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Transcending
Technocentric
Approaches and
Enhancing Productive
Use of Solar-Powered
Irrigation System: Case
Study From Kuleni
Village of Nepal
Netra Chhetri Jeevan Badiya
School for the Future of Innovation in Society Sunbridge Solar Nepal
Arizona State University Kathmandu 44600, Nepal
Tempe, AZ 85287 USA
Sanjeev Pokhrel
Suraj Neupane Water and Energy Consultant Association
Sapta Gandaki Multiple Campus Kathmandu 44600, Nepal
Bharatpur 44207, Nepal

Nalini Chhetri
School for the Future of Innovation in Society
Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ 85287 USA

 For millions of smallholder farmers around the condition to shift to higher-value crops, necessary
world, the ability to grow crops to meet the caloric to raise the income of smallholder farmers. Having
needs of each family member depends on access access to irrigate crops when needed can be the dif-
to irrigation. Irrigation increases farm productivity ference between earning a good living or remaining
by allowing additional crops per year and reducing food insecure and in poverty. In Nepal, energy use
the risk of crop failure caused by erratic rainfall and per hectare of cultivable land is below 1 kW, signifi-
extended drought [1]. It is also a quasi-necessary cantly lower compared to neighboring India, where
it stands at 2.5–3 kW per hectare [2]. It is this direct
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MTS.2025.3569204 connection between access to water and improved
date of current version: XX XXX XXXX. well-being that makes a compelling case for the

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promotion of solar-powered irrigation (SPI) [3], costly, increasing crop yields, reducing vulnerability
particularly in the southern plains of Nepal, where to changing climate, and empowering women [9],
shallow and abundant groundwater resources are the SPI aligns well with multiple objectives set forth
readily available [4]. by the United Nations Sustainable Development
The SPI systems utilize photovoltaic (PV) panels Goals (UN-SDGs) and addresses multiple objectives.
to convert sunlight into electricity, which then pow- For this reason, SPI can act as a catalyst for the devel-
ers a pump to draw water from a source, distributing opment and progress of rural areas too.
it across crop fields for irrigation purposes. It offers Nepal has seen a rapid expansion of SPIs, follow-
a cost-effective way to irrigate and reduces depend- ing the broader trend in low- and middle-income
ency on diesel-powered irrigation [5]. The alterna- countries (LMICs). Since 2016, Nepal has deployed
tive is the widely practiced diesel-powered irrigation 3,129 SIPs of varying sizes [10], exemplifying a criti-
systems. The emission of CO2 from diesel-powered cal advancement in securing reliable water sources
is concerning because it is a major contributor to for agriculture, enhancing food security, and reduc-
anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs). Each gal- ing fossil fuel reliance to irrigate crops. Following
lon of diesel burned releases approximately 10.15 kg Shrestha et al. [11], we estimate that approximately
of CO2 into the atmosphere [6]. Over the course of an 75% are small standalone SPI systems with an
agricultural season, the cumulative emissions from installed capacity of about 2 kWp, 20% up to 5 kWp,
thousands of farms in Nepal alone, using diesel-pow- and the remaining 5% up to 10 kWp. Utilizing 30%
ered pumps to irrigate crops, can be substantial. In as the capacity use factor and assuming operational
addition to reducing GHG emissions, SPI provides usage for 300 days per annum, the energy genera-
higher work efficiency in that it enables more pre- tion capabilities of these SIPs are substantial. The
cise water management and plays a significant role smallest category, comprising 2,347 units with each
in lessening water waste [7]. The SPIs in Nepal can having a 2-kWp capacity, generates approximately
be grouped into three broad categories. The first is 2,112,500 kWh. The medium and larger categories,
a standalone SPI—typically less than 2.0 kWh and with 626 and 157 units, respectively, yield 1,408,500
meant for single farm use. A second communi- and 706,500 kWh each, summing up to a total annual
ty-based SPI, also a standalone SIP, delivers irriga- energy generation of 4,228 GWh, revealing a promis-
tion services to a group of farmers. They are typically ing outlook for Nepal’s energy future. At a conserva-
5.0 kWh or more. Both are suited to areas not served tive estimate, the avoided emissions from 3,129 SIPs
by a reliable electric grid, where irrigation is either could translate to a carbon credit revenue of around
uncommon or relies on diesel-powered US$497,357 annually, considering the
The SPI offers an
pumps. The third and emerging type is lower end of the carbon price range in
effective climate
the grid-connected SPI. They can be of the European trading market.
adaptation strategy,
any size serving a single farm to a group especially in The objective of this study is to
of farms. regions where demonstrate the seasonality of energy
The SPI offers an effective climate rainfall is becoming use in the agricultural system in Nepal’s
adaptation strategy, especially in increasingly scarce or southern plain and discuss potential
regions where rainfall is becoming erratic, by reducing approaches to optimize the energy use
increasingly scarce or erratic, by reduc- farmers’ vulnerability generated by SPIs. By optimizing SPI
ing farmers’ vulnerability to rainfall var- to rainfall variability usage, the study aims to contribute to
iability and mitigating the risk of water and mitigating the risk achieving SDG#7 by improving access
of water shortages for
shortages for irrigation. The reliability of to renewable energy while also extend-
irrigation.
solar-powered systems can offer some ing the benefits of SPIs beyond irriga-
predictability for farmers, enabling better planning tion to enhance the social and economic well-being
and less vulnerability to climatic shocks. Reliable of smallholder farmers. To avoid overgeneralization,
irrigation will allow farmers to diversify crops, includ- this article will focus on the case of Kuleni village of
ing those that require consistent irrigation [8]. Water Nawalparasi district of western Nepal (see Figure 1)
can be sourced from rivers, lakes, and underground to provide an in-depth look at the pattern of energy
aquifers, diversifying access to irrigation for farmers. generation and consumption from an SPI. The next
By combating climate change, making irrigation less section will introduce the Kuleni village, which will

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Figure 1. Map of Kuleni village, Nawalparasi district, Nepal.

be followed by data and analytical approaches and skills make transitioning to alternative solutions
employed to achieve these objectives. In “Discus- difficult. Farmers tend to stick with diesel pumps
sions,” we will present the findings from this study because they are familiar with these well-established
followed by a discussion of the results. In collusion, support systems. In addition, the flexibility of diesel
we present potential implications for both policy pumps—unaffected by the intermittency of SPI sys-
and practice for SPIs. tems or unreliable electricity supplies—and their
ease of operation further reinforce this preference
Context [14]. Although diesel pumps may be costlier in terms
Groundwater is a crucial resource in the agrar- of fuel and environmental impact, their entrenched
ian economies of Nepal’s southern plain. For a long use and established support networks make them
period of time, however, low levels of rural electrifi- difficult to replace with alternatives [12]. Even
cation constrained the use of groundwater for irriga- though access to electricity has improved, and most
tion. In areas where electrification is poor, farmers villages in Nepal’s southern plains are connected to
have had to rely on diesel pumps to irrigate their fields the grid, the distance between grid lines and agricul-
[12]. Over time, this dependence on diesel pumps tural fields often makes it impractical for farmers to
has fostered the growth of a comprehensive support use electric pumps [2].
system, including reliable maintenance services, While access to electricity is crucial, other fac-
accessible financing options for purchasing pumps, tors such as land fragmentation hinder the opti-
and the widespread availability of replacement parts mization of energy use for irrigation in Nepal.
[13]. This has led to a form of “path dependency,” Fragmentation leads to inefficient energy utiliza-
where past investments in technology, infrastructure, tion, as small land plots do not generate enough

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demand for consistent irrigation. For example, intermittent water demands of crops, leaving over
Thapa and Niroula [15] found that fragmented 70% of the energy unutilized or wasted. This ineffi-
landholdings lead to increased irrigation costs and ciency not only undermines the full potential of SPIs
reduced opportunities for efficient energy utili- but also underscores the urgent need to optimize
zation due to the dispersed nature of small plots, SPI’s benefits beyond irrigation. It also represents a
making consistent irrigation impractical. The effec- missed opportunity to advance the global develop-
tiveness of SPI relies on high and consistent energy ment goals, especially SDG#7—ensuring access to
demand, but the current low energy demand for affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy
crop irrigation in Nepal renders them underused for all. By failing to fully harness the potential of solar
[2]. Given this challenge, a promising strategy to energy, we are also missing the chance to contribute
address the underutilization of SPI energy could more significantly to social well-being, particularly in
involve redirecting the excess energy toward other rural farming communities where enhanced energy
agricultural or community-based activities that access could improve livelihoods and resilience.
require consistent power [23]. By redirecting this
surplus energy to power agro-processing units, Case of Kuleni village
cold storage facilities, or local microindustries, the In Nepal, Nawalparasi district is the Kuleni village
energy from SPI systems could be better utilized, of Devchuli Municipality-17 situated at an altitude of
contributing to both agricultural productivity and 151 masl and lies on the northern flank of the vast
rural economic development. In addition, integrat- River Ganges plains. It lies at the latitude and longi-
ing SPI with energy storage systems could ensure tude of the site are 27º 31′ 59.99”N and 83º 39′ 59.99”E,
that excess energy generated during periods of low respectively. For farmers of Kuleni, groundwater is
demand is preserved for later use, thus reducing the major source of irrigation. It is not easily acces-
wastage and improving overall system efficiency sible, however. Water availability is perceived to be
[16]. Furthermore, the deployment of hybrid sys- the main limiting factor to enhance crop yield. This
tems that combine solar with other sources could scarcity is further compounded due to the erratic
ensure a more consistent energy supply, optimizing rainfall pattern and long dry season. With the rapid
the utility of SPI energy even in fragmented land expansion of PV technology, farmers and their sup-
scenarios. In addition, policy frameworks support- porting institutions saw an opportunity to improve
ing such hybrid solutions could further incentivize their livelihoods by utilizing groundwater resources.
the efficient use of renewable energy resources in With a clear focus on the social and economic
Nepal, ensuring a sustainable energy future. well-being of 86 households of Kuleni, a 9.45-kWp
Despite the clear benefits of SPIs in reducing solar array was installed in the summer of 2017,
diesel costs and mitigating CO2 emissions, they with the capacity to lift to 7,100 cu. ft of ground-
face a critical inefficiency that limits their overall water per day from a 158-foot-deep aquifer. Before
impact. This inefficiency is exacerbated by factors the implementation of SPI, farmers in Kuleni village
such as land fragmentation, which stymies efforts grappled with the challenges posed by an unpredict-
to optimize energy use for irrigation, as fragmented able climate and shifting rainfall patterns. Utilizing
plots do not generate enough consistent irrigation a well-designed network of pipe irrigation, SPI effi-
demand [15]. Furthermore, farmers remain depend- ciently harnesses water from underground aquifers
ent on diesel-powered pumps due to their flexibility and distributes it via a network of pipe irrigation. As
and established support systems, especially in areas a result, farmers of Kuleni have been able to opti-
where unreliable electricity or the distant location of mize land use by cultivating more crops throughout
fields further complicates the adoption of SPIs [12], the year, yielding multiple benefits: enhanced food
[16]. Thus, while SPIs present a promising alterna- security, increased incomes, and fortified resilience
tive, structural issues such as land fragmentation against climate variability and change.
and energy infrastructure limitations reduce their The drive toward the use of solar PV for irrigation,
efficiency and scalability in Nepal. while playing a significant role in crop productiv-
Consistent with other studies [3], our experience ity, inadvertently led to an energy spill (Es)—the
reveals that less than 30% of the solar energy gener- major concern undergirding this article. The sys-
ated by SPIs is used for irrigation, largely due to the tem’s pumping capacity far exceeds the crop water

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requirements, leading to the squandering of precious solar PV at Kuleni will generate 37.5 kWh of energy
renewable energy in a country where energy access a day, providing a substantial basis for our study on
for household use is still far below the regional aver- renewable energy potential at Kuleni to be at 11,250
age. This oversight not only diminishes the project’s kWh per year
potential impact but also raises questions about the
SEG = system size (kWp)
technocentric approach to development, whereby
× daily sunshine durations (SD) × PR (1)
the transformative potential of SPI is undermined
by a significant lost opportunity. In addition, in where SEG represents the energy generation in kWh,
2019, the farmers of Kuleni opted to connect their SD represents daily SD in hours, and PR is the perfor-
irrigation pump to the national grid to manage the mance ratio.
uncertainties and challenges associated with energy The performance ratio (PR) of a solar PV system
supply from solar PV, introducing an added layer is a key metric used to assess how well the system
of complexity as the solar systems were no longer converts sunlight into electricity, considering various
discrete energy units that were entirely renewable losses and inefficiencies. It is calculated by compar-
in nature. The illustrative case study from Kuleni in ing the actual output of the solar system to the the-
Nawalpur district, Nepal, reveals this lacuna. oretical maximum output under ideal conditions. A
100% performance ratio would imply that the system
Data and analytical protocol is operating perfectly, with no losses or inefficiencies.
In the context of SPI systems, different energy met- That is never the case, and there are several reasons
rics are used to understand their efficiency and effec- for this inefficiency. For example: 1) solar panels
tiveness. First, power output (Po) refers to the Po of a become less efficient as they heat up; 2) the inverter,
solar installation (PV) under ideal conditions. Solar which converts dc power generated by the panels to
energy generation (SEG) is typically measured in kilo- ac power for the grid, typically has an efficiency of
watts peak (kWp). The subsequent metric, referred 95%; 3) dust, pollen, and bird droppings can accu-
to as irrigation energy use (IEu), encapsulates the net mulate on the surface of solar panels, reducing the
energy utilized during the pump’s operational phase amount of sunlight that can be absorbed; 4) solar pan-
within the SPI system. This energy outlay can be els degrade over time, generally losing about 0.5%–1%
sourced either from solar PV (IEs) or an electric grid of their efficiency per year; 5) panels are often not
infrastructure (IEg), depending on the specific sys- oriented at the ideal angle or may not track the sun,
tem configuration. Finally, the metric of Es accounts resulting in less-than-optimal sunlight capture; and 6)
for the unused solar energy (Po) that is, in effect, cloud cover, humidity, and atmospheric conditions
“stranded” within the SPI system during the hours of can also reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the
sunshine. This represents an inefficiency in the sys- panels. Therefore, it is practically impossible to have
tem—a proportion of energy that could potentially be a 100% performance ratio. Based on our collaborator,
used for other productive uses but remains untapped. Sunbridge Nepal, who helped set up the SPI in Kuleni,
Detailed calculations for each of these energy metrics we have set the PR ratio to 75%.
are elaborated upon in subsequent sections. IEu: In Kuleni, farmers meticulously document
SEG: The intensity of solar radiation incident the daily operational duration of the solar pump for
upon the Earth’s surface is intricately linked to bright irrigation after each irrigation cycle. These data are
sunshine duration (SD), as demonstrated in a study archived in a record sheet managed by the Kuleni
by [8] and is influenced by multiple factors, includ- Mishrit Krishak Samuha (KMKS) water users’ group.
ing geographical latitude, solar declination, and A dedicated irrigation operator, who is also compen-
cloud cover [9]. Sunshine data for the years 2016, sated by the KMKS, oversees each irrigation event
2017, and 2018 were sourced from a nearby meteor- and maintains these records. The log sheet has input
ological station—Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. To com- details such as the hourly duration of irrigation for
pute the SEG output from the solar PV at Kuleni, the each farmer, who irrigates his/her land based on
mean daily sunshine hours across 2016, 2017, and their crop water needs. Farmers pay a predetermined
2018 were employed. This mean value is then fed fee for the irrigation services, regardless of whether
into (1) for SEG calculation (see [Link] the energy is sourced from solar or grid. Table 1 illus-
for details). Based on our calculation, a 9.45-kWp trates both the amount of money that farmers pay

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irrigation pump is multiplied by the daily irrigation

Table 1. Price of irrigation water per hour by hours used.
types of water users and source, Kuleni. (Note: Es from solar PV (ES): In the context of irrigation,
conversion rate of US$1.00 = NRS 130.00.)
accounting for unused energy from a solar PV sys-
Irrigation Users Units Grid Solar tem can be particularly relevant given the variable
Total SPI hours Hours 1991 934 demand for water in agriculture. The energy that is
operated generated by solar PV but not utilized for irrigation
(2019–2022) could be considered unused if not stored or used
KMKS Members NRs. 105 60 for other purposes. Thus, the lost energy from a 9.45-
(US$) (US$ 0.80) (US$ 0.46) kWp solar PV of Kuleni is calculated according to
Non-KMKS mem- NRs. 90 150 the following equation:
bers who contrib- (US$) (US$ 0.70) (US$ 1.15)
ES = SEG – IEu-solar (IEs). (4)
uted to SPIs
Non-KMKS mem- NRs. 200 200
bers who did not (US$) (US$ 1.54) (US$ 1.54) Results
contribute to SPIS We observed a significant variation in SD at
Kuleni. Based on the daily sunshine data obtained
from the nearest meteorological station (Rampur,
for irrigation and the total quantity of water they use. Chitwan) for three years (2016, 2017, and 2018), we
Utilizing the irrigation record sheet that spans from calculated the average daily SD to be 5.23 hours.
January 1, 2019 to December 31, 2022, we catego- As illustrated in Figure 2, the month of July gener-
rized the source of energy by solar and grid and the ated the least amount of energy, attributed to the
duration of irrigation from each energy source. This monsoon season, which is a characteristic of South
is necessary to calculate the energy sources. Asian climates, whereas October and November
Irrigation energy use-solar (IEs): Calculating the (post-monsoon) generated the most, followed by the
energy used for irrigation from a solar PV system months of February to May (dry season).
involves considering both the capabilities of the Energy generation from solar PV systems is influ-
solar PV system and the energy used by a pump to enced by a variety of factors beyond mere cloud
extract water. This modification led to the following cover. In Nepal, March and April mark the onset of
equation, which serves as the basis for our calcula- the warm season, during which higher temperatures
tions of solar energy usage for irrigation: can diminish the efficiency of solar PV, leading to
IEs = system size(kWp) less effective energy conversion. These months are
× daily irrigation durations (hrs) × PR(2) also characterized by dry conditions, accompanied
by elevated levels of atmospheric dust and pollut-
where IEs is energy used from the solar cells (kWh), ants. Such particles can scatter the sunlight, further
system size in (kWp), and daily irrigation duration in reducing the system’s capacity to generate electric-
hours, and PR is the performance ratio (0.75). ity. In addition, the dust can accumulate on the solar
IEu-grid (IEg): Following the computation of the panels themselves, forming a layer that obstructs
total energy consumed from solar PV for irrigation, incoming sunlight, thereby compromising the panel’s
as outlined in (2), we then calculated the energy performance. Conversely, the monsoon season starts
expended through the electric grid. The determina- to wane by mid-September, leaving behind some
tion of grid-based energy consumption for irrigation residual clouds and precipitation. However, by Octo-
activities was formulated in accordance with the fol- ber, the sky typically clears up, and the atmospheric
lowing equation: dust is at the minimum level during the post-mon-
IEg = Average Power Consumed soon months contributing to more efficient SEG.
× daily irrigation duration from grid1(3) Table 2 shows the annual average energy con-
sumption sourced from both grid and solar for four
where IEg is irrigation energy (kWh) sourced from years from 2019 to 2022. While the annual average
the grid where the average power consumed by the
energy demand for irrigation is 7,636.7 kWh, the table
1
IEg = System size × daily irrigation duration from grid × PR. reveals a significant fluctuation, with the highest

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energy consumption occurring at 10,575 kWh in in 2022. Despite the increase in renewable energy
2021 and the lowest at 4,820 kWh in 2019. The table adoption, the energy spillage—energy generated
also shows an upward trend in energy consumption but not utilized—consistently increased each year,
for irrigation, an increase of over twofold, during the totaling 47,926 kWh over the four-year period. This
period of 2019 and 2022, revealing the importance of indicates potential lost opportunities in the energy
having access to water in agriculture. system. Overall, the cumulative energy consumption
Table 2 also illustrates the patterns of energy con- for irrigation from solar sources amounted to 6,657
sumption from two sources—grid and solar. It is impor- kWh, whereas the grid contributed a higher share of
tant to note that: 1) grid energy consumption (IEg) 23,888 kWh during the same timeframe.
equates to the amount of energy consumed from the For two years, since the installation of a 9.45-
grid; 2) solar energy consumption (IEs) indicates the kWp solar PV in 2017, the farmers of Kuleni were
amount of energy consumed from solar PV; 3) solar solely reliant on solar PV to irrigate their crops. The
energy rendered (ES) is the amount of solar energy energy used for irrigation from solar PV, therefore,
generated but not utilized; and 4) total energy used was about 30% of the total energy generated by solar
(IEu) for irrigation is the sum of energy consumed from PV. In 2019, a major shift occurred, whereby the SPI
both grid and solar for crop irrigation in Kuleni. was connected to the electrical grid, offering farm-
One of the interesting revelations of this research ers Kuleni a choice between solar and grid energy
is that over these years, there has been a noticeable for the first time but clearly a step backward in tran-
shift toward grid energy utilization for irrigation, with sitioning to cleaner energy for irrigation purposes
a marked decrease in solar energy consumption. (albeit Nepal’s energy profile is still sourced from
Specifically, grid energy usage escalated from 1,877 hydropower). Initially, both options were utilized,
kWh in 2019 to a peak of 9,407 kWh in 2021, before
but, notably, more solar energy was rendered than
slightly dipping to 8,634 kWh in 2022. Concurrently,
consumed. While this transition signals waste, it also
energy sourced from solar PV saw a substantial
shows the move away from solar to grid energy.
reduction from 2,943 kWh in 2019 to just 753 kWh
With the allure of choice, grid energy consump-
tion has surged, while consumption of solar energy
has sharply declined, raising questions about the via-
bility of SPI in Nepal’s agricultural landscape. At the
same time, there continues to be an overall increase
in the need for energy for irrigation, potentially due
to changes in land use patterns and changing cli-
matic conditions and to maintaining a stable crop
production. This shift from a distributed system of
energy to the grid reveals the complexities of energy
consumption patterns being increasingly favored
by farmers. It hints at the underlying challenges of
Figure 2. Average daily energy generated SPI for irrigation. It appears that the early promise
by 9.45 kWp solar PV systems, Kuleni. of renewables has been overshadowed by a shift in

Table 2. Grid and solar energy consumption for irrigation, Kuleni (2019–2022).

Grid Energy (kWh) Solar Energy (kWh) Total Energy Used

Year
consumption Consumption Spilled (kWh) for Irrigation
2019 1877 2943 10703 4820
2020 3970 1794 11852 5764
2021 9407 1167 12479 10575
2022 8634 753 12893 9388
Total 23888 6657 47926 30547

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in October and November. The figure also reveals

that most energy needs are met through the electric
grid, especially during the months (March and April)
of peak agricultural activities. The solar energy use is
most prominent in April (474 kWh), but it also consti-
tutes a significant portion of the energy mix in May,
June, and July. The figure also captures the amount
of solar energy not used, which varies month-to-
month but is generally highest in October (1444
kWh) and lowest in July (429 kWh). On average, the
farmers of Kuleni used 7,637 kWh of energy annually
for crop irrigation, 78% of which was sourced from
Figure 3. Average monthly energy use for the grid, indicating a greater reliance on grid irriga-
crop irrigation (2019-2022) from grid and tion. At the same time, a significant amount of solar
solar PV. energy (11,982 kWh per year) went unused, illustrat-
ing lost opportunities for better utilization or storage
grid energy, challenging the narrative of a straight- of this energy.
forward transition to solar PV. Energy choices by In Kuleni, the availability of grid energy is per-
the farmers of Kuleni from 2019 to 2022 serve as a ceived as more reliable and consistent for critical
microcosm of larger challenges around sustainabil- tasks of irrigation, especially during monsoon season
ity, technology, and adaptation of renewable energy when solar energy production is less predictable and
and reducing GHGs. when water demand is high. Even if solar energy is
Figure 3 shows average (2019–2022) patterns of “free,” there is a financial incentive of subsidies from
energy consumption sourced from both grid and the government of Nepal, which makes grid energy
solar PV, reflecting seasonal fluctuations in the attractive. For example, the Nepal Electricity Author-
energy requirements for crop irrigation. Overall, it ity (NEA) is a major body for the distribution of grid
shows that energy consumption peaked during the energy in Nepal and has provided subsidies of 60%
spring months (March and April) and decreased as to irrigation consumers [10]. With such a subsidy for
the year progressed, with relatively low energy needs energy used for irrigation, farmers in Kuleni do not
during the fall and winter months. January had the have to think twice when deciding on the source
lowest total energy requirement, coinciding with the of energy for irrigation. As a result, energy sourced
winter season when crop water demand was low. from solar PV remains less attractive for irrigation.
February marked the onset of spring and showed a Solar energy systems provide variable energy out-
significant jump in energy requirements (384 kWh), put depending on the time of day, weather condi-
mainly sourced from the grid. March and April saw tions, and seasonal changes [17]. These fluctuations
the highest energy needs (2144 and 2192 kWh, and uncertainty associated with the SPI system made
respectively), aligning with the planting season for it challenging to have a reliable and constant energy
early rice, which demands a lot of water initially. As source to run the irrigation pump in Kuleni. Solar
the early rice matures and needs less water, energy energy is obviously not available during the night,
requirements drop sharply in May (807 kWh). Simul- and its availability is limited in the early morning
taneously unused solar energy spikes, indicating a when farmers often start their workday. This gap in
potential surplus of renewable energy generated energy availability is critical for agricultural activi-
from solar. With June (716 kWh) marking the onset ties that follow a specific timetable associated with
of the rainy season, crop irrigation demand is not irrigation. For smallholder farmers of Kuleni, the
as high even if farmers plant the main rice crop in reliability of an energy source could be more criti-
June. With only 447 and 445 kWh of energy used for cal than the cost. Thus, for farmers, the integration
irrigation, July and August continue to see reduced of grid connection with SPI offers energy reliability.
energy demand. While energy needs are minimal If solar systems cannot deliver the necessary energy
from September to December, it is worth noting that when it is needed, then the risk of crop failure may
solar energy makes up nearly half the energy supply be too high to rely solely on solar power. Innovations

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in hybrid systems can allow solar and grid power seasons, excess energy could be sold back to the
to complement each other. This could facilitate a utility grid, providing farmers with additional income
smoother transition and offer flexibility in supply [20]. However, during the dry months of February
[18]. Grid connections offer a supplementary energy to May, when irrigation demand is high, SPI-gener-
source during these weather extremes, ensuring ated energy often falls short, highlighting the need
continuous irrigation and protecting crops from the for supplemental energy sources or hybrid systems
impacts of a shortage of water. to meet agricultural needs. Challenges remain,
particularly in terms of regulatory frameworks and
Discussions grid management. For example, in Brazil and other
In Kuleni village, the implementation of SPIs countries, the economic viability of net metering
has been transformative for local farmers, enabling has faced issues related to electricity taxation and
year-round crop production. However, while SPIs its impact on distribution network operator revenues
efficiently generate energy during daylight hours, [21]. In Nepal, where net metering policies are still
irrigation demand fluctuates significantly with the under development, pilot projects could demon-
seasons and crop types. In the winter, crops require strate the benefits of this approach in rural commu-
minimal water, and their needs decrease further dur- nities such as Kuleni. These pilots should focus on
ing the maturation stage. Similarly, the monsoon sea- establishing essential infrastructure, such as meter-
son reduces the need for irrigation, lowering energy ing devices and grid connections, while working
demand from SPI systems. Conversely, during the dry with policymakers to create a supportive regulatory
months of February to May, irrigation demand is high, environment. Furthermore, the introduction of smart
and the energy generated by SPIs often falls short. This metering systems, essential for net metering, pre-
seasonal variability leaves much of the energy gener- sents technical challenges, including ensuring accu-
ated by SPI systems underutilized for large portions rate data reporting and managing the complexity of
of the year. To address this inefficiency, several solu- distribution networks [22].
tions can be considered. Net metering At the same time, economic con-
offers a way to feed surplus energy back In Kuleni village, cerns must be addressed. The practice
into the grid, allowing farmers to earn the implementation of net metering can reduce utility rev-
of SPIs has been
credits, though this will require further enue, raising the risk of cross-subsidies
transformative
infrastructure and policy support. Alter- and potentially placing an unfair bur-
for local farmers,
natively, surplus energy could be used den on nonparticipating consumers
enabling year-round
for agro-processing activities, such as crop production. [23]. To mitigate these challenges, inno-
powering winnowing machines, thresh- vative solutions such as granular pricing
ers, and other agricultural machinery, providing farm- models for distributed generation could better align
ers with additional income. Finally, integrating SPIs incentives and ensure the economic sustainability
into hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES)—com- of net metering programs [24]. In addition, as with
bining solar with wind or other energy sources—can many renewable energy policies, the capacity of
enhance energy reliability and diversify their use. the grid to absorb variable power from sources such
Each of these options presents both opportunities as solar is limited in some regions, including Nepal
and challenges, making it essential to weigh the pros [25]. To address this, policies such as feed-in tariffs
and cons of each strategy to maximize the benefits of (FITs) can provide predictable revenue streams for
surplus energy. renewable energy developers though they come
with risks such as technology lock-in and higher con-
Net metering sumer costs if long-term contracts fail to account for
In the context of Kuleni village, the implemen- falling technology prices. In Nepal, efforts to expand
tation of net metering presents both opportunities grid-connected solar PV projects have been made
and challenges. Net metering allows farmers to feed through competitive bidding processes, with bench-
surplus electricity generated by their SPIs back into mark prices encouraging domestic solar power
the grid, effectively turning energy production into development [26]. These initiatives reflect Nepal’s
a potential revenue stream [19]. During periods of growing commitment to building out its renewable
low irrigation demand, such as the winter and rainy energy infrastructure and integrating decentralized

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solutions such as net metering into its energy frame- Despite the potential, several challenges hinder
work, showing great promise for rural electrification the efficient use of SPI-generated energy for mecha-
and sustainable development. nization. Farmers lack awareness about the diverse
applications of farm machinery and face difficulties
Use of surplus energy for value additions accessing spare parts and maintenance services, par-
Given the increasing need for mechanization in ticularly in rural areas [32]. In addition, the high cost
Nepal’s agriculture sector, surplus energy from SPIs of machinery and limited availability of rental ser-
could be used to power various agricultural machin- vices during peak seasons further impede adoption
eries, such as threshers, winnowing machines, corn [33]. Overcoming these barriers will require coor-
shellers, and chaff cutters, which are currently dinated efforts to build local repair infrastructure,
underutilized. These machines would help reduce provide transparent subsidies, and expand farmer
labor costs, increase productivity, and enable small- knowledge. These steps will enable farmers to fully
holder farmers to intensify their practices in a sustain- harness SPI-generated energy, transforming agricul-
able way [27]. This aligns with the broader concept tural practices across Nepal. By addressing these
of the “productive use of energy,” which refers to challenges and focusing on expanding the multi-
the application of energy for tasks that contribute functional use of surplus energy from SPIs, Nepal’s
to economic activities and livelihood improvement agricultural sector can enhance productivity, reduce
in a sustainable and efficient manner. By harness- operational costs, and contribute to the develop-
ing surplus energy for agricultural mechanization, ment of rural areas.
the social value of energy is maximized, generating
broader societal benefits from energy production, Hybrid systems
distribution, and consumption [28]. HRES integrates multiple energy sources (e.g.,
Nepalese farms have been identified as some of solar and wind) to generate electricity more con-
the least energy-intensive in the world, with energy sistently and reliably. These systems are particularly
use per hectare falling below 1 kW, which is directly effective in addressing the intermittency issues inher-
correlated with lower agricultural productivity. ent in relying on a single renewable source. In Nepal,
Improving energy use on farms is essential for mod- much of the energy generated by SPIs is not fully
ernizing agriculture in Nepal and attracting younger utilized, as it is primarily dedicated to irrigation—a
generations by making farming more appealing [2]. need that fluctuates throughout the year. Conse-
The impact of climate change further emphasizes quently, surplus or “spilled” energy often remains
the need for integrating energy and water in a cli- untapped. Integrating HRES could help address this
mate-smart and efficient manner [29]. By redirect- inefficiency by redirecting excess energy for other
ing the currently untapped energy surplus from SPIs uses, such as powering agricultural machinery, thus
toward critical sectors such as the agricultural value optimizing energy use [2]. HRES offers several key
chain, farmers in Nepal can optimize their solar out- advantages. First, they enhance reliability by com-
put. Energy can be channeled toward agro-process- bining multiple energy sources, which smooths the
ing, which has a direct impact on food security, local energy supply and mitigates interruptions [34]. Sec-
socioeconomic development, and climate adap- ond, HRES increases overall energy efficiency by
tation. Agro-processing not only adds value to raw using surplus energy for additional purposes, contrib-
agricultural products [30], but small- uting to local economic development
holder households, relying on farm By harnessing surplus [35], [36]. Moreover, their adaptability
produce for their basic diets, perform energy for agricultural allows them to be customized to local
labor-intensive, manual agro-process- mechanization, needs by integrating resources such as
ing tasks, which are typically done by the social value of wind and hydropower, making them
women, further straining their time and energy is maximized, versatile solutions [16].
energy [31]. By introducing mechani- generating broader Despite these benefits, HRES faces
zation powered by surplus energy from societal benefits from several challenges. The most signifi-
SPIs, these tasks could be made more energy production, cant one is the high initial cost of set-
distribution, and
efficient, reducing the workload and ting up the systems, which requires
consumption.
creating new economic opportunities. substantial investment in infrastructure

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and advanced technology [37]. This used. If they are used only for lifting water
Economically
financial burden can be daunting, speaking, the SPIs from the ground for irrigation, the tech-
especially in rural areas with lim- become more viable nology is being underutilized.
ited resources. In addition, HRES only when they are
This presents a challenge for max-
is technically complex, requiring optimally used.
imizing the productivity of energy use
sophisticated systems to manage and
in irrigation and highlights an area for
integrate multiple energy sources and demanding
potential improvement. The existing arrangement
ongoing maintenance and access to skilled techni-
and practice of SPIs have not considered the pos-
cians, which may be scarce in rural regions [38].
sibilities nor the necessary means to devise insti-
Regulatory and policy challenges also persist, with
tutional, technological, and social arrangements
a lack of standardized regulations and insufficient
and strategies to translate any excess energy into
incentives slowing the adoption of HRES.
economically productive and socially valuable out-
The global energy transition has shifted energy
comes. Advocates for solar irrigation systems often
system models to go beyond costs, incorporating the
overlook the extent to which farmers can harness
social value of modern energy access, particularly
the energy output for maximum benefit. These sys-
in underserved communities. When deployed in
tems demonstrate better economic feasibility when
rural areas, HRES not only enhances power supply
utilized to their full capacity. While SPIs are effective
reliability but also reduces transmission line costs,
in harnessing solar energy for irrigation, they often
making it one of the most cost-effective solutions
for rural electrification [39]. Therefore, HRES has produce more energy than can be used solely for irri-
proven effective in reducing the economic burdens gation. When confined solely to water pumping for
of energy poverty and improving energy security. In irrigation purposes, SPI may not be as cost-efficient
addition, the expanding scope of HRES can spark compared to traditional irrigation systems and may
technological and institutional innovations, open- not be as effective in achieving broader sustainable
ing new opportunities for sustainable and resilient development goals. In addition, the excess energy
energy solutions. With the right support, HRES can could potentially be a source of innovation for other
play a transformative role in advancing both energy productive uses or even be fed back into the grid
access and rural development. To realize the poten- for revenue. If the latter is not an option, then it is
tial benefits of HRES, careful planning, robust policy a missed opportunity for technological synergies.
support, and community engagement are essential. Greater attention to innovation, both social and
The prospect of SPIs as a solution to food security technological, is critical to ensure the full benefits
in Nepal’s smallholder settings is real as they offer of investments in solar PV. Nepal’s solar energy pro-
the opportunity to increase agricultural production moters need to move away from the traditional pri-
to keep pace with food demand and overcome ority given to technocentric (what technology to use
impending threats associated with the uncertainty and how much it will cost) in favor of giving priority
of changing climate. However, much of the effort, to the “social value” of energy and how such a value
to date, has been dedicated to improving access to can be achieved at the farmers’ end. This demands a
solar technologies through innovation in technical new set of innovations, social and technological, so
infrastructure and financial investments. There is no that the energy that is currently being spilled/wasted
concurrent investment in the optimization of energy can be translated into productive uses. 
use generated through these SPIs. While the technol-
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design of renewable energy systems,” Renew. Sustain. dedicated to advancing innovations that empower
marginalized communities. His work merges social
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over 15 years of experience in hydropower and
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solar across government, multilateral, private, and
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startup sectors in South Asia. Pokhrel has an MS
of hybrid renewable energy systems,” Energy Convers. in renewable energy from the Indian Institute of
Manage., vol. 199, Nov. 2019, Art. no. 112027. Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
[38] M. A. V. Rad et al., “Technical and economic evaluation
of excess electricity level management beyond the  Direct questions and comments about this article
optimum storage capacity for off-grid renewable to Netra Chhetri, School for the Future of Innovation
systems,” J. Energy Storage, vol. 87, May 2024, Art. no. in Society, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287
111385. USA; [Link]@[Link].

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