26]: 11 [28] The ⁠ ⁠ ⁠ Boidae
⁠ ⁠
families Leptotyphlopidae and ⁠ ⁠ ⁠
Bolyeridae
Typhlopidae also possess ⁠Snakes ⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠
⁠ ⁠
⁠ Xenophidiidae
remnants of the pelvic girdle, ⁠
⁠
appearing as horny projections ⁠
Uropeltidae
⁠
when visible. ⁠Alethinophidia
⁠ ⁠
Anomochilidae
⁠ ⁠ ⁠
⁠
⁠ ⁠
Front limbs are nonexistent in all Cylindrophiidae
⁠
known snakes. This is caused by ⁠ ⁠
Acrochordidae
the evolution of their Hox genes, ⁠ ⁠
⁠ ⁠
Xenodermidae
controlling limb morphogenesis. ⁠ ⁠
⁠ ⁠
The axial skeleton of the snakes' Pareidae
⁠ ⁠
common ancestor, like most ⁠ ⁠
Viperidae
⁠ ⁠ ⁠
other tetrapods, had regional
⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠
Homalopsidae
specializations consisting of ⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠
⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠
cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), Colubridae
⁠ ⁠ ⁠ ⁠
lumbar (lower back), sacral ⁠ ⁠ ⁠ Lamprophiidae
⁠ ⁠ ⁠
(pelvic), and caudal (tail)
⁠ ⁠
Elapidae
vertebrae. Early in snake ⁠
evolution, the Hox gene
expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the development of the thorax became dominant. As
a result, the vertebrae anterior to the hindlimb buds (when present) all have the same thoracic-like
identity (except from the atlas, axis, and 1–3 neck vertebrae). In other words, most of a snake's
skeleton is an extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found exclusively on the thoracic vertebrae.
Neck, lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are very reduced in number (only 2–10 lumbar and pelvic
vertebrae are present), while only a short tail remains of the caudal vertebrae. However, the tail is
still long enough to be of important use in many species, and is modified in some aquatic and tree-
dwelling species.

Many modern snake groups originated during the Paleocene, alongside the adaptive radiation of
mammals following the extinction of (non-avian) dinosaurs. The expansion of grasslands in North
America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes.[29] Previously, snakes were a minor
component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their
prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances of vipers and elapids in North America
and the significant diversification of Colubridae (including the origin of many modern genera such
as Nerodia, Lampropeltis, Pituophis, and Pantherophis).[29]

Fossils

There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards during the
Cretaceous Period.[30][31] An early fossil snake relative, Najash rionegrina, was a two-legged
burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial.[32] Najash, which lived 95 million years
ago, also had a skull with several features typical for lizards, but had evolved some of the mobile
skull joints that define the flexible skull in most modern snakes. The species did not show any
resemblances to the modern burrowing blind snakes, which have often been seen as the most
primitive group of extant forms.[33] One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless
monitor Lanthanotus of Borneo (though it is also semiaquatic).[34] Subterranean species evolved
bodies streamlined for burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs.[34] According to this hypothesis,
features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with
fossorial difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears.[31][34] Some primitive snakes
are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the
vertebrae. These include fossil species like Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis, which are
slightly older than Najash.[28]

This hypothesis was strengthened in 2015 by the discovery of a 113-million-year-old fossil of a four-
legged snake in Brazil that has been named Tetrapodophis amplectus. It has many snake-like
features, is adapted for burrowing and its stomach indicates that it was preying on other animals.[35]
It is currently uncertain if Tetrapodophis is a snake or another species, in the squamate order, as a
snake-like body has independently evolved at least 26 times. Tetrapodophis does not have
distinctive snake features in its spine and skull.[36][37] A study in 2021 places the animal in a group
of extinct marine lizards from the Cretaceous period known as dolichosaurs and not directly related
to snakes.[38]

An alternative hypothesis, based on morphology, suggests the ancestors of snakes were related to
mosasaurs—extinct aquatic reptiles from the Cretaceous—forming the clade Pythonomorpha.[27]
According to this hypothesis, the fused, transparent eyelids of snakes are thought to have evolved to
combat marine conditions (corneal water loss through osmosis), and the external ears were lost
through disuse in an aquatic environment. This ultimately led to an animal similar to today's sea
snakes. In the Late Cretaceous, snakes recolonized land, and continued to diversify into today's
snakes. Fossilized snake remains are known from early Late Cretaceous marine sediments, which is
consistent with this hypothesis; particularly so, as they are older than the terrestrial Najash
rionegrina. Similar skull structure, reduced or absent limbs, and other anatomical features found in
both mosasaurs and snakes lead to a positive cladistical correlation, although some of these
features are shared with varanids.

Genetic studies in recent years have indicated snakes are not as closely related to monitor lizards
as was once believed—and therefore not to mosasaurs, the proposed ancestor in the aquatic
scenario of their evolution. However, more evidence links mosasaurs to snakes than to varanids.
Fragmented remains found from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous indicate deeper fossil records
for these groups, which may potentially refute either hypothesis.[39][40]

Tetrapodophis Eupodophis Eupodophis Eupodophis

descouensi descouensi descouensi hind leg

Genetic basis of snake evolution

Both fossils and phylogenetic studies demonstrate that snakes evolved from lizards, hence the
question became which genetic changes led to limb loss in the snake ancestor. Limb loss is actually
very common in extant reptiles and has happened dozens of times within skinks, anguids, and other
lizards.[41]

In 2016, two studies reported that limb loss in snakes is associated with DNA mutations in the Zone
of Polarizing Activity Regulatory Sequence (ZRS), a regulatory region of the sonic hedgehog gene
which is critically required for limb development. More advanced snakes have no remnants of limbs,
but basal snakes such as pythons and boas do have traces of highly reduced, vestigial hind limbs.
Python embryos even have fully developed hind limb buds, but their later development is stopped by
the DNA mutations in the ZRS.[42][43][44][45]

Distribution

Approximate world distribution of snakes

There are about 3,900 species of snakes,[46] ranging as far northward as the Arctic Circle in
Scandinavia and southward through Australia.[27] Snakes can be found on every continent except
Antarctica, as well as in the sea, and as high as 16,000 feet (4,900 m) in the Himalayan Mountains
of Asia.[27][47]: 143 There are numerous islands from which snakes are absent, such as Ireland,
Iceland, and New Zealand[4][47] (although New Zealand's northern waters are infrequently visited by
the yellow-bellied sea snake and the banded sea krait).[48]
Biology

An adult Barbados threadsnake,

Leptotyphlops carlae, on an
American quarter dollar

Size

The now extinct Titanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8 m (42 ft) in length.[8] By comparison, the largest
extant snakes are the reticulated python, measuring about 6.95 m (22.8 ft) long,[7] and the green
anaconda, which measures about 5.21 m (17.1 ft) long and is considered the heaviest snake on
Earth at 97.5 kg (215 lb).[49]

At the other end of the scale, the smallest extant snake is Leptotyphlops carlae, with a length of
about 10.4 cm (4.1 in).[6] Most snakes are fairly small animals, approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) in
length.[50]

Perception

Some of the most highly developed sensory systems are found in the Crotalidae, or pit vipers—the
rattlesnakes and their associates. Pit vipers have all the sense organs of other snakes, as well as
additional aids. Pit refers to special infrared-sensitive receptors located on either side of the head,
between the nostrils and the eyes. In fact the pit looks like an extra pair of nostrils. All snakes have
the ability to sense warmth with touch and heat receptors like other animals ;however, the highly
developed pit of the pit vipers is distinctive. Each pit is made of a pit cavity and an inner cavity, the
larger one lies just behind and generally below the level of the nostril, and opens forward. Behind
this larger cavity is a finer one, barely visible; the cavities are connected internally, separated only by
a membrane with nerves that are extraordinarily attuned to detecting temperature changes between.
As in the overlapping vision fields of human eyes, the forward-facing pit on either side of the face
combined produces a field of vision: a pit viper can distinguish between objects and their
environments, as well as accurately judge the distance between objects and itself. The heat sensing
ability of a pit viper is so great that it can react to a difference as small as one third of a degree
Fahrenheit. Other infrared-sensitive snakes have multiple, smaller labial pits lining the upper lip, just
below the nostrils.[51]

A snake tracks its prey using smell, collecting airborne particles with its forked tongue, then passing
them to the vomeronasal organ or Jacobson's organ in the mouth for examination.[51] The fork in the
tongue provides a sort of directional sense of smell and taste simultaneously.[51] The snake's
tongue is constantly in motion, sampling particles from the air, ground, and water, analyzing the
chemicals found, and determining the presence of prey or predators in the local environment. In
water-dwelling snakes, such as the anaconda, the tongue functions efficiently underwater.[51]

To pick up particles in the air, the tongue is flicked out. Like a hand getting the weight of something,
the fork in the tongue simultaneously provides a sort of directional sense. Snakes have a good
sense of smell, but this sense is greatly enhanced in the window of a special organ, the Jacobson's
organ. As the tongue is peeled back into the mouth, the forked tip is pressed into the cavities of the
Jacobson's organ. Withdrawn to a point, the tongue and the Jacobson's organ work in concert for a
taste-smell analysis. The organ itself gives the snake an extrasensory conduit. Quite literally, the
snake gets a taste of the neighborhood, capable of slithering in rooms of information like the doors
are open.[52][51]

A line diagram from The Fauna of

British India by G. A. Boulenger (1890),
illustrating the terminology of shields
on the head of a snake

Up until as late as the mid 20th century it was assumed snakes could not hear.[53][54] In fact snakes
have two distinct and wholly independent systems. One of these systems, the somatic, involves
transmission of frequencies through ventral skin receptors via the spine. The other system involves
vibrations that are transmitted through the snake's attenuated lung to the brain via cranial nerve. A
snake's sensitivity to vibration is extremely high.[53] [51] [54] In a quiet room, a snake can hear
someone speaking softly.[52]

Snake vision varies greatly between species. Some have keen eyesight and others are only able to
distinguish light from dark, but the important trend is that a snake's visual perception is adequate
enough to track movements.[55] Generally, vision is best in tree-dwelling snakes and weakest in
burrowing snakes. Some have binocular vision, where both eyes are capable of focusing on the
same point, an example of this being the Asian vine snake. Most snakes focus by moving the lens
back and forth in relation to the retina. Diurnal snakes have round pupils and many nocturnal snakes
have slit pupils. Most species possess three visual pigments and are probably able to see two
primary colors in daylight. The annulated sea snake and the genus Helicops appears to have
regained much of their color vision as an adaption to the marine environment they live in.[56][57] It
has been concluded that the last common ancestors of all snakes had UV-sensitive vision, but most
snakes that depend on their eyesight to hunt in daylight have evolved lenses that act like sunglasses
for filtering out the UV-light, which probably also sharpens their vision by improving the
contrast.[58][59]

Skin

The skin of a snake is covered in scales. Contrary to the popular notion of snakes being slimy
(because of possible confusion of snakes with worms), snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most
snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, allowing them to grip surfaces. The body scales may
be smooth, keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snake are transparent "spectacle" scales, also
known as brille, which remain permanently closed.

For a snake, the skin has been modified to its specialized form of locomotion. Between the inner
layer and the outer layer lies the dermis, which contains all the pigments and cells that make up the
snake's distinguishing pattern and color. The epidermis, or outer layer, is formed of a substance
called keratin, which in mammals is the same basic material that forms nails, claws, and hair. The
snake's epidermis of keratin provides it with the armor it needs to protect its internal organs and
reduce friction as it passes over rocks. Parts of this keratin armor are rougher than others. The less
restricted portion overlaps the front of the scale beneath it. Between them lies a folded back
connecting material, also of keratin, also part of the epidermis. This folded back material gives as
the snake undulates or eats things bigger than the circumference of its body.[52]

The shedding of scales is called ecdysis (or in normal usage, molting or sloughing). Snakes shed the
complete outer layer of skin in one piece.[60] Snake scales are not discrete, but extensions of the
epidermis—hence they are not shed separately but as a complete outer layer during each molt, akin
to a sock being turned inside out.[61]

Snakes have a wide diversity of skin coloration patterns which are often related to behavior, such as
the tendency to have to flee from predators. Snakes that are at a high risk of predation tend to be
plain, or have longitudinal stripes, providing few reference points to predators, thus allowing the
snake to escape without being noticed. Plain snakes usually adopt active hunting strategies, as their
pattern allows them to send little information to prey about motion. Blotched snakes usually use
ambush-based strategies, likely because it helps them blend into an environment with irregularly
shaped objects, like sticks or rocks. Spotted patterning can similarly help snakes to blend into their
environment.[62]

The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are often characteristic and used for
taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly according to their positions on the body. In
"advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond to
the vertebrae, allowing these to be counted without the need for dissection.

Molting

A common watersnake shedding its

skin

Molting (or "ecdysis") serves a number of purposes - it allows old, worn skin to be replaced and can
be synced to mating cycles, as with other animals. Molting occurs periodically throughout the life of
a snake. Before each molt, the snake regulates its diet and seeks defensible shelter. Just before
shedding, the skin becomes grey and the snake's eyes turn silvery. The inner surface of the old skin
liquefies, causing it to separate from the new skin beneath it. After a few days, the eyes clear and
the snake reaches out of its old skin, which splits. The snake rubs its body against rough surfaces to
aid in the shedding of its old skin. In many cases, the castaway skin peels backward over the body
from head to tail in one piece, like taking the dust jacket off a book, revealing a new, larger, brighter
layer of skin which has formed underneath.[61][63] Renewal of the skin by molting supposedly
increases the mass of some animals such as insects, but in the case of snakes this has been
disputed.[61][64] Shedding skin can release pheromones and revitalize color and patterns of the skin
to increase attraction of mates.[65]

Snakes may shed four of five times a year, depending on the weather conditions, food supply, age of
the snake, and other factors.[52][63] It is theoretically possible to identify the snake from its cast skin
if it is reasonably intact.[61] Mythological associations of snakes with symbols of healing and
medicine, as pictured in the Rod of Asclepius, are derivative of molting.[66]

One can attempt to identify the sex of a snake when the species is not distinctly sexually dimorphic
by counting scales. The cloaca is probed and measured against the subcaudal scales.[67] Counting
scales determines whether a snake is a male or female, as the hemipenes of a male being probed is
usually longer.[67]

Skeleton

Reticulated python skull, showing jaw

movements when swallowing

The skull of a snake differs from a lizards in several ways. Snakes have more flexible jaws, that is,
instead of a juncture at the upper and lower jaw, the snake's jaws are connected by a bone hinge
that is called the quadrate bone. Between the two halves of the lower jaw at the chin there is an
elastic ligament that allows for a separation. This allows the snake to swallow food larger in
proportion to their size and go longer without it, since snakes ingest relatively more in one
feeding.[68] Because the sides of the lower jaw can move independently of one another, a snake
resting its jaw on a surface has stereo auditory perception, used for detecting the position of prey.
The jaw–quadrate–stapes pathway is capable of detecting vibrations on the angstrom scale,
despite the absence of an outer ear and the lack of an impedance matching mechanism—provided
by the ossicles in other vertebrates.[69][70] In a snake's skull the brain is well protected. As brain
tissues could be damaged through the palate, this protection is especially valuable. The solid and
complete neurocranium of snakes is closed at the front.[52][71]

The skeletons of snakes are radically

different from those of most other
reptiles (as compared with the turtle
here, for example), consisting almost
entirely of an extended ribcage.

The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs, though
henophidian snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs. The hyoid is a small bone located
posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for the muscles
of the snake's tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods. The vertebral column consists of between
200 and 400 vertebrae, or sometimes more. The body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with
them. The tail vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack
ribs. The vertebrae have projections that allow for strong muscle attachment, enabling locomotion
without limbs.

Caudal autotomy (self-amputation of the tail), a feature found in some lizards, is absent in most
snakes.[72] In the rare cases where it does exist in snakes, caudal autotomy is intervertebral
(meaning the separation of adjacent vertebrae), unlike that in lizards, which is intravertebral, i.e. the
break happens along a predefined fracture plane present on a vertebra.[73][74]

In some snakes, most notably boas and pythons, there are vestiges of the hindlimbs in the form of a
pair of pelvic spurs. These small, claw-like protrusions on each side of the cloaca are the external
portion of the vestigial hindlimb skeleton, which includes the remains of an ilium and femur.

Snakes are polyphyodonts with teeth that are continuously replaced.[75]

Internal organs

Anatomy of a [Link] info

1. esophagus

2. trachea

3. tracheal lungs

4. rudimentary left lung

5. right lung

6. heart

7. liver

8. stomach

9. air sac

10. gallbladder

11. pancreas

12. spleen

13. intestine

14. testicles

15. kidneys

Snakes and other non-archosaur (crocodilians, dinosaurs + birds and allies) reptiles have a three-
chambered heart that controls the circulatory system via the left and right atrium, and one
ventricle.[76] Internally, the ventricle is divided into three interconnected cavities: the cavum
arteriosum, the cavum pulmonale, and the cavum venosum.[77] The cavum venosum receives
deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and the cavum arteriosum receives oxygenated blood
from the left atrium. Located beneath the cavum venosum is the cavum pulmonale, which pumps
blood to the pulmonary trunk.[78]

The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the pericardium, located at the bifurcation of the
bronchi. The heart is able to move around, owing to the lack of a diaphragm; this adjustment
protects the heart from potential damage when large ingested prey is passed through the
esophagus. The spleen is attached to the gall bladder and pancreas and filters the blood. The
thymus, located in fatty tissue above the heart, is responsible for the generation of immune cells in
the blood. The cardiovascular system of snakes is unique for the presence of a renal portal system
in which the blood from the snake's tail passes through the kidneys before returning to the heart.[79]

The circulatory system of a snake is basically like those of any other vertebrae. However, snakes do
not regulate internally the temperature of their blood. Called cold-blooded, snakes actually have
blood that is responsive to the varying temperature of the immediate environment. Snakes can
regulate blood temperature by moving. Too long in direct sunlight, the snakes' blood is heated by
beyond tolerance. Left in the ice or snow, the snake may freeze. In temperate zones with
pronounced seasonal changes, snakes denning together have adapted to the onslaught of winter.[52]

The vestigial left lung is often small or sometimes even absent, as snakes' tubular bodies require all
of their organs to be long and thin.[79] In the majority of species, only one lung is functional. This
lung contains a vascularized anterior portion and a posterior portion that does not function in gas
exchange.[79] This 'saccular lung' is used for hydrostatic purposes to adjust buoyancy in some
aquatic snakes and its function remains unknown in terrestrial species.[79] Many organs that are
paired, such as kidneys or reproductive organs, are staggered within the body, one located ahead of
the other.[79]

The snake with its particular arrangement of organs may achieve a greater efficiency. For example,
the lung encloses at the part nearest the head and throat an oxygen intake organ, while the other
half is used for air reserve. The esophagus-stomach-intestine arrangement is a straight line. It ends
where intestinal, urinary, and reproductive tracts open, in a chamber called the cloaca.[52]

Snakes have no lymph nodes.[79]

Venom

Innocuous milk snakes are often

mistaken for coral snakes whose
venom is deadly to humans.

Cobras, vipers, and closely related species use venom to immobilize, injure, or kill their prey. The
venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs.[26][80]: 243 The fangs of 'advanced' venomous
snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow, allowing venom to be injected more effectively, and the
fangs of rear-fanged snakes such as the boomslang simply have a groove on the posterior edge to
channel venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey-specific, and their role in self-defense
is secondary.[26][80]: 243

Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the breakdown of food into soluble
compounds, facilitating proper digestion. Even nonvenomous snakebites (like any animal bite)
cause tissue damage.[26][80]: 209

Certain birds, mammals, and other snakes (such as kingsnakes) that prey on venomous snakes
have developed resistance and even immunity to certain venoms.[26]: 243 Venomous snakes include
three families of snakes, and do not constitute a formal taxonomic classification group.

The colloquial term "poisonous snake" is generally an incorrect label for snakes. A poison is inhaled
or ingested, whereas venom produced by snakes is injected into its victim via fangs.[81] There are,
however, two exceptions: Rhabdophis sequesters toxins from the toads it eats, then secretes them
from nuchal glands to ward off predators; and a small unusual population of garter snakes in the US
state of Oregon retains enough toxins in their livers from ingested newts to be effectively poisonous
to small local predators (such as crows and foxes).[82]

Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins,[80] and are stored in venom glands at the back of
the head.[82] In all venomous snakes, these glands open through ducts into grooved or hollow teeth
in the upper jaw.[26]: 243 [81] The proteins can potentially be a mix of neurotoxins (which attack the
nervous system), hemotoxins (which attack the circulatory system), cytotoxins (which attack the
cells directly), bungarotoxins (related to neurotoxins, but also directly affect muscle tissue), and
many other toxins that affect the body in different ways.[81][80] Almost all snake venom contains
hyaluronidase, an enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[26]: 243

Venomous snakes that use hemotoxins usually have fangs in the front of their mouths, making it
easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.[80][81] Some snakes that use neurotoxins (such
as the mangrove snake) have fangs in the back of their mouths, with the fangs curled backwards.[83]
This makes it difficult both for the snake to use its venom and for scientists to milk them.[81] Elapids,
however, such as cobras and kraits are proteroglyphous—they possess hollow fangs that cannot be
erected toward the front of their mouths, and cannot "stab" like a viper. They must actually bite the
victim.[26]: 242

It has been suggested that all snakes may be venomous to a certain degree, with harmless snakes
having weak venom and no fangs.[84] According to this theory, most snakes that are labelled
"nonvenomous" would be considered harmless because they either lack a venom delivery method or
are incapable of delivering enough to endanger a human. The theory postulates that snakes may
have evolved from a common lizard ancestor that was venomous, and also that venomous lizards
like the gila monster, beaded lizard, monitor lizards, and the now-extinct mosasaurs, may have
derived from this same common ancestor. They share this "venom clade" with various other saurian
species.

Venomous snakes are classified in two taxonomic families:

Elapids – cobras including king cobras, kraits, mambas, Australian copperheads, sea snakes, and
coral snakes.[83]

Viperids – vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads/cottonmouths, and bushmasters.[83]

There is a third family containing the opistoglyphous (rear-fanged) snakes (as well as the majority of
other snake species):

Colubrids – boomslangs, tree snakes, vine snakes, cat snakes, although not all colubrids are
venomous.[26]: 209 [83]

Reproduction

Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all employ internal fertilization.
This is accomplished by means of paired, forked hemipenes, which are stored, inverted, in the
male's tail.[85] The hemipenes are often grooved, hooked, or spined—designed to grip the walls of
the female's cloaca.[86][85] The clitoris of the female snake consists of two structures located
between the cloaca and the scent glands.[87]
Most species of snakes lay eggs which they abandon shortly after laying. However, a few species
(such as the king cobra) construct nests and stay in the vicinity of the hatchlings after
incubation.[85] Most pythons coil around their egg-clutches and remain with them until they hatch.[88]
A female python will not leave the eggs, except to occasionally bask in the sun or drink water. She
will even "shiver" to generate heat to incubate the eggs.[88]

Some species of snake are ovoviviparous and retain the eggs within their bodies until they are
almost ready to hatch.[89][90] Several species of snake, such as the boa constrictor and green
anaconda, are fully viviparous, nourishing their young through a placenta as well as a yolk sac; this
is highly unusual among reptiles, and normally found in requiem sharks or placental
mammals.[89][90] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often associated with colder
environments.[85][90]

The garter snake has been studied for

sexual selection.

Sexual selection in snakes is demonstrated by the 3,000 species that each use different tactics in
acquiring mates.[91] Ritual combat between males for the females they want to mate with includes
topping, a behavior exhibited by most viperids in which one male will twist around the vertically
elevated fore body of its opponent and force it downward. It is common for neck-biting to occur
while the snakes are entwined.[92]

Facultative parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos

occur without fertilization. Agkistrodon contortrix (copperhead) and Agkistrodon piscivorus
(cottonmouth) can reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis, meaning that they are capable of
switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode.[93] The most likely type of
parthenogenesis to occur is automixis with terminal fusion, a process in which two terminal
products from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process leads to genome-wide
homozygosity, expression of deleterious recessive alleles, and often to developmental
abnormalities. Both captive-born and wild-born copperheads and cottonmouths appear to be
capable of this form of parthenogenesis.[93]

Reproduction in squamate reptiles is almost exclusively sexual. Males ordinarily have a ZZ pair of
sex-determining chromosomes, and females a ZW pair. However, the Colombian Rainbow boa
(Epicrates maurus) can also reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis, resulting in production of
WW female progeny.[94] The WW females are likely produced by terminal automixis.

Embryonic development

Mouse embryo 12 day post

fertilization side by side with corn
snake embryo 2 days post ovo-
positioning.[95]

Snake embryonic development initially follows similar steps as any vertebrate embryo. The snake
embryo begins as a zygote, undergoes rapid cell division, forms a germinal disc, also called a
blastodisc, then undergoes gastrulation, neurulation, and organogenesis.[96] Cell division and
proliferation continues until an early snake embryo develops and the typical body shape of a snake
can be observed.[96] Multiple features differentiate the embryologic development of snakes from
other vertebrates, two significant factors being the elongation of the body and the lack of limb
development.

Diagram illustrating differential

somite size due to difference in
somitogenesis clock oscillation[95]
The elongation in snake body is accompanied by a significant increase in vertebra count (mice have
60 vertebrae, whereas snakes may have over 300).[95] This increase in vertebrae is due to an
increase in somites during embryogenesis, leading to an increased number of vertebrae which
develop.[95] Somites are formed at the presomitic mesoderm due to a set of oscillatory genes that
direct the somitogenesis clock. The snake somitogenesis clock operates at a frequency 4 times that
of a mouse (after correction for developmental time), creating more somites, and therefore creating
more vertebrae.[95] This difference in clock speed is believed to be caused by differences in Lunatic
fringe gene expression, a gene involved in the somitogenesis clock.[97]

There is ample literature focusing on the limb development/lack of development in snake embryos
and the gene expression associated with the different stages. In basal snakes, such as the python,
embryos in early development exhibit a hind limb bud that develops with some cartilage and a
cartilaginous pelvic element, however this degenerates before hatching.[98] This presence of
vestigial development suggests that some snakes are still undergoing hind limb reduction before
they are eliminated.[99] There is no evidence in basal snakes of forelimb rudiments and no examples
of snake forelimb bud initiation in embryo, so little is known regarding the loss of this trait.[99]
Recent studies suggest that hind limb reduction could be due to mutations in enhancers for the SSH
gene,[99] however other studies suggested that mutations within the Hox Genes or their enhancers
could contribute to snake limblessness.[95] Since multiple studies have found evidence suggesting
different genes played a role in the loss of limbs in snakes, it is likely that multiple gene mutations
had an additive effect leading to limb loss in snakes[100]

Behavior and life history

Snake coiled on a stick in

Oklahoma. It was brumating in a
large pile of wood chips, found by
this landscaper after he bulldozed
the pile in late autumn 2018.
Winter dormancy

A snaked coiled in the cavity

of a tree

In regions where winters are too cold for snakes to tolerate while remaining active, local species will
enter a period of brumation. Unlike hibernation, in which the dormant mammals are actually asleep,
brumating reptiles are awake but inactive. Individual snakes may brumate in burrows, under rock
piles, or inside fallen trees, or large numbers of snakes may clump together in hibernacula.

Feeding and diet

African egg-eating snake

eating an egg
 Dolichophis jugularis preying
on a sheltopusik

Eastern hognose hooding.

All snakes are strictly carnivorous, preying on small animals including lizards, frogs, other snakes,
small mammals, birds, eggs, fish, snails, worms, and insects.[26]: 81 [27][101] Snakes cannot bite or tear
their food to pieces so must swallow their prey whole. The eating habits of a snake are largely
influenced by body size; smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out feeding
on lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.

The snake's jaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that snakes can dislocate
their jaws, they have an extremely flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached,
and numerous other joints in the skull, which allow the snake to open its mouth wide enough to
swallow prey whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snake itself.[101] For example, the African
egg-eating snake has flexible jaws adapted for eating eggs much larger than the diameter of its
head.[26]: 81 This snake has no teeth, but does have bony protrusions on the inside edge of its spine,
which it uses to break the shell when eating eggs.[26]: 81

The majority of snakes eat a variety of prey animals, but there is some specialization in certain
species. King cobras and the Australian bandy-bandy consume other snakes. Species of the family
Pareidae have more teeth on the right side of their mouths than on the left, as they mostly prey on
snails and the shells usually spiral clockwise.[26]: 184 [102][103]

Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it.[101][104] Other
snakes kill their prey by constriction,[101] while some swallow their prey when it is still alive.[26]: 81 [101]
After eating, snakes become dormant to allow the process of digestion to take place;[67] this is an
intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the
entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is
then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being ectothermic ("cold-
blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays an important role in the digestion process. The ideal
temperature for snakes to digest food is 30 °C (86 °F). There is a huge amount of metabolic energy
involved in a snake's digestion, for example the surface body temperature of the South American
rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus) increases by as much as 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) during the digestive
process.[105] If a snake is disturbed after having eaten recently, it will often regurgitate its prey to be
able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient; the
snake's digestive enzymes dissolve and absorb everything but the prey's hair (or feathers) and
claws, which are excreted along with waste.

Hooding and spitting

Hooding (expansion of the neck area) is a visual deterrent, mostly seen in cobras (elapids), and is
primarily controlled by rib muscles.[106] Hooding can be accompanied by spitting venom towards the
threatening object,[107] and producing a specialized sound; hissing. Studies on captive cobras
showed that 13–22% of the body length is raised during hooding.[108]

Locomotion

The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes. They have developed several different
modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed animals, which
form a continuum, each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from the others;
transitions between modes are abrupt.[109][110]

Lateral undulation

Crawling prints of a snake

Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of
terrestrial locomotion.[110] In this mode, the body of the snake alternately flexes to the left and right,
resulting in a series of rearward-moving "waves".[109] While this movement appears rapid, snakes
have rarely been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often much less.[111]
This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport (calories burned per meter moved) as
running in lizards of the same mass.[112]

Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snake
species.[109] In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the
environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.[109] Each of these environmental
objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snake,
resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[113] The speed of this movement
depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density of about 8
along the snake's length being ideal.[111] The wave speed is precisely the same as the snake speed,
and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the point ahead of it, allowing
snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.[113]

When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's body, and the wave
travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.[114] Thrust is generated by pushing their
body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show
that the pattern of muscle activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation,
which justifies calling them separate modes.[115] All snakes can laterally undulate forward (with
backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have been observed reversing the motion (moving
backwards with forward-moving waves).[109]

Sidewinding

A neonate sidewinder rattlesnake

(Crotalus cerastes) sidewinding
Most often employed by colubroid snakes (colubrids, elapids, and vipers) when the snake must
move in an environment that lacks irregularities to push against (rendering lateral undulation
impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune, sidewinding is a modified form of lateral
undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the
ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling" motion.[116][117] The
sidewinder moves forward by throwing a loop of itself and then pulling itself up by it. By lowering its
head the snake gets leverage, straightening itself out and pressing itself against the ground, it
brings itself forward and at an angle that leaves it ready for the next jump. The head and the loop
are in effect the two feet upon which the snake walks. The snake's body, appearing roughly
perpendicular to its direction, may bewilder the observer, since preconception may lead one to
associate snake movement with a head that leads and a body that follows. It appears the
sidewinder is going sideways - but precisely where the snake is going, where it wants to go, the head
gives clear indication. The snake leaves behind a trail that looks like a series of hooks one after the
next. Snakes can move backwards to retreat from an enemy, though they normally do not.[52] This
mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only static
portions on the body, thereby minimizing slipping.[116] The static nature of the contact points can be
shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint, without any
smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than 1⁄3 of the cost for a lizard to
move the same distance.[112] Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that sidewinding is
associated with the sand being hot.[116]

Concertina

When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral
constraints, such as in tunnels, snakes rely on concertina locomotion.[109][117] In this mode, the
snake braces the posterior portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snake
extends and straightens.[116] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor point, and the
posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very demanding,
up to seven times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.[112] This high cost is due
to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of using active
muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.
Arboreal

Golden tree snake climbing a flower

The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.[118] While on tree
branches, snakes use several modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.[118] In
general, snakes will use a modified form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will
laterally undulate if contact points are available.[118] Snakes move faster on small branches and
when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches
with little 'clutter'.[118]

Gliding snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading their
ribs and laterally undulating as they glide between trees.[116][119][120] These snakes can perform a
controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in
midair.[116][119]

Rectilinear

The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one where
the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning.[121] In this
mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled
over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples in the
skin.[121] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is most
often used by large pythons, boas, and vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the snake's
movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.[116]
Interactions with humans

Most common symptoms of any kind

of snake bite envenomation.[122][123]
Furthermore, there is vast variation in
symptoms between bites from
different types of snakes.[122]

Bite

Vipera berus, one fang in glove with a

small venom stain, the other still in
place

Snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans. Unless startled or injured, most snakes prefer to avoid
contact and will not attack humans. With the exception of large constrictors, nonvenomous snakes
are not a threat to humans. The bite of a nonvenomous snake is usually harmless; their teeth are not
adapted for tearing or inflicting a deep puncture wound, but rather grabbing and holding. Although
the possibility of infection and tissue damage is present in the bite of a nonvenomous snake,
venomous snakes present far greater hazard to humans.[26]: 209 The World Health Organization
(WHO) lists snakebite under the "other neglected conditions" category.[124]

Documented deaths resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites from venomous
snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the roughly 725 species of
venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite. Australia averages
only one fatal snake bite per year. In India, 250,000 snakebites are recorded in a single year, with as
many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[125] The WHO estimates that on the order of 100,000 people
die each year as a result of snake bites, and around three times as many amputations and other
permanent disabilities are caused by snakebites annually.[126]

The health of people is seriously threatened by snakebites, especially in areas where there is a great
diversity of snakes and little access to medical care such as the Amazon Rainforest region in South
America.[127] Snakebite is classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "other neglected
conditions".[128] Although there aren't many recorded snakebite deaths, the bites can cause serious
complications and permanent impairments.[128] The most successful treatment for snakebites is
still antivenom, which is made from snake venom.[128] However, access to antivenom differs greatly
by location, with rural areas frequently experiencing difficulties with both cost and availability.[129]
Clinical studies, serum preparation, and venom extraction are among the intricate procedures
involved in the manufacturing of antivenom.[129] The development of alternative treatments and
increased accessibility and affordability of antivenom are essential for reducing the global impact of
snake bites on human populations.[130]

Snake charmers

The Indian cobra is the most

common subject of snake
charmings.

In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside show performed by a
charmer. In such a show, the snake charmer carries a basket containing a snake that he seemingly
charms by playing tunes with his flutelike musical instrument, to which the snake responds.[131] The
snake is in fact responding to the movement of the flute, not the sound it makes, as snakes lack
external ears (though they do have internal ears).[131]
The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically prohibits snake charming on the grounds of
reducing animal cruelty. Other types of snake charmers use a snake and mongoose show, where the
two animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common, as the animals may be seriously
injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out in India because of competition from
modern forms of entertainment and environment laws proscribing the practice. Many Indians have
never seen snake charming and it is becoming a folktale of the past.[131][132][133][134]

Trapping

The Irulas tribe of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India have been hunter-gatherers in the hot,
dry plains forests, and have practiced the art of snake catching for generations. They have a vast
knowledge of snakes in the field. They generally catch the snakes with the help of a simple stick.
Earlier, the Irulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the complete ban of
the snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes under the Indian Wildlife (Protection)
Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake Catcher's Cooperative and switched to catching snakes for
removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The venom so collected is used
for producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research and for other medicinal products.[135] The
Irulas are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and are very useful in rat extermination
in the villages.

Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers or
wranglers. Modern-day snake trapping involves a herpetologist using a long stick with a V-shaped
end. Some television show hosts, like Bill Haast, Austin Stevens, Steve Irwin, and Jeff Corwin, prefer
to catch them using bare hands.

Consumption

Snake meat, in a Taipei restaurant

Consuming snake flesh and related goods is a reflection of many cultures around the world,
especially in Asian nations like China, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia.
Because of its supposed health benefits and aphrodisiac qualities, snake meat is frequently
regarded as a delicacy and ingested.[136] It is customary to drink wine laced with snake blood in an
attempt to increase virility and vigor.[136] Traditional Chinese medicine holds that snake wine, a
traditional beverage infused with whole snakes, offers medicinal uses.[136] Snake wine's origins are
in Chinese culture. However, using snake goods creates moral questions about conservation and
animal welfare.[137] It is important to pay attention to and regulate the sustainable harvesting of
snakes for human food, particularly in areas where snake populations are in decline as a result of
habitat degradation and overexploitation.[137]

Pets

In the Western world, some snakes are kept as pets, especially docile species such as the ball
python and corn snake. To meet the demand, a captive breeding industry has developed. Snakes
bred in captivity are considered preferable to specimens caught in the wild and tend to make better
pets.[138] Compared with more traditional types of companion animal, snakes can be very low-
maintenance pets; they require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed 5 feet
(1.5 m) in length, and can be fed relatively infrequently—usually once every five to fourteen days.
Certain snakes have a lifespan of more than 40 years if given proper care.

Symbolism

The reverse side of the throne of

Pharaoh Tutankhamun with four
golden uraeus cobra figures. Gold
with lapis lazuli; Valley of the Kings,
Thebes (1347–37 BCE).
 Snakes composing a
bronze kerykeion from
the mythical Longanus
river in Sicily

In ancient Mesopotamia, Nirah, the messenger god of Ištaran, was represented as a serpent on
kudurrus, or boundary stones.[139] Representations of two intertwined serpents are common in
Sumerian art and Neo-Sumerian artwork[139] and still appear sporadically on cylinder seals and
amulets until as late as the thirteenth century BC.[139] The horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) appears
in Kassite and Neo-Assyrian kudurrus[139] and is invoked in Assyrian texts as a magical protective
entity.[139] A dragon-like creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and
the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the Hellenistic
Period (323 BC–31 BC).[139] This creature, known in Akkadian as the mušḫuššu, meaning "furious
serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.[139] It
seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god Ninazu,[139] but later became the
attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, later, Ninazu's son Ningishzida, the
Babylonian national god Marduk, the scribal god Nabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur.[139]

In Egyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of the
pharaoh in ancient times. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister
purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra).[140] The ouroboros was a well-
known ancient Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.[141] The precursor to the
ouroboros was the "Many-Faced",[141] a serpent with five heads, who, according to the Amduat, the
oldest surviving Book of the Afterlife, was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra
protectively.[141] The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines
in the tomb of Tutankhamun.[141] In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol
by Gnostic Christians[141] and chapter 136 of the Pistis Sophia, an early Gnostic text, describes "a
great dragon whose tail is in its mouth".[141] In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical
western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail.[141]

In the Bible, King Nahash of Ammon, whose name means "Snake", is depicted very negatively, as a
particularly cruel and despicable enemy of the ancient Hebrews.

Medusa (1597) by the Italian

artist Caravaggio

The ancient Greeks used the Gorgoneion, a depiction of a hideous face with serpents for hair, as an
apotropaic symbol to ward off evil.[142] In a Greek myth described by Pseudo-Apollodorus in his
Bibliotheca, Medusa was a Gorgon with serpents for hair whose gaze turned all those who looked at
her to stone and was slain by the hero Perseus.[143][144][145] In the Roman poet Ovid's
Metamorphoses, Medusa is said to have once been a beautiful priestess of Athena, whom Athena
turned into a serpent-haired monster after she was raped by the god Poseidon in Athena's
temple.[146] In another myth referenced by the Boeotian poet Hesiod and described in detail by
Pseudo-Apollodorus, the hero Heracles is said to have slain the Lernaean Hydra,[147][148] a multiple-
headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of Lerna.[147][148]

The legendary account of the foundation of Thebes mentioned a monster snake guarding the spring
from which the new settlement was to draw its water. In fighting and killing the snake, the
companions of the founder Cadmus all perished—leading to the term "Cadmean victory" (i.e. a
victory involving one's own ruin).[149]

Rod of
Asclepius, in
which the
snake,
through
ecdysis,
symbolizes
healing

Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today are Bowl of Hygieia, symbolizing
pharmacy, and the Caduceus and Rod of Asclepius, which are symbols denoting medicine in
general.[66]

One of the etymologies proposed for the common female first name Linda is that it might derive
from Old German Lindi or Linda, meaning a serpent.

India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snakes.[150] Snakes are
worshipped as gods even today with many women pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes'
aversion for milk).[150] The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva and Vishnu is depicted often as
sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent.[151] There are also several
temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called Nagraj (King of Snakes) and it is believed that
snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a Hindu festival called Nag Panchami each year on which
day snakes are venerated and prayed to. See also Nāga.[152]

The snake is one of the 12 celestial animals of Chinese zodiac, in the Chinese calendar.[153]

Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[154] They emphasized animals and often
depicted snakes in their art.[155]
Religion

Ballcourt marker from the

Postclassic site of Mixco Viejo
in Guatemala. This sculpture
depicts Kukulkan, jaws agape,
with the head of a human
warrior emerging from his
maw.[156]

Snakes are used in Hinduism as a part of ritual worship.[157] In the annual Nag Panchami festival,
participants worship either live cobras or images of Nāgas. Lord Shiva is depicted in most images
with a snake coiled around his neck.[158] Puranic literature includes various stories associated with
snakes, for example Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods and to
constantly sing the glories of Vishnu from all his mouths. Other notable snakes in Hinduism are
Vasuki, Takshaka, Karkotaka, and Pingala. The term Nāga is used to refer to entities that take the
form of large snakes in Hinduism and Buddhism.[159]

Snakes have been widely revered in many cultures, such as in ancient Greece where the serpent was
seen as a healer.[160] Asclepius carried a serpent wound around his wand, a symbol seen today on
many ambulances.[161] In Judaism, the snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life being
saved from imminent death.[162]

In religious terms, the snake and jaguar were arguably the most important animals in ancient
Mesoamerica.[163] "In states of ecstasy, lords dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes
adorn and support buildings from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word coatl meaning
serpent or twin, forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue."[164] In
the Maya and Aztec calendars, the fifth day of the week was known as Snake Day.

In some parts of Christianity, the redemptive work of Jesus Christ is compared to saving one's life
through beholding the Nehushtan (serpent of brass).[165] Snake handlers use snakes as an integral
part of church worship, to demonstrate their faith in divine protection. However, more commonly in
Christianity, the serpent has been depicted as a representative of evil and sly plotting, as seen in the
description in Genesis of a snake tempting Eve in the Garden of Eden.[166] Saint Patrick is purported
to have expelled all snakes from Ireland while converting the country to Christianity in the 5th
century, thus explaining the absence of snakes there.[167]

In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book of the Bible
when a serpent appears before Adam and Eve and tempts them with the forbidden fruit from the
Tree of Knowledge.[166] The snake returns in the Book of Exodus when Moses turns his staff into a
snake as a sign of God's power, and later when he makes the Nehushtan, a bronze snake on a pole
that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snakes that plagued them in the desert. The
serpent makes its final appearance symbolizing Satan in the Book of Revelation: "And he laid hold
on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand
years."[168]

In Neo-Paganism and Wicca, the snake is seen as a symbol of wisdom and knowledge.[169]
Additionally, snakes are sometimes associated with Hecate, the Greek goddess of witchcraft.[170]

Medicine

Several compounds from snake venoms are being researched as potential treatments or
preventatives for pain, cancers, arthritis, stroke, heart disease, hemophilia, and hypertension, as well
as to control bleeding (e.g., during surgery).[171][172][173]

See also

Limbless vertebrates

List of Serpentes families

List of snakes

Ophiology

Snakebot

Snake detection theory

Spinal osteoarthropathy (reptile disease)

The New Encyclopedia of Snakes

The Snakes of Europe and Snakes of Europe Wikibooks:Snakes of Europe, a wikibook

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Portals: Snakes Reptiles Animals