Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC

CESSES (NUTRITION)

LI
LIFE PROCESSES
When we compare ourselve lves with some of the animals like monkeys, dogs
gs, buffaloes or cats, we
find that all of them perform somme common activities like taking food, rest, brea
eathing, transportation
of blood, eliminating wastes, rep
eproducing offsprings of their own type and ada dapting according to a
particular environment. All of the
ese activities (nutrition, breathing and respirat
ration, transportation,
excretion, reproduction, contr trol and coordination) are the processes need ded for living and are
called life processes.
The life processes can be
e defined as the maintenance processes orr activities
a needed to
make any organism alive.

PART-1
NUTRITION
The food or nutrients are the ch
chemical substances obtained by an organism from
f its surroundings.
The nutrients can be defined d as the substances that act as energy sourrce and provide raw
materials for the biosynthesis o
of required constituents of living organisms.
Functions of Nutrients: For anyy lliving organism, the nutrients perform following
ng functions:
• growth and developme
ent.
• for obtaining energy to carry out various life processes.
• to develop resistance ag
against diseases.
• to repair damaged and
d old worn out cells.
The term nutrition is deri
erived from the word nutrient. The process of intake of food, its
digestion, absorption and
nd distribution to different part is called nutrit
rition.
Every typ
ype of physical work (walking of animals, work rking of machines or
automob biles) is possible only with the help of energy whhich is supplied with
the help
p of fuel or food. Even during sleeping, we alw lways need energy to
carry out
ut our vital activities like heart beating and br breathing etc. In our
body, the
e energy is supplied by the food we eat daily.
Modes of Nutrition :
In all the living organisms, there
re are mainly two modes of nutrition dependin ng upon the mode of
obtaining nutrients from the envivironment. These modes are:
1. Autotrophic Nutrition (Gk Gk. Auto – self + troph – nutrition) or self nutrition
ion
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition n (Gk. Hetero – different + troph – nutrition) orr nutrition
n derived from
some other or different m
means.
1. . Autotrophic Nutrition : Holo zoic
In this mode of nutritioion, the living Heter otrop hic
ic
Saprop hytic
organisms manufacture their
th food on (an imals, fung i an d
their own by the process of some bacteria)ia)
Parasi tic
photosynthesis or chem emosynthesis. Nutri tion
They are also called se elf-feeders or Mu tual istic
Au totrophic
photosynthesizers or (Plan ts and so m
me
chemosynthesizers or au utotrophs, for bacteria)
example, plants, some bact
cteria example:
Typ es of nu
u trition
purple bacterium (Rhodobacter
sphaeroides, Rhodobacterer capsulatus.)
and cyanobacteria.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

• The autotrophs alwayys prepare their food (organic) with the help elp of some inorganic
materials like carbon ddioxide, water and some minerals by the proces ess of photosynthesis
(manufacturing of food d in presence of light).
• During photosynthesis,is, there is need of a special pigment called chl
hlorophyll which traps
and fixes solar energyy tto convert the same into chemical energy in the
t form of food (e.g.,
glucose).
2. . Heterotrophic Nutrition
on :
In this mode of nutrition,, the organisms obtain their food by some mode m other than the
autotrophic one. The orga ganisms carrying out heterotrophic nutrition are e called heterotrophs,
for example, all animals, funungi and most prokaryotes including some bacte teria.
• These organisms make ke use of readymade food either in the form of dead or living plants
or animals.
• The heterotrophic nutr trition is a type of nutrition in which the energ
rgy is derived from the
intake and digestion of o the organic substances, whether of plant or an
animal source.
• In this mode of nutritio ion, the complex organic food is taken inside the e body through any of
the mode. This food is then broken down into some simple molecu cules with the help of
digestion process. Afterer digestion, the simple digested food materialsls aare absorbed for their
utilization in various for
orms as needed by the concerned organism.
Type of Heterotrophic Nutrit
rition :
Depending upon the mode of ob btaining food, the heterotrophic nutrition is of following
fo types:
(i) Holozoic Nutrition
(ii) Saprophytic/Saprotrophphic Nutrition
(iii) Parasitic Nutrition
(iv) Mutualistic Nutrition
(i) Holozoic (Holo – compl
plete + zoon – animal) Nutrition :
• In this type of nutritio
ion, all the animals including humans obtain their t nourishment by
ingesting the whole food
fo (complex organic matter in the form off plantp or animal part)
through mouth or some e similar structure by the process of ingestion.
• The ingested matter is subsequently digested (complex to simple mo olecules), absorbed in
the body and finally eggested out of the body, e.g., all animals includining vertebrates (fishes,
birds, mammals etc.) and
an invertebrates (insects, molluscs).
(ii) Saprophytic or Saprotr
trophic (Sapro – rotten + phyton – plan
nt; trophos–feeder)
Nutrition :
• It means the organism ms feed on dead and decaying organic ma atter (plant or animal
parts). They are also call
alled saprophytes or saprotrophs.
• They were once regard rded as plants, hence the use of suffix phyte in saprophyte. A more
recent term saprotroph ph avoids this problem.
• In this nutrition, the e complex organic matter is first dissolved by secreting certain
hydrolyzing enzymess and then the soluble matter is absorbed throug ugh the body surface.
• Extrac
acellular enzymes or exoenzymes degrade com omplex organic matter
suchh as cellulose and hemicelluloses into simple su sugars that enzymes –
produ
ducing organisms uses as source of carbon, energ rgy and nutrients.
• Extrac
acellular enzymes target macromolecules suc uch as carbohydrates
(cellul
lulases), liginin (oxidises), organic phosphates (phosphatases),
(p amino
sugar
ar polymers (chitinases) and proteins (proteases)s) and break them into
solubble sugars that are subsequently transported d into cells to support
hetero
erotrophic metabolism.

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Difference bet
etween Holozoic nutrition and Saprotrophic n
nutrition:
Features Hol
olozoic nutrition Saprotrop
ophic nutrition
Nature of food Solid food iss ingested (whole plant or Liquid food is ing
gested (dead decaying
animal or their
ir parts). organic matter).
Site of Always insideide the body, whether Always outside the
t body as enzymes
digestion intracellularly or
o intercellularly. are released on the
th food.

Examples Most of the animals including human Fungi and some bacteria.
b
beings.

(iii) Parasitic (para – other)

r) Nutrition :
• Parasitic nutrition refers
ers to the mode of obtaining food manufacture
red or synthesised by
others.
• In this type of nutritio
ion, two types of organisms are always involve ed. The organism that
derives its nutrition orr food
f from other living organism is called parasi
site. And the organism
from whom the food is absorbed is called the host. The host can be a p plant or an animal.
• A parasite lives either inside
in (endoparasite) or on the body (ectoparas
rasite) of the host.
• Any of the parasite lives
es in close association with the host from which
h it obtains its essential
materials but the hostt is usually harmed. In this type of nutrition one
o is benefitted and
other is harmed. For e example:
Parassite Hosst
Cuscuta (Amarbel) Other plants like Acacia (Kikar)
(
Plasmodium (a protozo
zoan) Man
Roundworm (a worm) Man
Tapeworm (a worm) Man
Fungi Plant or animal
Bacteria Plant or animal

(iv) Mutualistic Nutrition :

• The mutualistic nutritio
tion can be defined as the interdependent nut
utrition in which each
organism is dependentnt mutually on the other.
• For example the lichens
lic share mutualistic nutrition between
en a fungus and a
cyanobacterium or alga
ga.
• The algal partner man
nufacture the food by the process of photosynth
thesis while the fungal
partner provides pro
rotection and also absorbs water and miner eral salts. (Symbiotic
relationship)
• In this type of nutrition
n both the organisms are benefited by each othe
er.
AUTO
OTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PLANTS
• Nutrition in plants takes pla
lace with the help of photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis (Photo – light
li + synthesis – manufacturing) can be defin
fined as the process of
synthesis of food with the
he help of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
O in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

• Due to the occurrence of photosynthesis,

ph the plants are said to be autotro
rophs.
• Photosynthesis is the most
st important biological process on which all livin
ing organisms depend
for their food requirement
nts directly or indirectly. This process also pro
rovides us oxygen for
breathing.
• The overall equation of pho
hotosynthesis is as follows :
Dark Reaction

Sunlight
6CO2 +12H2 O  → C6H12 O 6 + 6H2 O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Glucose
Light Reaction

• The glucose formed by pho

hotosynthesis helps the plants to meet requireme
ent of energy for their
various activities.

• The manufacturing of gluccose by the plants takes place in two phases,, that
t is, light reaction
and dark reaction which o
occur in presence and absence of light respective
ively.

• The solar energy is captured

ed by complex, organic, photoreceptor molecule
les called chlorophylls
and carotenoids which are
re present in the green or coloured parts of the pl
plants. These pigments
are contained in the cell org
rganelles called chloroplasts.

• When we observe the tran

ansverse section of a leaf under the microscop
ope, we can easily see
the MESOPHYLL CELLS full
fu of green dots. These green dots are the g
green plastids called
chloroplasts are the actua
ual sites of photosynthesis.

• The chlorophyll molecules

es are mainly present in the leaves, but may als
lso be present in small
quantities on stems and green
g branches. There are different types off chlorophyll
c molecules
like chlorophyll a, b, c and
an d. Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are
e the main pigments
present in green plants. They
T absorb mainly blue and red region of visible
ble light.

Photosynthetic pigments of plants

Photosynthetic pigmen
nts Colour of pigments Type of plant con
ontaining pigments
1. Chlorophylls
* Chlorophyll a Green All green plants
* Chlorophyll b Green
* Chlorophyll c Green Brown algae, Dia
iatoms
* Chlorophyll d Green Cyanobacteria,, R
Red algae
2. Carotenoids
* Carotene Orange Algae and highe
er plants
* Xanthophyll Yellow

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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Carotenoidss act as accessory pigments as they transfer the absorbed

a light energy
to chlorophylyll a. They absorb mainly blue and green region n of visible light and
reflect orangee and yellow colours. Due to their reflected colours
rs, they are also called
orange-yellolow pigments.

Chloroplast :
• Plastids are characteristic of
o plant cells.
They are organelles bounded
ed by a double
membrane.
• There are several types of plastids
pl in plant
cells, e.g., chloroplasts (gr
green plastids),
chromoplasts (coloured plastids
p other
than green), leucoplasts
sts (colourless
plastids).
• The chloroplasts consist of the two
membranes, outer and inner,
r, surrounding a
central fluid-filled stroma.. Suspended in
the stroma are thylakoidss which are the
membrane discs that form 25-paise coin
like stacks called grana. Individual
Ind grana
(=granum) are interconnecte
ted by tubes of
thylakoid membrane. The ph
hotosynthetic pigments are arranged in the gran
ana so that they can be
oriented to capture as much
h llight energy as possible.

Site of photosynthesis in plants

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

Why do plannts look green?

The plants appear
ap green because chlorophyll of plants (parti
rticularly chlorophyll a
and chlorophhyll b, the two main pigments in plants) absorbss b
blue and red light of
the white sun
unlight and reflects green, unless masked by otheer pigments.

Raw Materials of Photosynth

thesis-Carbon Dioxide and Water :
Carbon dioxide and water are two
wo essential raw materials of photosynthesis.

1. Carbon Dioxide :
• All the plants need carbon
n dioxide (CO2) to form carbohydrates. The carbo
bon dioxide is obtained
by the plants from the atm
mospheric air.

• In the terrestrial plants, the

th CO2 gas enters into the cells of leaves thro
rough tiny pores called
stomata which always rem
emain present on the surface of leaves.

• The stomata are minute poresp present

in the epidermal layer off aaerial parts of
plants. They are most aabundant on
leaves. Each stoma (singula
ular of stomata)
is surrounded by two o specialised
epidermal cells called gua
uard cells. The
guard cells are usually kid
idney or bean-
shaped.

• The exchange of gases (oxygen and

carbon dioxide) takes place
p through
the stomata. About 80-90
90% of the total water absorbed is lost through h stomata. Hence, the
stomata get closed when ccarbon dioxide is not needed for photosynthesi
sis.

• The closing and opening g of the stomata is governed by guard cells. W When the guard cells
swell (or become turgid) due to the entry of water, the stomata are opened.
op But when the
guard cells shrink (or beco
come flaccid) due to the loss of water, the stomat
ata get closed.
• In aquatic plants, CO2 is o
obtained from the water where it remains prese sent in dissolved form.
Such plants absorb carbon n dioxide in solution form; all over their surface
e from the surrounding
water (submerged aquaticc pplants do not have stomata).

CAM photo tosynthesis or Crassulacean-Acid metabolism is most common in

desert plants
ts where water is at a premium. In CAM photosy
synthesis, CO2 is taken
up only att night and is stored in vacuoles. This causeses a build up of an
e (malic acid). The stomata are open only at night
intermediate ht, when it is relatively
cool and hu
humid; they stay closed during the hot, dry day.
d In the morning,
(during day ti er) sunlight driving the
time when stomata is closed to prevent loss of water
light reaction
ions allows the stored carbon to be combined int nto sugars. The stored
carbon mayy run out fairly quickly, however, meaning thatt photosynthesis only
proceeds foror part of the day, and that means little productio
tion of sugars.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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2. Water :
• Water is always needed b is. The water absorbed
by the plants for its use during photosynthesis.
from the soil is carried upwards
up through xylem vessels up to the leave ves.
• Mineral salts required by the plants are also transported to differen ent parts of the plant
alongwith the water.
• Inside the chloroplasts off the leaves, the water molecules split into hyhydrogen and oxygen
with the help of light ene
nergy of solar light. This process is called photo
olysis of water.

Mechanism of photosynth
thesis or how food is synthesized during photosynthesis?:
p
During photosynthesis, following
g events occur -
(i) Absorption of light ene
ergy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of absorb rbed light energy to chemical energy, i.e., i ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) and NAD DPH2 (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phos
osphate Hydrogen) and
splitting of water moleolecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Light Ener
ergy +Chlorophyll
2H2 O   → 2H2 +O2 +Chemical energy
Ligh
ght Reaction
Chemicacal Energy
CO2 +2H2  →[ CH2 O] +H2O
Dark reaction
re
Overall photosynthetic reaction on-
Da rk Rea ction

S unlight
6 CO
C 2 + 1 2H 2 O 
Chlorophyll
→ C 6H12 O6 + 6 H2 O + 6O
6 2

Light Reaction
Photosynthesis involves a seriess o
of chemical reactions that can be categorized into
i two main phases,
namely light reaction and dark k reaction.
r
Light Reaction :
• The first step is light depe
pendent reaction and hence called light reactio
ion.
• This step occurs inside thylakoid
th membranes of chloroplasts to prepaare chemical energy in
useful forms of energy, that is ATP and NADPH2.
the form of biologically us
• During light reaction,, light energy breaks up water moleculess into hydrogen and
oxygen and this process
ss is called photolysis of water.
• Oxygen is released as a by-product of light reaction occurring during
g photosynthesis.
• Oxygen released during photosynthesis
p comes from water instead of C
CO2 as was earlier
thought.
Dark Reaction ::
• The next step is light ind dependent and hence also called dark reaction n. This step takes place
both in light as well as in
n dark but do not require light for its occurrence.
• This reaction occurs insidide stroma of chloroplasts where light energy is not captured.
• During this reaction, the e chemical energy formed during light reaction n (ATP and NADPH2) is
utilized for the fixatio ion and conversion of carbon dioxide (CO (C 2) into a simple
carbohydrate, that is, glu lucose.
• The glucose molecules tthus formed are further converted by the ce ellular machinery into
various chemicals require red by the plants.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

D
Difference between light and dark reaction
Features Light Reaction Dark
ark Reaction
Requirement of light R
Required Not required
Takes place inside TThylakoid membranes of the The stroma region
re of chloroplast.
c
chloroplast.
ATP and NADPH2 ATP and NADPH2 are produced ATP and NAD
A DPH2 formed during
b the conversion of light light reaction
by on are used for the
e
energy into chemical energy. fixation of CO
O2 into carbohydrate.
Sugar formation N sugar formation takes place.
No Sugar formati
tion takes place.

Release of Oxygen O
Oxygen is released. No oxygen is released.

Factors Affecting Rate of Pho

hotosynthesis :
Mechanism of photosynthesis iss aaffected by several external and internal factors.
rs. These are:
Light: The rate of photosy synthesis increases with increases in light intens
nsity. However, at very
high light intensity, the rate
te of photosynthesis decreases.
Temperature: The rate off p ture. Above 40oC, there
photosynthesis increases with rising temperatu
is decrease in photosynthes esis.
Carbon dioxide: The rate o of photosynthesis increases with increasing CO2 concentration of the
environment. At very high gh concentration, photosynthesis decreases as it causes closing of
stomata resulting in inhibitiition of gaseous exchange.
Water: The rate of photosy
synthesis is lowered if the plants are inadequately
ely supplied with water.
Decrease in water causes closure
cl of stomata.
Amount of chlorophyll and d accumulation of photosynthetic products (sug
gar or starch) in leaves
also influences the rate off respiration.
re

DPP-1
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ
CQs)
Choose the correct answer:
1. Kind of Nutrition in which o
organism feeds on dead and decaying matter is called
c -
(a) autotrophic (b)) h
holozoic (c) saprotrophic (d parasitic
(d)
2. Amoeba shows following ki
kind of nutrition-
(a) autotrophic (b)) h
holozoic (c) saprotrophic (d parasitic
(d)
3. Amoeba engulfs food by th
the following process-
(a) phagocytosis (b)) p
pinocytosis (c) saprotrophic (d digestion
(d)
4. Amoeba captures food with
ith help of-
(a) teeth (b)) ccilia (c) pseudopodia (d tentacles
(d)
5. The autotrophic mode of nu
nutrition requires-
(a) chlorophyll (b) sunlight
(c) carbon dioxide and wate
ter (d) all of the these
6. Which of the following prov
ovides energy for photosynthesis?
(a) Water (b)) SSunlight (c) Chlorophyll (d CO2
(d)
7. Light reaction occurs in the
e-
(a) grana region (b)) sstroma region (c) mitochondria (d cytoplasm
(d)

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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8. Oxygen evolved during pho

hotosynthesis comes from-
(a) CO2 (b)) H2O (c) CO2 and H2O both (d chlorophyll
(d)
9. Name the pigment essentia
tial for photosynthesis-
(a) haemoglobin (b)) cchloroplast (c) xanthophylls (d chlorophyll
(d)
10. Role of oxygen in photosyn
nthesis is as-
(a) a reactant (b)) ffood (c) a catalyst (d a by-product
(d)
11. Which of the following state
tement about the autotrophs is incorrect?
(a) They store carbohydratetes in the form of starch.
(b) They constitute the first
st trophic level in food chains.
(c) They release CO 2 as byy – product.
(d) The synthesise carbohyd
ydrates from carbon dioxide.
12. Select the correct statemen
nt-
(a) Heterotrophs do not syn
ynthesise their own food
(b) Heterotrophs synthesise
se their own food
(c) Heterotrophs utilize sola
lar energy for photosynthesis
(d) Heterotrophs are capabl
ble of converting carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates
c
13. A few drops of iodine solu lution were added to rice water. The solution
n turned blue-black in
colour. This indicates that ri
rice water has-
(a) starch (b)) ffats (c) simple proteins (d complex proteins
(d)
14. The internal (cellular) energ
rgy reserve in autotrophs is
(a) glycogen (b)) p
protein (c) starch (d fatty acid
(d)
15. Which of the following equ
uations is the actual summary of photosynthesis?
is?
(a) 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 +6O2 +6H2O
Sunlight
(b) 6CO2 + H2 O →
→ C6H12 O6 + 6H2O + O2
Sunl
nlight
(c) 6CO2 + 12H2 O  → C6H12O6 + 6CO2 + 6H2 O
Chloro
rophyll

Sunl
nlight
(d) 6CO2 + 12H2 O  → C6H12 O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chloro
orophyll

16. The colour of guard cell is-

(a) Red (b)) G
Green (c) Yellow (d No colour
(d)
17. Tick the correct statement-
(a) Stomata are always surro
rrounded by subsidiary cells
(b) Stomata are absent in the
th leaves of submerged aquatic plants
(c) Stomata are absent in the
th leaves of free floating plants
(d) The guard cells are abse
sent in some stomata
18. More stomata are presentt in -
(a) Peel of flower petal (b) Upper epidermis of dorsiventral
do leaf
(c) Lower epidermis of dors
rsiventral leaf (d) Potato epidermis (skin
in).
19. Loss of water in the form of vapours, i.e., transpiration, occurs mainly throu
ugh-
(a) Cuticle (b)) LLenticel (c) Stomata (d Hydathode
(d)

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

20. Stomatal pore opens when

n-
(a) Water from surrounding
g cells enter into guard cells
(b) Water from guard cell goes
go to the surrounding cells
(c) The plants are in dark
(d) No movement of waterr occurs
o between guard cells and surrounding cells
ce
21. In the following sketch of
o the stomatal apparatus, the parts I, II, IIII aand IV were labelled
differently by four students
ts.
The correct labelling, outt of the following, is
(a) (I) guard cell (II) stomatal
tal aperture (III) starch granule (IV) nucleus
(b) (I) Guard cell (II) nucleuss (III) stomatal aperture (IV) chloroplast
(c) (I) guard cell (II) starch (III)
(II nucleus (IV) stomatal aperture
(d) (I) cytoplasm (II) chlorop
plast (III) stomatal aperture (IV) nucleus
22. In order to complete the diagram
dia of stomatal apparatus given below, nucl
clei should be drawn in
the parts marked
(a) A and B
(b) A and C
(c) B and C
(d) A, B and C

Short answer questions:

23. Differentiate between an au
autotroph and a heterotroph.
24. What kind of nutrition occu
curs in fungi?
25. Which organelle serves the
e function of excretion and osmoregulation in Amoeba?
Am
26. Define the following termss :
(a) Saprophytes (b) Parasites

NUTRITION IN AMOEBA

Amoeba cannot synthesise its fo food from simple substances, hence it require res ready-made oganic
substance as food. Such a mode e of nutrition in which solid organic particless are
a ingested is called
holozoic nutrition, which is a fo
form of heterotrophic nutrition. Amoeba feeds ds on bacteria, diatoms,
unicellular algae and planktons p
present in the surrounding water where it lives.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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The process of nutrition in Amo

oeba involves the following steps:

Ingestion: Since there is

i no mouth or any other organelle in Amoe
oeba for the intake or
ingestion of food, ingestio rmation of a food cup.
tion may occur from any place in the body by form
The pseudopodia play aan important role in engulfing the food. When food
fo comes in contact
with the body, Amoeba e
extends its pseudopodia around the food and envelops
e it completely
forming the food vacu
cuole. The ingestion of food in Amoeba takes
t place through
phagocytosis.

Endocytosisis: It is a cellular process in which substances are bro

rought into the cell.
Endocytosiss iincludes phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
• Phagocyt
ytosis: It is a process of ingestion of solid particles in
into a cell through cell
membran
ane.
• Pinocytos
osis: It is a process of ingestion of liquid into
to a cell through cell
membranane.

Digestion: The digestion

on is intracellular and takes place inside the foo
ood vacuole. Digestive
enzymes are released in the food vacuoles by lysosomes present in the cytoplasm. The
content of food vacuoles
les is first acidic and then become alkaline. Acid
idic media of the food
vacuole help in killing tthe prey. The enzymes reported to be pres esent in Amoeba are
AMYLASE for converting ing starch into sugar, LIPASE for digesting fatt and
a PROTEINASE for
digesting proteins.
Absorption: The food vavacuoles move freely in the cytoplasm due to stre
treaming movement of
the cytoplasm. During this
th movement, digested food diffused out throu ugh the food vacuoles
into the surrounding cyto
toplasm.
Assimilation: The absor
orbed food is utilised for giving energy or is stored
s in the form of
glycogen and fat.
Egestion: There is no defefinite anus. The undigested residue of food vaccuole is waste which is
heavier than protoplasm and, therefore, is shifted towards the peripheryry. When food vacuoles
containing undigested fo food come in contact with the plasma memb brane, the membrane
ruptures at this point andd undigested food is expelled out. The membran
rane soon gets repaired
to prevent outflow of pro
rotoplasm.
NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Human beings exhibit holozoicic mode of nutrition. They are omnivorous, i.e.,, they
th can feed on both
plants as well as animal matte
tter and their digestive organs and digestive e glands are adapted
accordingly. The digestive syste
stem of human beings includes alimentary ccanal and associated
digestive glands.

• If a humann adult’s digestive tract / alimentary canal were stretched

s out, it would
be 6 to 9 m long.
• ers the digestive system through the mouth an
Food enter nd passes through the
oesophagugus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
ne, rectum and anus.
gans, such as the liver, further aid in the b
Other orga break down of food,
absorption
n of nutrients and elimination of undigestible
le materials from the
body.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

: ALIMENTARY CANAL :

• The alimentary canal formss a long continuous tube beginning at the mou
outh and ending at the
anus.

• The greatest part of its leng

ngth is contained in the abdominal cavity where
re it must be coiled and
folded in order to fit.

• Materials can pass through

h its entire length without entering the body tissu
ssues.

• Human alimentary canal iss about

a 8-9 metres in length with variable diameeters at place.

• The different parts of the aalimentary canal in sequence are mouth, bucca
cal cavity, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine (d
(duodenum, jejunum and ileum) and large inte testine (caecum, colon
and rectum).

Human digestive system showing different organs.

s.

MOUTH AND BUCCAL CAVIT

ITY:
• The mouth is the first part
rt of the alimentary canal. It is a
transverse slit bounded wit
ith soft movable lips. The mouth
opens into buccal cavity or
o oral cavity. The lateral wall of
the buccal cavity is boun
nded by muscular cheeks. The
buccal cavity is bounded b
by upper and lower jaws which
are provided with teeth.

• Human adult bears 32 teeth

th which develop in two sets. In young children
n, the number of teeth
is only 20, which are called
d milk teeth, and erupt between 6 months to 24
4 months of age. When
a child grows, milk teeth are
re replaced by permanent teeth.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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• Human teeth are diphyodo

dont (as two sets of teeth develop), thecodont (teeth are embedded
es), and heterodont (different types of teeth ar
in sockets of the jaw bone are present). There are
four different types of teeth
th present in each jaw. These are:

4 incisors - used for bitin

iting and cutting
2 canines - used for tear
aring
4 premolars - used for grin
rinding
6 molars - used for effe
fective grinding

h jaw are called wisdom teeth which are vestigia

The last molars of each ial and appear late.

More aboutt dental

d caries
Sometimes, plaques
p (= mixture of bacteria, saliva and food materials)
m are formed
in the teeth.. P
Plaque also combines with certain chemicals in ththe saliva which make
it harden andnd calcify to form deposits of calculus which can annot be removed by
brushing. Som me of the bacteria in the plaque convert sugar into
to acid which initiates
the process of o dental caries. Initially the enamel is slowly ly and painlessly get
dissolved by the
t acid. But when the dentine and pulp of the tee eeth are attacked, this
is accompanie ied by severe pain or toothache, and the possible loss
lo of teeth.
Factors contr tributing to the spread of dental caries are:
• prolonged eexposure to sugary food stuffs
• lack of orall hygiene
• low levels of fluoride in drinking water
• disturbancece of saliva composition
Prevention o of dental caries may be done by:
• adding fluo oride to drinking water
• brushing tee
teeth with fluoridated toothpaste
• good oral h hygiene
• regular visit
sits to the dentist
• care with co
composition of the diet
• ity is called the palate.
The roof of the buccal cavit

• The floor of the buccal cavvity is occupied by a voluntary, freely movable

le, muscular, glandular,
sensory structure called tongue.
to The tongue is attached to the floor off tthe oral cavity by the
FRENULUM. The tongue bears
b different types of taste buds for tasting different
di types of food.
The tongue helps in chewin
ing, mixing, tasting and swallowing of food. It also
al helps in moulding
sound into speech.

• The buccal cavity leads into

to the pharynx.
PHARYNX :
The pharynx serves as a common
co passage for both respiratory and dig
igestive tracts. It leads
into the oesophagus throu
ough an opening called gullet.
OESOPHAGUS :
• It is a muscular tube exten
ending from gullet to the stomach. The oesoph
phagus is about 25 cm
long, passes through the e neck, thorax, and diaphragm and then cururves up to open into
the stomach. Its wall shohows peristalsis. Peristalsis is the rhythmmic contraction and
relaxation of muscles off the alimentary canal to push food posteri riorly.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

• A circular muscle called the oesophageal sphincter separates the oesophagus

o and the
stomach. As food is swallow
wed, this muscle relaxes, forming an opening th
through which the food
can pass into the stomachch. Then the muscle contracts, closing the openening to prevent food
from moving back into thee oesophagus.
STOMACH :
• The stomach is the J-shape
ped, hollow and widest
part of the alimentary can
anal, and is located in
the left upper part of the
e abdomen below the
diaphragm.

• It is differentiated into ththree parts – cardiac,

fundic and pyloric. Cardi diac stomach receives
the opening of distal end d of oesophagus while
pyloric stomach posteriorl rly leads into the first
part of small intestine i.e. duodenum.
d

• The wall of the stomach iis highly muscular and thick and contains ga
gastric glands. Gastric
glands bear three types of cells:
Peptic or zymogenic ic cells which secrete digestive enzymes;
Oxyntic or parietal ce cells which secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl); and
nd
Mucous cells which secrete
se mucus.
• Besides digestion, the stommach acts as a storage organ and helps in churnin
ning of food.
• Pyloric stomach leads into the
t small intestine.
SMALL INTESTINE :
• It is the longest part of th
the alimentary canal, and is about 6 metres in length
l and 2.5 cm in
diameter. Small intestine is divisible into three part-duodenum, jejunum and
a ileum.
Duodenum: It is the pr
proximal part of the small intestine and is aboutt 25 cm in length and
C-shaped in appearannce. It receives the opening of common bile and d pancreatic duct.
Jejunum: It is the mid
iddle and highly coiled part of the intestine and
an is about 2.5 m in
length. Jejunum is thick
ick-walled and narrower than the duodenum.
Ileum: It is the distal,, thin-walled,
th estine with a length of
highly coiled part of the small intes
about 3.5 metres.
• jections called villi. Villi
The inner wall of the smallll intestine is provided with long finger like proje
increases the surface for abbsorption of digested food materials.
• Capillaries: Beneath the vvilli’s single layer of cells are capillaries (tinyy blood vessels) of the
blood stream and the lymp phatic system. These capillaries allow nutrients produced
p by digestion
the whole body. Simple sugar and amino acid
to travel to the cells of th cids pass through the
capillaries to enter the blo
blood stream. Fatty acids and glycerol pass thr hrough the lymphatic
system.
• Small intestine leads into th
the large intestine.

The length of the small intestine differs in animals with d

different food habits.
Herbivorou us animals have relatively longer small intes
estine as the digestion
e takes a longer time. On the other hand, carn
of cellulose rnivorous animals like
dog, tiger,, lion,
l etc. have shorter small intestine becau
ause meat and fat are
digested in comparatively
c less time.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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LARGE INTESTINE :
• ut 1.5 to 1.8 metre in
The large intestine is about
length and 4-6 cm in diameeter.
• Large intestine in human be
beings is divisible into
three parts-caecum, colon n and rectum.
Caecum: The caecum is i a small pouch that
lies at the junction off the small and large
intestine. Caecum poss
ssesses a narrow blind
tubular lymphoid out
utgrowth, 8-9 cm in
length, called vermifo
form appendix. The
Human la
large intestine
appendix is a vestigia
ial organ in humans.
Caecum leads into the
e colon.
c

Colon: The colon is an inverted

i U-shaped tube, about 1 metre long.. It is the largest part of
the large intestine. Itt is divisible into four parts - ascending colon
lon, transverse colon,
descending colon, an nd sigmoid colon. Throughout its length, thee colon bears alternate
ed haustra.
sac-like swellings called

The colon is meant forr absorption

a of water from undigested food.
The colon harbours a large number of bacteria which feeds upon tthe undigested food.
(Escherichia coli in co
colon synthesises vitamin- K which plays an im
mportant role in blood
clotting.)
Rectum: Sigmoid colon
lon leads into the rectum. Rectum is the termininal part of alimentary
e exterior through the anus. It is about 20 cm long.
canal and opens to the lo It absorbs excess
water from the undiges
ested food, secretes mucus and helps in egestionn of faecal matter.
Muscle contractions in
n the walls of the rectum push the faeces towards
ds the anus. When anal
sphincter between thehe rectum and anus relax, the faeces pass outt of the body through
defaection.

DIGESTIVE GLANDS
SALIVARY GLANDS :
Three pairs of salivary glands are
e present in the vicinity of the buccal cavity. They
ey open into the buccal
cavity through their ducts. The three
th different salivary glands are:
Parotid glands: Largest pa pair of salivary glands, lie near the base of the ear
e and open near the
upper second molar teeth.
Sublingual glands: Smallll g glands, lie beneath the tonque, and open on th the floor of the buccal
cavity.
Submandibular glands: Medium-sized
M glands located near the posteriorr part of the lower jaw,
and open near the lower central
ce incisor.
Salivary glands produce saliva.
s About 1 to 1.5 litre of saliva is produceced in 24 hours.
• Saliva iss an antiseptic as it kills germs and bacteria du ue to presence of an
enzyme called
c lysozyme. It also makes the food soft, slippery
sl and helps in
digestionn of starch due to salivary amylase enzyme.
• Our mout uth starts watering on eating food (say rasgulla) a) of our interest. This
water is bbasically the saliva secreted by the salivary glands
ds which get activated
on eating g/seeing/thinking of a good food.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

Saliva performs the following functions:

f
• It lubricates food and he
helps in swallowing.
• It contains an enzym me, salivary amylase (ptyalin) which conver
erts starch into sugar
(maltose).
LIVER :
• Liver is the largest gland d of human body, weighing 1.4 to 1.8 kg in n males and 1.4 kg in
females. It lies below thee diaphragm in the upper right side of the ab abdominal cavity. It is
differentiated into right an nd left lobes. An elongated sac-like gall bladdeer remains attached to
the posterior surface of the e right lobe.
• Liver (Hepatic cells) secrete tes bile juice
which contains bile sal alts (sodium
carbonate, sodium glycoc ocholate and
sodium taurocholate) and bile
pigments (bilirubin and d biliverdin)
but no digestive enzymes es. Bile juice
is stored in gall bladder andan is carried
to the duodenum by co ommon bile
duct. (The duct of ga all bladder
(cystic duct) a long with the t hepatic
duct from the liver forms the
common bile duct.) is aan alkaline
fluid (pH : 8.6). Half to o one litre of
bile is produced every 24 4 hours in an
adult human. The functio tions of bile
juice are:
It acts as an antiseptic fluid.
fl
It helps in emulsificatition of fat.
It neutralizes the acid ef
effect of food to prepare a medium for the action
on of pancreatic juice.
It activates the pancreaatic and intestinal enzymes.
It enhances the absorpt ption of digested fat by the intestinal wall.
PANCREAS :
• It is the second largest glanand of the body, having a weight of about 60 gra rams. Pancreas is about
12-15 cm long and 2.5 cm in width.
• It is soft, lobulated, greyish--pink gland, lying posterior to the stomach.
• Pancreas secretes pancre reatic juice, which is alkaline in nature (pH: 8.0)8 1 to 1½ litre of
pancreatic juice is secreted d in 24 hours in an adult human being.
• Pancreatic juice contains enzymes
en like trypsin for digesting proteins, paancreatic amylase for
breakdown of starch and d pancreatic lipase for the digestion of fat. Pan
ancreatic juice is carried
by several small pancreatic ic ducts into the main pancreatic duct which fininally carries it into the
duodenum through the com ommon pancreatic and bile duct, i.e., hepatopan ancreatic duct which is
guarded by a sphincter calle lled sphincter of Oddi.
DIGESTION OF FOOD
Digestion is a hydrolytic pro rocess in which nondiffusible complex org rganic materials are
converted into diffusible simple ler forms with the help of digestive enzymes. s.
Only a few components of the die
diet such as salts, certain vitamins, water and othe
her small water soluble
materials are directly absorbed by the digestive tract. The major constituents nts of the diet such as
carbohydrate, protein and fat are
re relatively complex and cannot be absorbed unless
u they are broken
down into simpler forms. Hencce, digestion involves a chemical breakdow wn of complex food
materials, which works on thee principle of hydrolysis and is performed with ith the assistance of a
number of hydrolytic enzymes sesecreted by the alimentary canal and associated glands.
g

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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DIGESTION IN BUCCAL CAV

VITY :
• Food enters into the bucc
ccal cavity through mouth. Here, it is broken do
down mechanically by
teeth and chemically by e
enzymes. Teeth chew and masticate the food
od. Saliva secreted by
salivary glands moisten the
e food.

• Once food has been reduce Th tongue pushes this

ced to a soft mass, it is ready to be swallowed. The
mass-called a bolus to the
he back of the mouth and into the pharynx. From
Fr the pharynx, the
bolus is swallowed to the oesophagus.
o

• Salvia is slightly acidic (pH: 6 to 6.6) and it contains several enzymes like amylase
am (ptyalin), acid
phosphatase, aldolase an nd cholinesterase. Of these, amylase is the mo
ost potent which acts
on starch and breaks it int
nto glucose and maltose.

Salivar y Amylase
Starch
h (Ptyalin )
→ Maltose + Glucose
Digestion does not take
ke place in the pharynx and oesophagus as these
th two parts act as
passage for food to ente
ter into the stomach.

DIGESTION IN STOMACH :

• The stomach acts as reservo

voir where food is subjected to both muscular ch
churning and chemical
reactions. The gastric glan
nds present in the wall of the stomach secrete gastric
g juices. Presence
of food stimulates the glan
lands to secrete juice; however, even when the
e stomach is empty, it
contains about 50 mL of gaastric fluid. This is called residuum.

• Gastric juice is strongly acid

idic. It contains mucous, enzymes and hydrochlo
loric acid (HCl).

• Mucous is secreted from

m mucous cells of the gastric glands. Mucous
us serves to buffer the
strong acid and form a pro
rotective barrier between the lining of stomach
h and gastric enzymes
present in the lumen of the
e stomach.

• Gastric HCl is secreted by

b the parietal cells of the gastric glands. HCl
H provides an acidic
medium, which is essential
ial for the action of gastric juice. It also kills the bacteria
b present in the
food and converts inactive
ve pepsinogen into active pepsin.

• Gastric enzymes are secre

reted by the chief cells (zymogenic cells) of the
e gastric gland.

Three different types of enz

nzymes are secreted from the gastric glands. Thes
ese are:

Pepsin: It is secreted in
i inactive form pepsinogen. HCl activates it to become active as
oteolytic enzyme which converts proteins into p
pepsin. Pepsin is a prot peptones.

Gastric lipase: It is a fat plets to convert them

fa splitting enzyme which acts on small fat drop
into fatty acids and glycerol.
gl

Rennin: It is secreted aas inactive renninogen (Prorennin) HCl converts

rts it into active rennin.
Rennin acts on milk protein
pr and converts it into casein and whey. Casein,
Ca along with milk
calcium, forms calciu
ium protein or calcium paracaseinate (cur
urd). Pepsin converts
paracaseinate into pept
ptones and amino acids.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

HCl
Renninogen  → Rennin
(inactive) (active)
Rennin
Milk protein  → Casein + Whey
lcium 
Casein + milk calc → Calcium protein (curd/calcium paaracaseinate)
Pepsin
Paracaseinate  → Peptones → Amino acids

• About four hours or less after

a h, now called chyme,
a meal, food processed by the stomach
begins passing a little at a time
ti through the sphincter muscle (called pylor
oric sphincter) into the
duodenum which is C - sha
haped and is the first portion of the small intestin
ine.

DIGESTION IN SMALL INTES

STINE :
From the stomach, the semi-digegested food, chyme, reaches into the initial partt of the small intestine,
i.e., duodenum. In the small intes secretions – bile juice,
estine, the food is subjected to three different se
pancreatic juice and intestinall jjuice.
Bile juice contains water, sodium
um bicarbonate, bile pigment and bile salts. Bicarbonate
Bic makes the
medium alkaline.
Bile juice has no digestive enzy
ymes but it performs important functions like
ke:

It emulsifies fats.
It makes the medium alkalin
line which is essential for the action of pancreatic
tic enzymes.
It stops the action of gastric
ric enzymes.
Pancreatic juice has the follo
lowing enzymes:
Trypsin: converts peptones
es into amino acids.
Pancreatic amylase: breakks left over starch into maltose and glucose.
Maltase: converts maltosee iinto glucose.
Pancreatic lipase (steapsin
sin): converts fat into fatty acids and glycerol.

The wall of small intestine con ontains glands which secretes intestinal juicece (Succus entericus).
Intestinal juice contains several e
enzymes, which act upon all the three major con
onstituents of food, i.e.,
carbohydrate, protein and fat. Enz
nzymes act in the following ways:

Enzymes Substrate En products

End
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Lactase Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Erepsin Peptones and Proteases Amino acids
ac
Peptidase Peptides Amino acids
ac
Lipase Fat Fatty acid
id + Glycerol

Summary of digestive process:

Digestion of Protein -
Enterokinase of
Trypsinogen (Proenzyme,, inactive)
in 
intestinal juice
→ Trypsin (Active)
Trypsin
nzyme, inactive) 
Chymotrypsinogen (Proenz → Chymotripsin (Active)
e)

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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Trypsin
enzyme, inactive) 
Procarboxypeptidase (Proe → Carboxypeptidase (Active)
(A
Trypsin
Proteins  → Large peptides
pe
Chymotrypsin
Proteins  → Larg
rge peptides
Carboxypeptidas
ase
Large peptides  → Dipeptides + Amino acids
Digestion of Fat –
Bile juice of liver Pancreatic Lipase
Fat  → Emulsifi
ified fat 
Hepatic Lipase
→ Fatty acid + Glycerol

Digestion of Nucleic Acids –

DNase
DNA  → Deoxyribonu
ucleotides
RNase
RNA  → Ribonucleoti
tides
Digestion of Starch (Carbohydr
drates) –
Maltase
Maltose  → Glucosee + Glucose
Sucrase
Sucrose  → Glucosee + Fructose
Lactase
Lactose  → Glucosee + Galactose
(Enzymes, Maltase, Sucrasese and Lactase are present in intestinal juice
e where as pancreatic
amylase is secreted from pa
pancreas which converts starch into maltose)
ABSORPTION OF FOOD
• Absorption is a process byy w
which the end product of digestion such as min
inerals, vitamins, water,
etc. are absorbed through tthe mucosa of intestine into blood and lymph vessels.
v The mucosa of
small intestine is folded aand projected in the form of finger-like villi
lli which increases the
absorptive surface area mananifold.

• Amino acids and monosa saccharides are absorbed by blood capillaries es and fatty acids and
glycerols are absorbed by y lymph capillaries. For efficient absorption off food,
f the intestine has
the following peculiarities:
It is extremely long.
The epithelial lining is very
v thin leading to rapid diffusion of substances
es.
Villi are profusely suppli
plied with blood and lymph capillaries.
Villi increases absorptiv
ive surface area.
ASSIMILATION OF FOOD

The absorbed substances finallyy reach

r the tissues which utilize them for their act
ctivities. This process is
called assimilation. Assimilation
n is the incorporation of digested food subs bstances in the living
cells of an animal and their subbsequent use for building up new tissues.
Amino acids are used for protein n synthesis. Glucose (monosaccharide) is used for energy formation by
cells. Excess glucose is converted ed into glycogen (polysaccharides) and are store
red in tissues for future
use. Fat is used as fuel. Extra fatss are
a deposited in subcutaneous layer and in mesesenteries.
EGESTION OF FOOD

The elimination of undigested

d remains of food from the alimentary canall is called egestion or
defaecation. Excess of water is absorbed in large intestine and the conten
ents become the semi-
solid faeces which passes out into
to rectum and is expelled out through anus.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

IM
IMPORTANT POINTS AT A GLANCE
Functions of various organs/reg
egions of the digestive system
Organs/Regions Functions
Oral cavity Ingests food d
Grinds food d and mixes it with salvia (mastication)
Initiates dige
gestion of carbohydrates by salivary amylase
Forms boluss (food mass)
Swallows bo olus
Pharynx Receive bolu lus from oral cavity
Swallows bo olus to stomach by peristalsis
Oesophagus Transports b bolus to stomach by peristalsis
Oesophagea eal sphincter restricts backflow of food
Stomach Receives bololus from oesophagus
Churns boluslus with gastric juice to form chime
Initiates dige
gestion of proteins by pepsin
Moves chym me into duodenum and prohibits backflow
Small intestine Receive chym yme from stomach along with bile from liver and d pancreatic juice
from pancre reas
Breaks down n chyme chemically and mechanically
Absorbs dige gested nutrients
Transports w wastes to large intestine through peristalsis
Prohibits bacackflow of intestinal wastes from large intestine
Large intestine Receive undi digested wastes from small intestine
Absorbs wat ater and electrolytes
Promotes gr growth of bacteria which form vitamin K
Forms and st stores faeces and expels faecal matter through defaecation.
d

Name of
Secretion Site
eoof Action Enzymes Food acts upon End product
Gland
Salivary Salivary
Saliva Bucc
ccal cavity Starch Maltose
glands amylase
Pepsin, Proteins Peptones & Proteoses
Gastric Gastric Juice Sto
tomach
Rennin casein of Milk Paracaesin
glands
HCl Sto
tomach - pepsinogen pepsin
Emulsification of Fat (Fat
Em
Liver Bile Duo
uodenum - Fats
Globule)
Trypsin Proteins Peptones & Peptides
Pancreatic
Pancreas Duo
uodenum Amylase Starch & Glycogen Maltose & isomaltose
Juice
Lipase Emulsified Fats Fatty acid & Glycerol
Erepsin Peptones & Peptides Amino acids
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose & Fructose
Intestinal juice Small
all intestine
Intestinal Lactase Lactose Glucose & galactose
glands
Monoglycerides
Lipase Triglycerides
& Fatty acids
Lubrication of Faecal
Mucous Large
ge intestine - -
matter

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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Flow chart
rt showing path of food through
oral cavi
vity, oesophagus and stomach.

Somatostatin inhibits insu

sulin and glucagon secretion.

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LIFE PROCESSES (NUTRITION) BIOLOGY

Flow
w chart showing movement of food
through
gh small intestine and large intestine.

DPP-2
Multiple choice questions (MCQS
QS):
27. In humans, protein digestio
ion begins in -
(a) mouth (b)) sstomach (c) duodenum (d)) ssmall intestine
28. Trypsin acts only in-
(a) alkaline (b)) sslightly acidic pH (c) neutral pH (d)) h
highly acidic pH
29. The largest gland in the hum
uman alimentary canal is-
(a) stomach (b)) lliver (c) large intestine (d)) ssmall intestine
30. Which of these is not a part
rt of the small intestine?
(a) Duodenum (b)) JJejunum (c) Ileum (d)) R
Rectum
31. Which is the first enzyme to mix with food in the digestive tract?
(a) Pepsin (b)) C
Cellulase (c) Amylase (d)) TTrypsin

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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32. Select the correct sequence

ce of parts in human alimentary canal-
(a) Mouth → oesophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intesti
tine
(b) Mouth → stomach → small intestine → oesophagus → large intesti
stine
(c) Mouth → oesophagus → stomach → large intestine → small intestin
tine
(d) Mouth → stomach → oesophagus → small intestine → large intesti
stine
33. Villi are finger-like projectio
ions present in the-
(a) Stomach (b) Pancreas
P (c) Small intestine (d)) Large intestine
34. Bile is secreted by-
(a) Liver (b) Pancreas
P (c) Duodenum (d)) Gall bladder
35. The digested food is absorb
rbed mainly by-
(a) Stomach (b) Caecum
C (c) Small intestine (d)) Colon
36. Which of the following eve
vents in the mouth cavity will be affected if saliva
ivary amylase is lacking
in the saliva?
(a) Absorption of vitamins
(b) Proteins breaking down
n into amino acids
(c) Starch breaking down into
in sugars
(d) Fats breaking down into
to fatty acids and glycerol
37. The inner lining of stomach
ch is protected from hydrochloric acid by which o
one of the following:
(a) Pepsin (b)) M
Mucus (c) Bile (d)) SSalivary amylase
38. Name the part of alimentary
ary canal receiving bile from the liver-
(a) Oesophagus (b)) SStomach (c) Small intestine (d)) ccomplex proteins
39. Name the part of alimentary
ary canal where food is finally digested-
(a) Mouth cavity (b)) SStomach (c) Large intestine (d)) SSmall intestine
40. Select the function of the p
pancreatic juice-
(a) trypsin digests proteinss aand lipase emulsified fats
(b) trypsin and lipase digest
st fats
(c) trypsin digests emulsifie
ied fats and lipase proteins
(d) trypsin digests proteinss and lipase carbohydrates
41. Bile is stored in-
(a) Liver (b) Gall
G bladder (c) Kidney (d)) Mouth
Very short answer questions:
42. Which substance is absorbe
bed in large intestine?
43. What is the function of bile?
le?
44. Is any enzyme present in bile
bi juice? If yes name it.

Short answer questions:

45. What is emulsification? Na
Name the organ where fat is emulsified in the
he alimentary canal of
human beings.
46. What is the role of hydrochl
hloric acid in human digestive system?
47. Name the organs where the
he following enzymes are secreted in human dige
gestive system-
(i) Pepsin (ii Ptyalin
(ii) (iii) Trypsin (iv Gastric lipase
(iv)

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LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION
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PART-2
RESPIRATION
• All cells require a continuou
us supply of oxygen (O2) for obtaining energy and
an must continuously
eliminate a metabolic wastete product, carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Respiration can be define
ned as the process by which cell utilize O2, prod
oduce CO2 and convert
energy into useful forms.
I Types of Respiration : d
On the basis of presence or absen
ence of oxygen required, respiration is of two typ
pes:
Aerobic Respiration : The
Th respiration in which the organisms respire in presence of oxygen is
called aerobic respiratio
ion. The aerobic organisms always need suffici icient intake of oxygen
because the higher amoun unt of energy required by them can be supp plied through aerobic
respiration only. Through ae
erobic respiration, 38 ATP molecules are produce
ced.
en 
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbondioxide + water + energy (38 AT
TP)
Anaerobic Respiration : There are some organisms which do not n need oxygen for
type of respiration is called anaerobic respir
respiration to occur, such ty iration. Through this
mode of respiration, only 2 AATP molecules are formed.
• This type of respiration
n takes place in some fungi (yeast), bacteria, hum
uman RBCs and striated
muscles.
• In fungi (yeast) and b bacteria, anaerobic respiration is also called fermentation
fe during
which ethyl alcohol is produced.
p
Glucose   → Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energyy (2ATP)
• In muscles, there is accumulation
ac of lactic acid during the cours
rse of heavy exercise.
Accumulation of lacticc aacid causes muscle fatigue (muscle crampsps).
Glucose 
 → Lactic acid + Energy (2ATP)
Differencess b
between aerobic and anaerobic respiratio
tion
Features Aerobic respiration Anaerobi
bic respiration
O2 requirement O2 required
re Not required
Cyto
toplasm (glycolysis) and in the
Occurs in Cytoplasm
mito
tochondria (Kreb’s cycle)
Break down of glucose Commplete Incomplete
CO2 and ethyl alalcohol (in yeast) or
End products CO2 and H2O
lactic acid (in muscle
m cell)
Energy produced from
38 A
ATPs 2 ATPs
one glucose molecule

Differences
es between photosynthesis and respiration
on
Features Photos
osynthesis Respira
iration

It is an anabolic process
pr in which food is It is a catabolic proce
cess in which food is
Nature
synthesised and ene
nergy is stored. broken down and ene ergy is released.

Raw The raw materials ar

are carbon dioxide, The raw materialss are glucose and
materials water, chlorophyll and
a sunlight. oxygen (may or may not).
n
Releases It releases oxygen. It releases carbon dioxoxide.
Cytoplasm and mitoch chondria of all the
Occurs in Chloroplast of plant
nt cells
living cells and all the
e time.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCES
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In both types of respiration (aero

robic as well as anaerobic), complex chemicall reactions
r occur inside
the cells so that biologically use
seful from of energy, that is, ATP molecules cou
ould be formed. These
reactions can be divided into thre
ree major phases, namely:
1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb’s cycle
3. Terminal oxidation
1. iGlycolysis:: It is break dow
own of glucose (six carbon molecule) into pyruv
uvic acid (three carbon
molecule) during which oxygen
o is not required, hence anaerobic phase.
p (from one
molecule of glucose two o molecule of pyruvic acid is formed)
• It always occurs in the cytoplasm.
c
• It occurs during both ae
aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
• This is the first step off re
respiration occurring in all the living organisms.
Further conversion of pyruvate
py depends on the presence or abse ence of oxygen.
(i) In the presence of oxygen,
ox pyruvate enters into the mitochondria
ia for the occurrence of
Kreb’s cycle and broken
en down into carbon dioxide and water.
(ii) In the absence of oxy
xygen, pyruvate is broken down either to :
• Ethyl alcohol (two car
arbon molecule) during yeast fermentation or
• Lactic acid (three carb
rbon molecule) during heavy muscular exercise.
2. iKreb’s Cycle:: It is breakk down of three carbon pyruvate molecule into
to carbon dioxide and
water during which oxygen i required and hence aerobic phase.
n is
• It does not take place during
d anaerobic respiration.
• It occurs in the mitocho
hondria only.
3. iTerminal Oxidation:: It is
i release of ATP molecules. It occurs during both
bo aerobic as well as
anaerobic respiration.
• The ATP produced iss used to provide energy to all the cellular activities
ac of any living
organism.
• It is this ATP molecule
le with the help of which life could become po
ossible in all the living
organisms.
The overall chemical reacti
tion for aerobic as well as anaerobic res
espiration is shown
below-
Glucose (6-carbon molecule)

In cytoplasm

Pyruvate (3-carbon molecule) + Energy

gy

Absence of Shortage of oxygen Presence of oxygen

oxygen (in yeast) (In our muscle cells) (In mitochondria)
Ethanol (2C) + Carbon Lactic acid (3C) + Carbon dio
dioxide + Water
dioxide + Energy Energy (2 ATP) + Energ
rgy (38 ATP)
(2 ATP)
B
Break down of glucose by different modes

177
LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION
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BREATHING AND RESPIRATI

TION :;
Most of the times, we may be
e confused between the terms breathing and
d respiration. Actually,
breathing is a part of respira
iration. Breathing is the gaseous exchange betw
ween the organism and
the environment while respiration
ion is the chemical oxidation of the food in the cells.
ce

Differen
nces between breathing and respiration
Features Breathing Resspiration
b defined as the exchange
It can be
ned as the oxidation
It can be define
Definition of gas
ases, intake of oxygen and
of food for pro
roviding energy.
giving out
o of carbon dioxide.

No ene
nergy is involved during this Energy is re
released during this
Energy involved
process
ss. process.

rs in between the organism

Occurs
Occurrence Occurs inside
e the cells.
and the
th environment.

Nature of the process Physic

ical process. Biochemical process.
p

Enzyme required No Yes

MORE ABOUT ATP

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)) is the standard unit in which the energy release
sed during respiration
is stored. To make one ATP mole
lecule from ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and inorganic
in phosphate,
30.5 kJ of energy is required.. TTherefore, it can be formed from reactions thatt yield
y more than 30.5
kJ mol–1. ATP is the energy cur
urrency or instant source of energy of the
e cell. When the cell
requires energy, hydrolysis of ATP is all that has to occur for the energy to be made available.
lls, and hence is often known as the universal energy
ATP is found in all the living cells en carrier.

(a) Hydrolysis of ATP to yiel

eld energy

Adenosine – P~P~P(ATP) + H2O  kJ mol–1 work/energy

→ Adenosine – P~P(ADP) +Pi + ~30.5kJ
(b) Rephosphorylation of ATP
A

Pi (Inorganic phosphate) + Adenosine

A –P~P (ADP) 
→ Adenosine – P~P~P
~P (ATP) + H2O
(a) Hydrolysis, and
nd (b) Rephosphorylation of ATP by respiratory ac
activity

ADP may be rephosphorylate

ted to ATP by respiratory activity.

The role of ATP can be co ompared with that of a battery. A batte tery can be used for
obtaining light energy, electrica ise, ATP can be used
cal energy, mechanical energy and so on. Likewis
in the cells for the muscular movement,
m nervous control and conduction, pr
protein synthesis and
many more.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCES
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GASEOUS EXCHANGE
• robic or anaerobic respiration, the constantt passage of gases
For the occurrence of aero

between the organisms and robes take oxygen for

d their environment has to be maintained. Aero

oxidation of food compone

nents and energy release. The waste product of
o respiration, that is,

carbon dioxide is expelled

ed out in all the aerobes and anaerobes.

• Exchange of carbon dioxid

xide and oxygen between environment and
d organisms is called

gaseous exchange, and

nd the area where gaseous exchange actua
ually occurs is called

respiratory surface.

• lace in all the organisms through diffusion. Fo

Gaseous exchange takes pla or effective occurrence

of gaseous exchange, the respiratory

re surface must satisfy the following criteria:
cri

(i) It should be permeable so

o that the gases can pass through;

(ii) It should be very thin becau

ause diffusion is efficient only over distances of 1 mm or less;

(iii) It should possess a large

e surface area so that sufficient amount off gases are able to be

exchanged according to the

e organism’s need.

(iv) The presence of a respirat

atory pigment in the blood further increases
es the oxygen-carrying

capacity of the blood. In human

h beings, the pigment haemoglobin
in permits far greater

amounts of oxygen to be ta
taken up and transported. The pigment may be
e present in the blood

plasma or enclosed in specif

ific cells like red blood corpuscles (RBCs) in case
eoof humans.

Why do the aquatic organisms need large amo

mount of water as
compar
ared to the terrestrial organisms?

All the o
organisms take oxygen either from the atmosp
sphere or from water.

The con
ntent of oxygen present in air and water are qu
uite different. A unit
volume
e of air have far more oxygen in it than an equal volume of

water. Hence,
H it is found that an aquatic organism like
e fish
f must pass much

greaterr volume of water over its gaseous exchan

nge surface than a

terrestria
rial organism like man which pass air for obtainin
ing oxygen.

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LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION
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RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
Different animals possess differen
ent types of gaseous exchange surface and henc
nce organs due to their
difference in size, complexity aand their surrounding medium. Each of the respiratory
r surface, is
designed to work efficiently in a specific
s environment.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCES
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Respiration in Aquatic Organisms

O ::
The aquatic animals make use
e of oxygen dissolved in water. The rate off breathing in aquatic
organisms is much faster than th
the terrestrial organisms because the amount oof dissolved oxygen is
very low as compared to the am
mount of oxygen in the air. Fishes take in water
er through their mouth
and make it to pass over the gills
ls where the dissolved oxygen is absorbed by the
e blood.

Respiration in Terrestria
rial Organisms ::
All the terrestrial organisms mak
ake use of atmospheric oxygen for respiration. For
F making use of this
estrial organisms developed some adaptatio
atmospheric oxygen, the terres ions in them so that
efficient exchange of gases could
ld take place. The adaptations are:

• Increased respiratory surfac

ace area.
• Very fine and delicate sur
urface for easy exchange of oxygen and carbon
n dioxide.
d

• Placement of respiratory sur

urface within the body for protection and hence
e special passages (like
nostrils in human beings) are
ar present so that the air could make its easy entry
en and exit from this
protected respiratory surface
ce.

• Mechanism for moving the

th air in and out of respiratory surface where
w the oxygen is
absorbed.

HU
UMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The major passages of human respiratory system are the nasal cavity, pharynx,
ph larynx and
trachea. Within the lungs, thee trachea branches into bronchi, bronchioles aand finally pulmonary
alveoli.

External nostril→ Nasal cavity→ Pharynx → Larynx→ Trachea→ Bronchi→ Bronc

nchiole→ Alveolar sacs

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LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION
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Location, structu
ture and functions of human respiratory system
sy
Organ or region Locatio
tion Structure and functi tion
Above the
emmouth
Nasal cavity • Two external nostrils are meant for or intake of oxygen.
cavity
• Lined by ciliated and sensory ep epithelial cells which
help in filtering of air (by hair) and
d warming or cooling
of the inhaled air.
• Mucous secreted by them preven ent dust particles for
entry.
• Two internal nostrils (nares) act ct as the end of this
cavity from which the air enters into
to pharynx.
• Posteriorly it has two openings;s; dorsal opening or
Behind thehe nasal gullet (leading to oesophagus) and
nd ventral opening or
Pharynx cavity le
leading glottis (aperture of trachea).
into the trac
rachea • A cartilaginous flap (epiglottis) guards
gu the glottis to
prevent the entry of food into the ttrachea.
• A pair of membranes (called vocal al cords) stretched in
the internal cavity, partially clos
ose the air passage.
Larynx or Voice
Lies at the
he back These membranes can be relaxed d or stretched. When
box or Adam’s
of the neckk the air passes over the vocal cord rds, they vibrate and
apple
produce sounds. The notes of sou und can be changed
by the position and tension of thee vvocal cords.
Tube running
ru • Its walls are supported by C-sha haped cartilages to
Trachea or Wind through the
th neck prevent it from collapsing. It divides into two
pipe in front
nt of bronchi (singular bronchus) which w enters the
oesophagu us respective right and left lung.
Present in the • Surrounded by two pleural memb branes containing a
thoracic cavity fluid in between to reduce friction.
whose wal alls are • Spongy organ formed by the sub-divisions
su of the
formed by ribs bronchus called bronchioles.
Lungs and muuscles, • Each bronchiole ends in a struccture like bunch of
grapes or balloon-like structures ccalled alveoli or air
and whose se floor
sacs. Alveoli increases the surf rface area for the
is formed d by a exchange of gases.
muscular sheet, • Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of blood
the diaphraragm capillaries.
. Functions of the Human Res
espiratory System : .
• Gaseous exchange forr the cellular respiratory
process.
• Sound production (vocal
alization) as expired air
passes over the vocal cords.
• Assistance in abdominal al compression during
urination (micturition), p passing of the faeces
(defaecation) and childbirth
h (parturition).
• Coughing and sneezing for self-cleaning the
respiratory surface.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCES
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Mechanism of Respirati
tion : :
th following steps:
Respiration in humans involves the
(i) Breathing : It is taking in and expelling out of air so that oxygen could
d be absorbed into the
body and carbon dioxide be
e expelled. It involves two phases:
(a) Inhalation/Inspirati tion : It is taking in of air and hence oxygen from
fro the atmosphere. It
occurs due to the cont
ntracting of muscles attached to ribs.
During this step, wee lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm, and the
e chest cavity becomes
larger. Hence, the air is sucked into the lungs which fills the expande
ded alveoli.

(b) Exhalation/Expirati tion : It is giving out of carbon dioxide from the

th lungs. It occurs due
to the relaxation of m
muscles attached to ribs.
During this step our
ou ribs move downward and diaphragm movves upward, upto the
normal position andd the air is expelled out of the lungs.
One breathe mea eans one inhalation plus one exhalation. An adult human being
normally breaths 155-20 times per minute.
During any breaththing cycle, when air is taken in and given o out, the lungs always
contain a residual
al volume of air so that there is sufficient time
ti for absorption of
oxygen and the relea
lease of carbon dioxide.

RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPAC

CITIES
Tidal Vol
olume (TV) : Volume of air inspired or expire ired during a normal
respiration
on. It is approx. 500 mL., i.e., a healthy man ca
can inspire or expire
approximaately 6000 to 8000 mL of air per minute.
Inspiratoory Reserve Volume (IRV) : Additional volume e of air, a person can
inspire byy a forcible inspiration. This averages 2500 mL to
o 3000 mL.
Expiratorory Reserve Volume (ERV) : Additional volume e of air, a person can
expire byy a forcible expiration. This averages 1000 mL to 1
1100 mL.
Residuall Volume (RV) : Volume of air remaining in the
he lungs even after a
forcible expiration.
ex This averages 1100 mL to 1200 mL. By
B adding up a few
respiratory
ry volumes described above, one can derive e various pulmonary
capacities,
s, which can be used in clinical diagnosis.
Spirom
ometer it is an apparatus for measuring the vo
olume of air inspired
and exxpired by the lungs.

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LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION
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Differen
ence between inhalation and exhalation
Features Inhalation Exh
halation
It is takiking in of air from the It is expelling out
o of air from the
Definition
atmosphere re. lungs.
Rushing in of air through nostrils, It causes expulsi
lsion of air from lungs
Pathway of air trachea and
nd bronchi into alveolar sacs into atmospher ere causing deflation
of lungs lea
eading to inflation of lungs. of lungs.
Ribs movement Upward andnd outward Downward and d inward
Relaxes (Move ves upward) and
Contracts (Moves downward) and
Diaphragm becomes dom me shaped in its
flattens
original positionn
Volume of
Increases Decreases
thoracic cavity
Pressure of
Decreases Increases
thoracic cavity

(ii) Exchange of gases : It

I takes place between the alveoli of lungs an
and surrounding blood
capillaries. Two processes occur
oc during this step:
• Oxygen is absorbed byy diffusion
d from the lungs alveoli to the blood cap
apillaries.
• Carbon dioxide is diffu
fused out of blood capillaries into the alveoli of lungs.
lu
(iii) Transport of gases in n blood : During this step, transportation of oxygen and carbon
lp of a respiratory pigment haemoglobin. Haem
dioxide occurs with the help emoglobin (Hb) is a red
pigment having very high affinity
af for oxygen.

Tissue
e cells

• Haemoglobin
in (Hb) +
Lun
ungs Tissues
HbCO2
Plasma
Carbamin
ino-haemoglobin
T
Tissues
• HbO8 Hb + 4O2
Oxyhaemoglobin Lungs

RB
RBC
Tissues taking oxygen from the blood
• The respiratory pigments ts are required in the human beings because the t diffusion pressure
alone is not sufficient to ttake care of reaching oxygen to all parts of the body.
b
• Oxygen is transported fro rom the lungs to the body cells in the form of oxyxyhaemoglobin.
→ HbO8 ( Oxyhaemoglobin)
Hb+ 4O2 
• Carbon dioxide is transp
sported from the body cells to the lungs in the
e form of carbamino-
haemoglobin.
Hb + CO2 
→ HbCO2 (Carbamino - haemoglobin)
• Sometimes, due to pollu
lution or using heater during the winter sleep,, d
death may occur. This
happens because the car
arbon monoxide (CO) forms more stronger bon ond with haemoglobin
than with oxygen.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCES
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(iv) Exchange of gases at the

th tissue level : It occurs between blood and tissues.
t
• Because of respiration in the tissues, oxygen is used up and in retu
turn, carbon dioxide is
produced. This creates co
concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide
d in the tissues
and the surrounding blolood. Thus, the tissues have lesser amoun unt of oxygen and
higher amount of carb rbon dioxide as compared to the blood.
ce in concentration, the gases get exchanged.. The tissues take in
• Owing to the difference
oxygen from the blood a give out carbon dioxide into the blood.
d and d.
(v) Tissue respiration or oxidation
ox of food : It involves aerobic respi
piration so that by the
break down of food molecul
ules like glucose, ATP molecules could be formed
ed. It always takes place
inside the mitochondria of th
the cells.

• Voice is the sound produced by the vocal sacs.

• Speech h is a character given to the voice by the com
mplex movements of
lips, che
eeks, tongue and jaws. Speech consists of word
rds or syllables, and it
is a spec
eciality of human species only.
• Numbe
er of alveoli in an adult human is about 700 milli
illion.
• Total su
urface area of the alveoli is approximately 80 square
sq metres, nearly
equal to the area of a tennis court.
• It is inte
teresting to note that if diffusion were to move
e oxygen
o in our body,
then, it w
would take three years for one molecule of oxy xygen to reach to our
toes fro
rom our lungs. It is haemoglobin with the hel elp of which oxygen
moleculules reach to all of our body parts so efficiently.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
• All the living organisms inincluding the plants respire for obtaining en
nergy from food. For
respiration to occur, the pla
lants also have to exchange gases (oxygen and
d carbon dioxide) with
the atmosphere. They usuall
ally do so by simple diffusion process.
• Three major difference found
nd between plant and animal respiration are give
ven below:
(i) The plants do not have e any special respiratory system unlike thatt of animals. The plants
have to respire in all off their individual parts like root, stem and leaf.
(ii) The plants require les
ess energy per unit mass than animals as they possess lower
metabolic rates. Hence
ce, the rate of respiration is slower in plants as compared to that of
animals.
(iii) Due to the absence of any circulatory system in plants, little tra ransport of respiratory
gases occur from one p part of the plant to the other. In case of animals,
ls, the respiratory gases
travel over long distanc
nces from one part of the body to another.

iModes of Gaseous Exchan

nge in Plants::
There are three major modes forr tthe exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) in plants:
(i) Some small plants (e.g., Spiro
irogyra) can carry out gaseous exchange by simp
ple diffusion over their
whole surfaces.
change gases through stomata on their leav
(ii) Large flowering plants exch aves and green stems
lso exchange the gases through root hairs of th
(herbaceous stems). They als the roots.

185
LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION
N) BIOLOGY

seous exchange occurs through cracks in the bark

(iii) If the stems are woody, gase b or via lenticels
(loosely packed dead cells pr
present in the bark).

Basis of Gaseous Exchang

ge in Plants: :
Once inside the plant, movemen
ent of oxygen is determined by the diffusion
n gradients that exist
in the intercellular air spaces. Th
Thus, oxygen moves towards the cells and dis
issolves in the surface
moisture of their walls. From he
ere, it passes by diffusion into the cells themse
selves, Carbon dioxide
(CO2) leaves the plant by the same
me pathway but in the reverse direction.

The direction of diffusion depend

nds upon the environmental conditions and the
he requirements of the
plant.

How does Respiration Occ

ccur in a Photosynthesizing Cell?:
uring the day time along with the respiration,, the
When photosynthesis occurs dur t situation becomes
more complex in chlorophyll co
containing cells. Here, oxygen produced by thehe chloroplast may be
immediately used up by mitocho
hondria contained in the same cell, and carbon dioxide
d released from
the mitochondria is consumed by the chloroplasts.
At night, when there is no phot
otosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the maajor exchange activity
going on.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCES
ESSES (RESPIRATION)

DPP-3
48. The correct sequence of ana
naerobic reactions occurring in yeast is
cytoplasm cytoplasm
(a) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate  → Ethanol + CO2
cytoplasm cytoplasm
(b) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate  → Lactic acid
cytoplasm mitochondria
(c) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate → Lactic acid
cytoplasm mitochondria
(d) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate → Ethanol + CO2

49. Which of the following is mo

ost appropriate for aerobic respiration?
cytoplasm cytoplasm
(a) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate  → CO2 + H2O + Energy
cytoplasm mitochondria
(b) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate → O2 + H2O + Energy
cytoplasm mitochondria
(c) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate → CO2 + H2O
cytoplasm mitochondria
(d) Glucose  → Pyru
ruvate → CO2 + H2O + Energy

50. Which of the following state

tements is/are true about respiration?

(i) Alveoli increase surface

e area for exchange of gases

(ii) During inhalation, ribss m

move inward and diaphragm is raised

(iii) Haemoglobin has great

ater affinity for carbon dioxide than oxygen

(iv) In the alveoli, exchange

e of gases takes place

(a) (i) and (iv) (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (i) and (iii) (d) (ii) and (iv)

51. Which is the correct sequen

nce of air passage during inhalation?

(a) Nostrils 
→ larynx 
→ pharynx 
→ trachea 
→ lungs

(b) Nasal passage 

→ trac
achea 
→ pharynx 
→ larynx 
→ alveoli

(c) Larynx 
→ nostrils 
→ pharynx 
→ lungs

(d) Nostrils 
→ pharynx 
→ larynx 
→ trachea 
→ alveoli

52. When air is blown from mo

outh into a test-tube containing lime water, the
th lime water turned
milky due to the presence of
o -

(a) oxygen (b) nitrogen

ni (c) water vapour (d) carbon dioxide

53. During deficiency of oxygen

en in tissues of human beings, pyruvic acid is con
nverted into lactic acid
in the -

(a) golgi body (b) chloroplast

ch (c) mitochondria (d) cytoplasm

54. Lack of oxygen in muscles o

often leads to cramps among sports persons. Thi
his results due to -

(a) conversion of pyruvate

e to lactic acid (b) conversion of pyruvate to glucose

(c) non conversion of gluco

cose to pyruvate (d) conversion of pyruvate to ethanol

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LIFE PROCESSES (RESPIRATION
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55. Lactic acid formation occurs

rs during -

(a) anaerobic respiration in muscles (b) anaerobic respiration in yyeast

(c) aerobic respiration in m

muscles (d) aerobic respiration in yea
east

56. Kreb's cycle is a part of -

(a) glycolysis (b) aerobic

ae respiration (c) anaerobic respiration (d) fermentation

57. Woody plants carry gaseous

us exchange through -

(a) root hair (b) stem

st hair (c) lenticels (d) epidermal cells

58. Vocal cords are present in

(a) glottis (b) pharynx

ph (c) larynx (d) trachea

59. Pleural membranes cover the

th

(a) alveolar sacs (b) thoracic

th cavity (c) lungs (d) nasal cavity

60. Muscular partition that sepaarates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity is called
c -

(a) pleura (b) diaphragm

di (c) alveoli (d) pericardium

61. The final product of glycolys

lysis is -

(a) maleic acid (b) glucose

gl (c) acetyl CoA (d) pyruvic acid

62. Trachea do not collapse whe

hen there is not much air because they are -

(a) thick and muscular (b) having cartilaginous rings

gs

(c) have valves (d) supported by larynx

63. The blood leaving the tissue

ues becomes richer in -

(a) carbon dioxide (b) haemoglobin

ha (c) water (d) oxygen

64. Which of the following state

tements(s) is (are) correct?

(i) Pyruvate can be convert

erted into ethanol and carbon dioxide by yeast

(ii) Fermentation takes plac

lace in aerobic bacteria

(iii) Fermentation takes plac

lace in mitochondria

(iv) Fermentation is a form of

o anaerobic respiration

(a) (i) and (iii) (b (ii) and (iv)

(b) (c) (i) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iii)

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PART-3
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation is a life process
ss in which a substance synthesized or absorbe
bed in one part of the
organism is carried to other par
arts of its body.

TR
RANSPORTATION IN HUMANSS
Components and Function
ions of the Circulatory System : .

Blood, blood vessels (intricate e network of arteries, veins and capillaries) and
a the heart are the
three structural elements that at make up the circulatory system or cardi diovascular system or
transportation system. These struc
uctures work together to circulate blood through
ghout the body so that
the life-preserving oxygen and nutrients
n could be transported to various tissu
ue cells and the waste
products could be removed.
Vital functions of the circulator
ory system indicating its interconnections with various
v systems of the
body are given below:
The circulatory system increases the
flow of blood to meet inc
increased energy
demands during exercisese and regulates
body temperature.
When foreign substance es or organisms
invade the body, the circ
irculatory system
activates the immune system,
s such as
white blood cells and an
ntibodies to the
regions under attack.
In case of injury or bleeding, the
circulatory system sendsds clotting cells
and proteins to the affect
cted site, which quickly stops bleeding and prom
omote healing.
Blood carries soluble excr
cretory materials such as urea, to organs of excre
cretion (urea is made in
liver and transported to kidney).
k
Blood carries hormones frfrom the endocrine gland to target organs (wherere they are needed).
BLOOD
Bloo
od

Plasma Corpuscles

Erythrocytes
es Leucocytes Blood
(RBCs) (WBCs) platelets

Granulo
locytes Agranulocytes

Neutrophils B
Basophils Acidophils Monocytes Lymph
phocytes

Blood is a fluid connective tissue.

e. It is a mobile, reddish coloured fluid that circu
culates in blood vessels
in human body; supplies nutrient nts and oxygen to all the living cells and remove ves waste products and
carbondioxide from them. It has two
t components: (A) plasma and (B)blood corp rpuscles.

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A→ Plasma :
. .

It contributes 55% of the blood volume.

v The blood cells are carried through blo lood vessels in a liquid
called plasma. Plasma is yellowiish (pale coloured) fluid and is consists of waterer (90%) and remaining
10% constitutes salts, proteins (soluble
(so protein such as albumins, globulins and d fibrinogens), glucose,
vitamins, minerals, hormones,, dissolved gases, enzymes, antibodies, fats, s, amino acids, lipids,
excretory substances like ammon onia, urea, uric acid, creatinine etc. Mineral ionss such as Na+ , K+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, etc.
Blood Plasma Helps in : .

• Transport
• Retention of fluid in blood
• Maintenance of blolood pH
• Body immunity
• Conducting heat to skin for dissipation and
• Uniform distribution
ion of heat all over the body.

B → Blood corpuscles : .

They form 45% of the blood and

d rremain suspended in blood plasma. These are of
o three types :

(i) Red Blood Corpuscle

les (RBCs) or Erythrocytes: .

• These are biconcave disc--like structures.

• Their number is 5 to 5.5 .5 million/mm3 in human males and 4.5 to 5 m million/mm3 in human
females.
• They contain iron pigmen ent haemoglobin, which impart red colour to the
he blood.
• RBCs are manufactured in bone marrow.
• Their life-span is about 120
12 days, after which they are destroyed by liver
er and spleen.
• Their small size helps in absorbing oxygen and enables them to trav avel in very fine blood
capillaries throughout the
he body of a person.
• In mammals matured RBCs RB lack nucleus (except Camel and Liamas).
• A healthy individual hass 12
1 – 16 grams of haemoglobin in every 100 mll of
o blood.

• Erythroccytes in mammals are denucleated except in cam amel and liamas.

• All the cell
c organelles of erythrocytes get degenerated ed during maturity so
as to acc
ccommodate more haemoglobin.
• In the blood
b of man are present 5-5.5 million RBC in one cubic mm of
blood whereas
w it is 4-4.5 million per cc in woman's bloo
od.
• Largestt sized
s RBC's are found in Amphiuma.
• Smallestst sized RBC's are found in Musk Deer.
• Increase
se in RBC count is called Polycythemia.
• Decreasese in RBC count is called Erythropenia.
• The proc
ocess of formation of RBC is known Erythropoies esis.
• The tota
tal number of RBCs per ml is called RBC count.

A human RBC BC is bounded by an elastic and semipermeable le plasma-membrane

called Donn nan’s membrane which enables it to squee eze through narrow
capillaries. The
Th mature mammalian RBC is also characteri erized by absence of
nucleus, mito
itochondria and endoplasmic reticulum so there e is low consumption
of oxygen byy itself and is primarily concerned with the transp
sport of oxygen from
the respiratotory organs to the body tissues. RBCs also co contain the enzyme
carbonic anh hydrase which regulates CO2 transport. Due to o absence of nucleus,
the RBCs are e short lived. Average life span of human RBC is 120
1 days.

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(ii) White Blood Corpusc

scles (WBCs) or Leucocytes : .

• These are nucleated and d amoeboid

a cells.
• Leucocytes are of two typ ypes-granulocytes containing granular cytoplas asm and lobed nucleus
and agranulocytes, cont ntaining smooth cytoplasm and unlobed nucleuss.
• Leucocytes are capable of o squeezing out of capillaries to destroy foreign
n matter.
• WBCs also manufacture re antibodies, which fight against disease-cau ausing germs and are
responsible for immunity ty. They are manufactured in bone marrow.
• These cells protect the bo
body against diseases by engulfing bacteria and other
o foreign particles
(Phagocytosis) and are h hence called as Soldiers of the body.
• Their number is about 60 000 – 8000 per mm3.
• Their life span is about 5--21 days.

• The fo
formation of leucocytes occurs in bone marrow,m known as
hemato topoietic stem cells. WBCs are found thro roughout the body
includin
ding blood and lymph.
• The pro
rocess of formation of WBC is known as Leucopooiesis.
• The ave
verage life span of human WBC is very short and
a is about 5 – 21
days.
• Increas
ase in WBC count is called Leucocytosis.
• Decreaase in WBC count is called Leucopenia.
• 6000 – 8000 leucocytes are present in per mm3 of bloo
ood.

(iii) Blood Platelets or Thrombocytes

T : .

• These are small, disc-like

eb bodies.
• These are denucleated and a are manufactured in the bone marrow.
• m 3 of blood in number.
They are 2 – 3 lakhs per mm
• When we get some injury ry and blood vessel is ruptured, the blood flowss tthrough it. If bleeding
does not stop, the excess ssive loss of blood may lead to death. To avoid this
th situation, the body
has its own natural device
ice.
• The blood loss is prevent nted by forming a blood clot which plugs the e iinjury and checks the
blood leakage. The plate telets play a major role in forming the blood cl clot.
• Throm
ombopoiesis refers to the process of thrombocyytes generation.
• Throm
ombocytosis is a disorder in which our body produces
p too many
platel
elets.
• Throm
ombocytopenia is refer to a disorder in which
ch there is a relative
decre
rease of thrombocytes.

Functions of Blood: . Blood

B is the transporting tissues that helps in tthe transportation of
various materials in the body
bo such as :
• Blood helps in the transsportation of digested food from the food pipe pi to different body
parts.
• Transportation of oxygenen to body cells.
• Transportation of CO2 fro
rom body cells to lungs for elimination.
• Transportation of excretotory products from body tissues to kidneys for elimination.
e
• Transportation of hormo ones.
• WBC's engulf the foreignn particles and protect against diseases.
• Platelets help in blood clotting
clo and prevent loss of blood.
• Blood helps in regulatingg the pH of the body.

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BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessels are elastic muscula
lar tubes through which blood flows. Blood vess
ssels are of three types
which form a complex network of tubes throughout the body:

(i) Arteries : :
• Arteries are the thick wall
alled blood vessels.
• They carry oxygenated blood
b (except pulmonary artery which carries d de-oxygenated blood)
away from the heart for d distribution to the body.
• The walls of arteries are tthick walled (to withstand the pressure of blood
od being pumped from
the heart) that enables them
th to dilate (increase in diameter) but not rupture
ru when the heart
contracts and forces blo lood into them. Thus, the blood passing throu ough narrow lumen of
arteries is aerated and has
as a considerable pressure.
(ii) Veins : :
• Veins are thin walled blo
lood vessels.
• They bring blood from the
th body back to the heart.
• They are larger and hold
d more
m blood than the arteries.
• The blood passing throug
ugh wide lumen of veins is deoxygenated (excep
ept in pulmonary veins
which carries oxygenated
ed blood) and has low pressure.
• The veins have valves that
th allow the blood to flow only towards the heart
h and prevent the
backflow.
(iii) Capillaries : .

• Capillaries are thin walle

led and extremely narrow (about 4 – 10 µm in dia
diameter) blood vessels
which occur at the termininals of artery and vein.
• They join the arteries an
and veins together.
• The walls of capillariess are permeable to water and dissolved sub ubstances of that the
exchange of materials betetween the blood and body cells takes place.
• The blood in it flows very
ry slow (less than 1 mm per second) which facilit
ilitates the exchange of
food material, gases andd waste
w products.

MORE ABOUT BLOOD VESSELS

• The inner layer
la of blood vessels is lined with endothelia
ial cells that create a
smooth pas
assage for the transit of blood. This inner laye
yer is surrounded by
connectivee tissue and smooth muscle that enable th the blood vessel to
expand or co
contract.
• Blood vesse
sels expand during exercise to meet the inccreased demand for
blood and to cool the body.
• Blood vesse
sels contract after an injury to reduce bleeding
g aand also to conserve
body heat.

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Differences
es among arteries, veins and capillari
ries
Features A
Arteries Veins Capillaries

Lumen Narrow Wide Very

ery small
valves Absent Present all along the Abs
bsent
length to prevent back
flow of blood.
Direction of blood Take the
he blood away Bring the blood Bloo
lood flows from
flow eart to different towards the heart from arte
from hea teries (capillaries) to
parts of body.
b various body parts. vennules.
Blood flow Blood flows
f rapidly Blood flows smoothly Bloo
lood flows smoothly
with jerks
ks. without jerks. with
ithout jerks.
Blood pressure Pressure
e iis high. Pressure is low. Pres
ressure is extremely
loww.
Kind of blood Oxygenatated blood Deoxygenated blood Bloo
lood changes from
except iin pulmonary except in pulmonary oxy
xygenated to
artery. vein. deo
eoxygenated.
Location Mostly de
deep seated. Mostly superficial. Form
rm a network all
ove
ver the body and in
the
e organs.

THE HUMAN HEART

External Features :
• The heart is a hollow, muscucular organ, roughly of the size of our ‘clenched
ed fist’ (12 × 9cm) that
contracts regularly and contin
tinuously pumps blood to various parts of the bo ody.
• Its average weight is about 300
3 gm in males and about 250 gm in females..
• It is reddish-brown in colourr aand somewhat conical in form.
• The heart is situated between
en the two lungs in the middle of the thoracic cav
avity.
• It is surrounded by a tough,, ttwo layered sac, the pericardium. The pericard
rdial fluid is secreted in
the pericardial cavity betweeeen the pericardium and heart which reducess the friction between
the heart walls and surround ding tissues when the heart is beating.

During eac
ach heartbeat, approximately 75 mL of blood is pumped out from
the heart.
If the heart
rt stops pumping, death usually occurs within fou
our to five minutes.

Internal Structure : .

• The heart is a four-chamberered double pump. It consists of upper right and an left atria (singular
atrium) that pulse together,, aand lower right and left ventricles that also con
ontract together. Since
ventricles have to pump b blood to various parts of the body, they ha ave thicker muscular
walls as compared to the atria.
at The atria are also called auricles.

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• The walls of these chambersrs are made of a special muscle called myocard rdium (cardiac muscle
fibre) which contracts contin
tinuously and rhythmically (recurring at regula lar intervals) to pump
blood.
• The atria are separated byy the thin, muscular interatrial septum, whil hile the ventricles are
separated by the thick, muscu
cular interventricular septum.
• Two atrioventricular valves
es (AV valves), the bicuspid or mitral (between en left auricle and left
ventricle) and tricuspid (be
between right auricle and right ventricle) are llocated between the
chambers of the heart, and semilunar
s valves are present at the bases off the two large vessels
(the pulmonary trunk and the
he aorta) that leave the heart. The valves are mea
eant for preventing the
backward flow of blood whenen the atria or ventricles contract.

• The Sino-Atrial
Sin Node or SA Node (SAN) is a small all flattened patch of
tissue present in the RIGHT UPPER CORNER of the he right atrium. The
impulse
lse generated by this node spreads in all directio
tions of the heart (i.e.,
go to bboth auricles and causes their relaxation and con
ontraction).
SAN can generate the maximum
number of action potentials ls i.e; 70 – 75
per minute and is respo ponsible for
initiating and maintaining ng rhythmic
contractile activity of tthe heart.
Therefore is called the Pacem
emaker.
• The Atrio-Ventricular No ode or AV
Node (AVN): The signals als becomes
weak when they reach h ventricles
because ventricles are farr away from
SA node thus, to strengt gthen these
signals, another mass of tisissue is seen
in the lower left corner of o the right
atrium close to the atrio io-ventricular
septum (i.e., at the junction
ju of
ventricles and atrium) know wn as AV node. This is also known as pacesetter..
AV node is used to receive ththe impulses from the SA node through an intern rnodal pathway.
• Bundle of His: A bundle of o nodal fibres, i.e., atrioventricular bundle (AV
AV bundle) continues
from the AV node, which passes
p through the atrio-ventricular septa to emerge
em on the top of
the inter-ventricular septumm immediately dividing into a right and left bund
ndle.

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This bundle give rise to a neetwork of minute fibres (which are myocardial in origin) throughout
the ventricular musculaturere of the respective side known as Purkinje fibres
es. These fibres along
with the right and left bundl
dles are called bundle of his.
The Purkinje fibres supply impulses
im to all portions of ventricular walls.

Diffe
fference between SA Node and AV Node
SA Node AV Node
de
It is located at the upper late
teral wall of right It is situated at the base of
o right auricle, near
auricle. auriculo ventricular junction
n.
Normally it does not gene
nerates impulse, but
It generates impulses for beating
ing.
strengthen them.
SA node is also called pacemake
ker AV node is also called pacese
setter
It supplies signals directly to aur
uricles. It supplies signals to ventricl
icles.
It is not associated with bun
ndle of His and It is associated with bundle
le of His and Purkinje
Purkinje fibres. fibres.

Working of Heart : .

Heart beats all the time throughhout one’s life. The sequence of events which
ch takes place during
the completion of one heartt beat is called the cardiac cycle. It involve ves repeated rhythmic
contraction and relaxation of hea
eart muscles.

Cardiacc Cycle: The sequential event in the heartt which is cyclically

repeated
ed is called the cardiac cycle and is consists of sys
ystole and diastole of
both the
e atria and ventricles.

• Card
rdiac cycle comprises of all the physiological eve vents associated with
a siningle heart beat including electrical events,, mechanical events
(pres
essure and volumes), and heart sound.
• Thee heart beats 72 times per minutes i.e., that man any cardiac cycles are
perfo
rformed per minute.
• Duraration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
• Durin
ring a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately
a 70 ml
of bl
blood which is called the stroke volume.
• Thee stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate (number (n of beats per
minu
nutes) give the cardiac output.
• Card
rdiac output can be defined as the volume of bl blood pumped out of
each
ch ventricle per minute and averages 5000 ml or 5 litres in a healthy
indiv
ividual.
• Thee body has the ability to alter the stroke volume e as well as the heart
rate
e and there by the cardiac output. For example le- The output of an
athle
lete will be much higher than that of an ordinary ry man.
• Ther
ere is a stage or condition when all the four cham ambers are in resting
phas
ase that is called joint diastole. It lasts for 0.4 sec
econds.
• Thee ccardiac cycle therefore proceeds in following sta stages:
Atria
rial systole: Lasts for 0.1 second → both atria co contract and force the

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bloo
od from the atria into the ventricles.
Vent
ntricular systole: Lasts for 0.3 seconds → both
th ventricles contract,
bloo
od is forced to the lungs via the pulmonary trunk
tru and rest of the
body
dy via the aorta.
Join
int diastole: Lasts for 0.4 seconds → relax axation of atria and
vent
ntricles during which blood is filled in them.

• Blood fills both atria (righ

ight and left) and begins to flow into both vent
ntricles (right and left).
Next, the atria contract,, emptying
e the remaining blood into the ventricle
les. The ventricles then
contract, forcing blood ininto the ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk.
• The contraction of heart
rt chambers is called systole and the relaxation
n of heart chambers is
called diastole.
• During atrial contraction
ion, the atrioventricular valves are open and thee semilunar valves are
closed; during ventriculalar contraction, the reverse is true. The louderr ‘lub’ or first sound, is
produced by the closinggo of the AV valves. The softer ‘dub’ or second soun
und is produced by the
closing of the semilunarr valves.
v
Sequences in one heart
rtbeat Changes in the right Sim
multaneous changes
side of heart in the
th left side of heart
1. Relaxed chambers of hear
art Superior and inferior Pulm
lmonary vein from
vena cava pour blood
lung
gs pours oxygenated
into right atrium (RA).
This blood is bloo
od into left atrium
deoxygenated as it
(LA).).
comes from tissues after
respiration.

2. Contraction of both atria Right atrium pours Left

ft atrium pours
deoxygenated blood oxyg
ygenated blood into
v into right ventricle (RV). leftt ventricle
v (LV).

3. Contraction of both h ventricles From right ventricle, From

m left ventricle,
(Atriastart relaxing)
deoxygenated blood oxyg
ygenated blood flows
flows to the lungs into
o aorta (the largest
through pulmonary arter
ery) for distribution in
artery. the w
whole body.

Then, ventricles also get relaxed

ed while the atria are already relaxing. Thus, alll fo
four chambers of the
heart relax (joint diastole) that is
is, beginning of the next heartbeat starts again from
fr the first stage.

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Course of Blood Circulat

ation : .

The right atrium (RA) receives d

deoxygenated blood
from the upper and lower parts o
of the body through
superior and inferior vena cava
va respectively. The
deoxygenated blood from the right
rig atrium goes into
the right ventricle (RV). The ri
right ventricle then
lungs via pulmonary
pumps out its blood into the lu
artery where it is purified. Duri
ring purification, the
deoxygenated blood gives off ccarbon dioxide and
picks up oxygen. The oxygenat
ated blood from the
lungs is collected into the left aatrium (LA) via four
pulmonary veins. Thereafter, the
he oxygenated blood
from the left atrium goes into the
th left ventricle (LV)
from where it goes to various bod
ody parts via aorta.

Depending upon the mode off circulation

c of oxygenated and deoxygenated
ed blood, two types of
circulation are found among th
the vertebrates:

1. Double Circulation: .

All mammals including man hav

ave a double circulation. In double circulation, the
t blood flows twice
through the heart. It is maintained
ed by two separations (atrial and ventricular) pre
resent within the heart.

• This type of circulation is found in amphibians (three chambered heart,

rt, two auricles and one
ventricle) reptiles (incom
ompletely four chambered heart, two auricless and partially divided
ventricles) including man
an.

• ed right and left sides of the four chambered he

The completely separated eart prevent mixing of
the oxygenated and deox
oxygenated blood. Such type of separation helps
ps in efficient supply of
oxygen to the body. Thi s) having high energy
his occurs in the animals (bird and mammals)
needs to maintain their body
b temperature.

• The other animals haviving less energy needs can tolerate mixing g of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood wh hich occurs in their three chambered (amphib
ibians) or partially four
chambered heart (reptiles
les).
Double circulation in mammall iis maintain by systemic and pulmonary circul
ulation.
• The systemic circulation
on referred to the circulation of blood from the heart
h to all the tissues
in the body and from bod
ody tissues to heart.
• The pulmonary circulati
tion referred to the circulation of blood from the
th heart to the lungs
and lungs to the heart.

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Oxygenated
blood
Right ventricle Pulmon
onary Lungs Pulmonary Left auricle
arter
ery veins
(Tricuspid valve)

(Bicuspid valve)
Deoxygenated

Oxygenated
Pulmonary Circulation
Blood

Blood
Systematic circulation

Right auricle SSuperior and Body tissues Aorta Left ventricle

Deoxygenated Deoxygenated
blood
In
Inferior vena blood
(except lungs)
cava

Pulmonar
ary Circulation and Systematic circulation

2. Single Circulation: .

When the blood passes only o

once through the heart in one complete cyc
ycle, it is called single
circulation. This type of circulatio
ion is found only in fishes in which there is onlyy two
t chambered heart
(auricles and ventricle). In them,, d
due to lesser requirement of energy, complete
emmixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood occurs.

• In this type of circulation

n, the deoxygenated blood form aorta passes o
over the gills where it
gets oxygenated. The ox
oxygenated blood flows to various parts of the
th body and is again
returned to the heart in the
th form of deoxygenated blood.

Differ
erence Between Single Circulation And Dou
ouble Circulation

Feature
res Single circulation Double cir
irculation
Blood movement
m Only once Twice (one
ne to lungs and anothe
through
gh heart to the bod
dy) through the heart i
one compl
plete cycle

Blood in heart Only deoxygenated Both oxyg

genated (to the body
or venous blood and deoxyygenated (to the lungs
blood.

Oxygen
enation of Oxygenated by gills Oxygenate
ted by lungs
blood

Efficien
ncy Less efficient More effici
cient

Exampl
ples It occurs only in It occurs in amphibians, reptile
fishes/ pisces like birds and mammals.
m
Anabas, Labeo,
Exocoetus and
Hippocampus etc.

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Blood Pressure:
P The blood is an important liquid cononnective tissue that
flows inn the blood vessels and helps in transportatio ion. It exerts a force
againstt tthe walls of vessels. This force is called blood
od pressure, which is
measurered with the help of an instrument, called sph phygmomanometer.
The bloood pressure inside
the arteries is much more as compared to
inside the veins. There are two
o types of blood
astolic. Systolic
pressure: systolic and dias
pressure is the pressure of bl
blood inside the
artery during ventricularr contraction.
Diastolic pressure is the pre
ressure of blood
inside the artery during ventricu
icular relaxation.
Normal systolic pressure = 120
0mmm of Hg
Normal diastolic pressure = 80
0mmm of Hg.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)
It is a gra
raphical representation of the electrical activity o
of the heart during a
single car
ardiac cycle. The electrocardiogram is obtained by b a machine known
as elect ctrocardiograph. The study or the process ss of recording of
electrocarardiogram is called electrocardiography.
Einthoven (1903) is known as ‘fa father of electrocardiography’. The impulse genera rated by the SA node
causes contraction and relaxation on of heart chambers. To obtain an ECG, a patient nt is connected to the
machine with three electrical lea eads (i.e., one to each wrist and one to the left an
ankle), monitoring the
activity of heart continuously and nd heart’s functioning is evaluated by attaching multiple
m leads to the
chest region.
Reading an ECG
An ECG consists of five peak, ide entified with the letter P to T that corresponds to a specific electrical
conductivity of the heart.
These corresponds to a specific elec
ectrical activity of the heart as follows
i. P Wave : It is the first and an the foremost wave of low amplitude. It repre resents the electrical
excitation or depolarizatiotion of the atria which, leads to contraction of both
th the atria.
ii. QRS Wave or Complex : The T Q, R and S wave together
forms the QRS comp plex. This represents the
depolarization of the ventricles,
ve which initiates the
ventricular contraction.
It makes the spread off impulse from AV node to
ventricles, through bundle le of His and Purkinje fibres.
The contraction starts sho hortly after Q and marks the
beginning of the systole.
*R is the most conspicuouss wave out of all, having highest amplitude.
iii. T Wave : It is a broad and an smoothly rounded deflection, which represen ents the return of the
ventricles from excited to o normal state (repolarisation). The end of T wav ave marks the end of
systole. It has been observrved that, by counting the number of QRS compl plexes, that occur in a
given time period, one can n easily determine the rate of heart beat of an indi
dividual. However, the
deviation in the ECG of anyny person from the normal shape ECG, indicates a possible
p abnormality
or a diseases.

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Significance of ECG
ECG is proved to be of great
at clinical significance due to following reasons
• It gives accurate informaation about the normal functioning of atria and ve entricles.
• Indicates the functioning
ng of valves.
• Also helps in indicating aany damage to local tissues of the heart in detecti
ction of over growth of
cardiac/heart chambers. s.
*Tachycardia iss a term applied to a rapid heart or pulse rate (overr 100/min).
1
*Bradycarida iss the
t term indicating a slow heart or pulse rate (und der 50/min).
Hyperte tension: A persistent increase in blood pressure is called
hyperten ension or high blood pressure. It is caused by narrowing
n of arterial
lumen and a reduced elasticity of arterial walls in old
ld age. It can cause
rupturing
ing of an artery or capillaries and hence internall b
bleeding. It is a silent
killer ass iit has almost no noticeable symptoms.

BLOOD CLOTTING
• lood are the platelets which are designed forr a single purpose – to
The smallest cells in the bloo
begin the process of coagululation (= or forming a clot) whenever a blood d vessel is broken. The
loss of blood from the injure
red site can also reduce the blood pressure lea eading to reduction of
efficiency of the pumping sys
ystem. Hence, the clot formation is necessary at th the injured site.
• As soon as an artery or vein iis injured, the platelets in the area of injury bein
eing to clump together
he cut. They also release messengers into the
and stick to the edges of the e blood that perform a
variety of functions:
• Constricting the blood vevessels to reduce bleeding.
• Attracting more platelets
ts to the area to enlarge the platelet plug.
• Initiating the work of plas
asma-based clotting factors, such as fibrinogen.

Through a complex mechanism involving

i many steps and many clotting factor ors, the plasma protein
fibrinogen is transformed into long,
lo sticky threads of fibrin. A clot is formed when
w platelets and red
and white blood cells become tra trapped in the fibres and form an intertwined m meshwork that forms a
stable clot. This self-sealing aspeect of the blood is crucial to survival.

(i) Thro
romboplastin (from injured tissue and disintetegrating platelets) +
Pro
othrombin (inactive thrombin already presentt in blood plasma) +
Calc
lcium (required for activating prothrombin) ⇒ Thrombin
T
(ii) Thrrombin + Fibrinogen (soluble protein in the he blood plasma) ⇒
Fibr
brin
(a network
n of insoluble protein fibres at the wound
d site)
(iii) Fibr
brin + Blood cells (RBCs and WBCs) ⇒ Clot
More about blood clotting
Blood clotting
cl begins within seconds of injury. The
e same process can
produce
ce unwelcome clots in undamaged blood vessels ls. A clot may also be
formed to
t plug a blood vessel such as the coronary artery
ar which supplies
blood to heart wall and may cause heart attack.

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LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
A system of tiny tubes called lym
ymph vessels (or lymphatics) and lymph nodes es (or lymph glands) in
the human body which transpo ports the liquid called lymph from the bodyy tissues to the blood
circulatory system is called lymph
phatic system. The lymphatic system consists off the following parts:
(a) Lymph capillaries (b) Largeer lymph vessels (c) Lymph nodes (lymph glan lands) (d) Lymph
Lymph
• As the blood passes true e the capillaries in tissues, some water along wwith many small water
soluble substances move ve out into the spaces between the cells of tissusues leaving the larger
proteins and most of the e formed elements in the blood vessels. This fluid
id released out is called
the interstitial fluid or tiss
ssue fluid.
• The fluid present in the sp d tissue fluid. It bathes
spaces between the cells in the tissues is called
all the cells of the body.. All chemical exchanges between blood and ce cells occur by diffusion
through the medium off tthe tissue fluid. During exchange, the cells rele lease their wastes into
the tissues fluid, a small aamount of which keeps returning back into the capillaries.
c
• Most of the tissue fluid d (about 99%) is reabsorbed into the blood capillaries,
ca but a small
amount (rest 1%) of it passes
p into the lymphatic capillaries. Tissue fluid
flu after its entry into
lymphatic capillaries is cal
alled lymph.
• Lymph drains into lymp phatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces
es, which join to form
large lymph vessels that
at finally open into larger veins.
Tissue fluid → Lymphatic capillaries
c (Lymph) → Lymph vessels → Veins → Heart
H
• The composition of lympmph is very similar to that of blood plasma, excep
ept that it lacks plasma
proteins to which the cap
apillary walls are not permeable.
• uid connective tissues carrying out following func
Lymph is a colourless fluid nctions:
(i) It returns tissuess fluid from the interstitial spaces into the blood.
d.
(ii) Lymph capillarieses of intestinal villi called lacteals help in absorp
rption of fats from the
intestine and con nducting these to the blood circulation.
(iii) It collects carbon
on dioxide, waste products and metabolites from fro tissues via tissues
fluid.
(iv) With the help off llymphocytes (WBCs), the lymph provides immu unity to the body and
fights against thee invading organisms.

Differ
erence between blood and lymph
Features Blood Lymph
Colour It is red in co
olour due to the presence of It is colourless
ss or light yellow in
haemoglobin n in
i RBCs. colour and doeoes not contain RBCs
and haemoglob obin.
Constituents The blood alwlways consists of blood plasma It contains bloo
ood plasma (without
and blood ce cells (Red blood cells, white blood proteins)
s) and some WBCs.
blood cells and
nd blood platelets).
Carrier It carries oxyge
gen in the body. It does not carry
rry oxygen.
Part of It is part of closed circulatory system It is part of open
en circulatory system.
(passing thrhrough certain tube like
structures calle
lled blood vessels).
Functions It carries out
ut all the functions of the It contains special
sp cells called
circulatory sys
ystem. lymphocytes that
th help to develop
immunity of the
he body.

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. ABO BLOOD GROUPING SYSTEM

EM .

Accordi
ding to the ABO blood group system there are four
fo different kinds of
blood groups:
g A, B, AB or O (null).
Blood Group
G A: If you belong to the blood group A,, you
y have A antigens
on the
e surface of your red blood cells and B antibo
bodies in your blood
plasma.
a.
Blood Group B: If you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the he surface of your red
blood cells and A antibodies in yyour blood plasma.
Blood Group AB: I you belong g to the blood group AB, you have both A and nd B antigens on the
surface of your red blood cells and
an no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasm
asma.
Blood Group O: If you belong to the blood group O (null), you have neither A or
o B antigens on the
surface of your red blood cells but
b you have both A and B antibodies in your blo
lood plasma.
Rh factor: Apart of antigen A aand B another antigen also makes the classificat ation of blood group
into following categories. Depen ending on its presence or absence. This antigen is called as Rh factor
iscovered in a monkey name Rhesus.
because it is for the first time dis
• The blood group A havin
ving Rh factor is the A +ve.
• Blood group A do not have
ha Rh factor is A –ve.
• The blood group B havin
ing Rh factor is the B +ve.
• Blood group B do not have
ha Rh factor is B –ve.
• The blood group AB hav
aving Rh factor is the AB +ve.
• Blood group AB do nott have
h Rh factor is AB –ve.
• The blood group O havin
ving Rh factor is the O +ve.
• Blood group O do not ha
have Rh factor is O –ve.

TR
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Both plants and animals have tra
ransport systems to transport materials from on
ne part of the body to
another. The plants have two mo
odes of transport systems, namely,
(i) To absorb and transpor ort water and minerals from the roots to the le
leaves: To perform this
e a special tissue, that is, xylem.
function the plants have
(ii) To distribute food man anufactured in the leaves to all parts of the plant:
p To perform this
e a tissue known as phloem.
function, the plants have
The transportation system is ne
ecessary in plants because of the following rea
asons:
• It is the soil in which the
he water and minerals remain present and henc nce could be absorbed
easily. So, the absorptionn of these materials occur through a part of the pplant which is in direct
at is , roots.
contact with the soil, that
• For higher distances between
b roots (soil contacting part) and d leaves (chlorophyll
containing organs mea eant for manufacturing food), diffusion pro rocesses could not be
sufficient for providing rraw materials in leaves and energy in roots. These
Th processes could
have been sufficient in sh
shorter plants.
• The plants never move and a they contain a large amount of dead cells ls in their body. Hence,
they need lesser amoun
nt of energy as compared to the animals due
ue to their locomotion
lants need a slow transport system.
nature. As a result, the pla

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Because of the above reasons,, tthe plants developed a proper system of tran ansportation.
Nitrogen is an essential elementt for all the plants due to its requirement for thee synthesis of proteins
and other compounds. It is takenn up by the plants through any of the two modes es:
(a) From soil where it is occu
urring in the form of nitrates or nitrites
(b) As organic compound p prepared by atmospheric nitrogen fixing ba bacteria which remain
associated with the plantt itself.
Transport of Water in Plants: .

The root hairs always help in absorption of water

along with dissolved minerals. The T water along with
minerals absorbed by root hairs m moves to xylem of the
root from where it reaches to thehe leaves via stem. The
transport of water and minerals ls can be described in
the plants on the basis of followin
ing two phenomena:
1. Transpiration pull : The roots always
absorb water and minera rals for the whole plant
from the soil. The leave es loose water in the
form of water vapours th through stomata by a
process known as transp spiration. Continuous
transpiration in the leav aves creates a tension
(stress or suction) in the e water column of the
xylem elements and it reaches
rea upto the roots.
As the tension is d developed due to
transpiration, it is called aas transpiration pull.
Due to the tension create ted by transpiration, the water column of the pla lant is pulled up (like a
suction pump) from below low to the top of the plant like a rope. (i.e; Ascent
nt of sap)
2. Cohesive and adhesiv
sive forces : Tracheids and vessels are presen
. nt in the xylem of root,
stem and leaves. Xylem of root, stem and leaves are continuous. Vess ssels and tracheids are
filled with water absorbed
ed by the roots. Water molecules are held togeth
ther from mesophyll of
se of cohesive (water – water molecules) and
leaf to root hair because d adhesive (water and
xylem cells) forces.
Water in soil → Root hai
air → Endodermis of root → Xylem of root → upward movement
through xylem of root and
nd stem → Leaf → Transpiration
Thus, it can be said that water mo
oves upwards due to transpiration pull and coh
hesive-adhesive forces
of water molecules.

• Veryy lless amount of water absorbed (1 – 2%) is use

sed up by the plants
durin
ing photosynthesis and other activities and the rest
re (98 – 99%) is lost
by tra
ranspiration.
• It has
as been found that the effect of root pressure (pre
ressure developed in
the tr
tracheids due to metabolic activity of the roots)
s) is more effective at
night
ht.
• When
en the stomata are opened during the day, th
the transpiration pull
domin
inates over the root pressure for the movemeent of water in the
xylem
m.

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Functions of Transpiration:
Transpiration is considered a nec
ecessary evil for the plants as it can’t be avoide
ided. Simultaneously, it
nt functions for the plants:
performs the following important
• It helps in the absorptio
ion and upward movement of water and diss
ssolved minerals from
the roots to leaves.
• re as it cools the leaves, an important effec
It regulates temperature ect particularly in hot
conditions.
• The succulent plants like
ke cacti retain water by reducing transpiration.. This saves the plants
from high temperaturess aand strong sunlight.

Transport of Food an
nd Other Substances :

Photosynthates are the energy –rrich carbon compounds which are synthesized
d in the leaves through
photosynthesis. Those compoun
nds are also needed by other plants parts forr g
growth, development
and repair of tissues. Hence, they sue called phloem. The
ey are transported with the help of a special tissu
transportation of organic solutess in the plants is also called translocation.

• Translocation is the movovement of organic nutrients from the region of o source or supply to
the region of sink or utili
ilization or it can also be defined as the movem
ment of organic matter
from the place of its syn
ynthesis to other parts of the plant through the
th special conducting
tissue, the phloem. The pphloem also transports amino acids and other substances.
su
• Translocation of food andan other substances is necessary because allll thet cells need food to
carry out their vital funnctions. The translocation occurs in upward as a well as downward
directions or to the storag
age organs of roots, fruits, seeds and to growing
g organs.
o
• Sucrose is the principall fo
form of organic solute (or carbohydrate) that iss translocated
t from leaf
to the non-photosyntheti tic plant organs (mainly roots).
• Phloem (sieve tubes or sie
sieve cells) is the pathway for translocation.
Principle of translocation :

Organic substances are translocaated in the sieve tubes from the region of high o
osmotic concentration
centration (root) in a mass flow due to the oc
(leaf) to the region of low conce occurrence of pressure
gradient. Unlike water transporortation occurring by simple physical forcess through xylem, the
translocation in phloem makess use of ATP.
Various steps of translocation are:
ar

• slocation of organic solutes, take the leaves as the supplying cells

To understand the transl
and the roots as the recceiving cells of any plants. The connecting link
nk between leaves and
roots can be represented
d by xylem and phloem tissues.
• es are continuously synthesized in mesophyll
In plants, carbohydrates ll cells of leaves. The
suction pressure of these
se cells increases due to which water from adjoin
ining cells is absorbed.
This allows movement off dissolved food into sieve tubes of phloem.
• Since the food is actively
ely transported, it requires energy in the form of ATP. During active
transport, sieve tubes off phloem tissues are loaded at the source (leaf)
f) and unloaded at the
sink (root) or consumptio
ion end (figure).

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DPP-4

65. Which of these components

ts of blood is responsible for oxygen transport?
(a) RBC (b) WBC
W (c) Platelets (d) Plasma
66. What is the average life span
an of RBCs?
(a) 4 days (b) 1 week (c) 1 month (d) 120 days
67. What is the role of platelets?
ts?
(a) Oxygen transport (b) Carbon dioxide transpo
port
(c) Clotting of blood (d) Immunity
68. The blood from systemic cir
irculation first comes to which chamber of heart?
rt?
(a) Right auricle (b)) R
Right ventricle (c) Left auricle (d)) LLeft ventricle
69. Which chamber of the heart
rt pushes the blood into systemic circulation?
(a) Right auricle (b)) R
Right ventricle (c) Left auricle (d)) LLeft ventricle
70. Double circulation is well developed
de in which of these animals?
(a) Fish (b) Frog
F (c) Crocodile (d) Bird
71. Which of these initiates thee heart beat?
(a) SA Node (b) AV
A Node (c) Bundle of His (d) Purkinje fibres
72. The xylem in plants are resp
sponsible for
(a) Transport of water (b) Transport of food
(c) Transport of amino acids
ds (d) Transport of oxygen

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LIFE PROCESSES (TRANSPORTA
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73. Which of the following state

tement (s) is (are) true about heart?
(i) Left atrium receives oxygenated
ox blood from different parts of bod
dy while right atrium
receives deoxygenated
d blood from lungs
(ii) Left ventricle pumps ox
oxygenated blood to different body parts while
e right
r ventricle pumps
deoxygenated blood to lungs
(iii) Left atrium transfers oxygenated
ox blood to right ventricle which send
ds it to different body
parts
(iv) Right atrium receivess deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body while left
ventricle pumps oxygen
enated blood to different parts of the body.
(a) (i) (b)) ((ii) (c) (ii) and (iv) (d)) ((i) and (iii)
74. What prevents backflow off blood
b inside the heart during contraction?
(a) Valves in heart (b) Thick muscular walls off vventricles
(c) Thin walls of atria (d) All of these
75. Single circulation i.e., blood
od flows through the heart only once during one
o cycle of passage
through the body, is exhibit
ited by:
(a) Labeo, Chameleon, Sala
lamander (b) Hippocampus, Exocoetu
tus, Anabas
(c) Hyla, Rana, Draco (d) Whale, Dolphin, Turtle
76. In which of the following ve
vertebrate group/groups, heart does not pump
p oxygenated blood to
different parts of the body?
(a) Pisces and amphibians (b) Amphibians and reptiles
les
(c) Amphibians only (d) Pisces only
77. Choose the correct statemeent that describes arteries:
(a) They have thick elastic
ic walls, blood flows under high pressure; collect
ct blood from different
organs and bring it back
ck to the heart
(b) They have thin walls w
with valves inside, blood flows under low pres
essure and carry blood
away from the heart to
o various
v organs of the body
(c) They have thick elasticc walls, blood flows under low pressure; carry blo
lood from the heart to
various organs of the body
bo
(d) They have thick elastic
ic walls without valves inside, blood flows und
der high pressure and
carry blood away from tthe heart to different parts of the body.
78. Oxygen liberated during ph
hotosynthesis comes from:
(a) Water (b)) C
Chlorophyll (c) Carbon dioxide (d)) G
Glucose
79. The blood leaving the tissue
ues becomes richer in:
(a) Carbon dioxide (b)) W
Water (c) Haemoglobin (d)l
)l Oxygen
80. The correct pathway of bloo
ood in circulatory system is:
(a) atria → ventricles → arte
teries → veins (b) ventricles → atria → vei
eins → arteries
(c) ventricles → veins → arte
rteries → atria (d) veins → ventricles → atria
atr → arteries

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PART-4
EXCRETION
• The biological wastes are
re generated during the occurrence of usefull biochemical
b events in
the body of any living organism.
or These harmful wastes always need to o be removed from the
body so that proper func
nctioning of the body may occur. The processs of removal of these
harmful metabolic wast stes from the body is called excretion.
• Excretion is the removal
al of excess or toxic waste products of metabo bolism from the body.
The term is generally tak
aken to mean nitrogenous wastes such as ure rea and ammonia, but
other materials like carb
rbon dioxide (CO2) and bile pigments are als also waste products of
metabolism and their remmoval is as much a part of excretion as the elimin
ination of urea.
• The organ system respo onsible for excretion is the urinary system orr excretory
e system.
• The major excretory prododucts of animals and plants and their sources are
a summarized in the
table below. Not all excr
cretory products are waste in the sense of serv
rving no further useful
purpose to the body. In Indeed, many serve useful purposes prior to their
t elimination and
afterwards, for reasons de
described in table.
Summary of the products,
s, sources, functions and fates of the major exc
xcretory products
Products Source Function/Fate
Oxygen • Photosynynthesis in autotrophic • Reactant in aaerobic respiration
organism
ms
Carbon dioxide • Aerobicc rrespiration in all organisms • Reactant in pphotosynthesis
• Breakdow
own of urea • Decreases pH of body fluids
Water • Aerobicc rrespiration in all organisms • Solvent in all metabolic activities
• Condensnsation reactions • Reactant in pphotosynthesis
Ions (salts) • Nutrientt metabolism • Maintenance ce of solute potentials
• Recycled throrough ecosystem
Bile salts • Lipid met
etabolism in liver • Emulsificatio
ion of fats
Bile pigments • Breakdow
own of haemoglobin in liver • None
Nitrogenous • Protein aand nucleic acid metabolism • Decompose e and recycled
substances through ecos
osystem

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
The plants do not have as man ny problems regarding excretion as do animaals. This is due to the
fundamental differences in the physiology
ph and mode of life between plants and
d animals.

Plants are producers and they produce

pr all of their organic requirements accord
rding to their need. For
example, three of the waste sub
ubstances produced by certain metabolic activi vities in plants, that is,
oxygen, carbon dioxide and wawater, are raw materials (reactants) for other rea
eactions, and excess of
carbon dioxide and water are use
sed up in this way.

Some of the modes of excretion iin plants are:

• The plants get rid of exce
cess water by transpiration.
• The only major gaseouss excretory
e product of plants is oxygen. During
g light
l periods, the rate
of production of oxygen n is far greater than the plant’s demand for oxyg
ygen in respiration and
this escapes from plantss iinto the environment by diffusion.

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LIFE PROCESSES (EXCRETION) BIOLOGY

• Many organic wastes off pplants are stored within dead permanent tiss issues such as wood or
within leaves or bark whic
hich are periodically removed. The bulk of mostt ttree plants (old xylem)
is composed of dead tissu
ssues into which excretory materials (resins, gum ums) are passed. In this
state, they have no advers
erse effects upon the activities of the living tissue
es.
• The plants also excrete some
so waste substances into the soil around them
m.
• Aquatic plants lose most
st of their metabolic wastes by diffusion into th
the water surrounding
them.
• Many waste products off p
plants are stored in cellular vacuoles.

EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
• Animals accumulate amm nd ions like Na+, K+, Cl–,
monia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, water and
phosphate, sulphate, etc.,
etc either by metabolic activities or by othe her means like excess
ingestion. These substanc
nces have to be removed totally or partially.
• Ammonia, urea and uric
ic acid are the major forms of nitrogenous waastes excreted by the
animals. Ammonia is th
the most toxic form and requires large amo ount of water for its
elimination, whereas uric
ric acid, being the least toxic, can be removed
d with a minimum loss
of water
• The process of excretingg ammonia is Ammonotelism. Many bony fishes es, aquatic amphibians
and aquatic insects are ammonotelic
am in nature. Ammonia, as it is readilily soluble, is generally
excreted by diffusion acro
ross body surfaces or through gill surfaces (in fish
ish) as ammonium ions.
Kidneys do not play anyy significant role in its removal.
• Mammals, many terrestria
rial amphibians and marine fishes mainly excret ete urea and are called
ureotelic animals. Amm monia produced by metabolism is converted into int urea in the liver of
these animals and release
sed into the blood which is filtered and excreted
d out by the kidneys.
• Reptiles, birds, land snails
ils and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric
ur acid in the form of
pellet or paste with a min
inimum loss of water and are called uricotelic animals.
an

Any permeable surface which directly connects a region containing excret

etory products to the
external environment is a potenti
tial area of excretion. For example,

Animals Excretory organ

Unicellula
lar organisms Cell membrane
Annelids Outer covering
Arthropo
ods Tracheae
Fishes Gills and skin
Amphibia
ia Gills and skin
Vertebrat
ates Lungs and skin

• In case of vertebrates,, specialized excretory structures are present so

s that the metabolic
wastes can be removeded from the cells and transfer the same to the e excretory organs. The
most important excretor
ory organs in these organisms are the skin, lungs
gs, liver and kidney.
• All vertebrates dispose
se of excess water and other wastes by means of kidneys. The kidneys
of fishes and amphibiaians are comparatively simple, while those of mammals
m are the most
complex.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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• Fishes and amphibianss absorb a great deal of water and, as a resul ult, must excrete large
quantities of urine. In co
contrast, the urinary systems of birds and rep eptiles are designed to
conserve water; these an
animals produce urine that is solid or semisolid.

EX
XCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Human excretory system consists
sts of a pair of kidneys, a pair
of ureters, urinary bladder and ur
urethra.

1. KIDNEYS:

These are reddish brown, bean--shaped structures situated

between the levels of last thoracic
th and third lumbar
vertebra close to the dorsal inn
nner wall of the abdominal
cavity.

Kidneys are mesodermal in origin

gin

Position of Kidneys

• The kidneys are located b below the diaphragm on the left and right side
des. The right kidney is
lower and right sides. Thhe right kidney is lower and smaller than the left
lef kidney because the
liver takes up much space
ce of the right side.
• Each kidney of an adult lt human measures, 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in
thickness with an averag ge weight of 120-170 gm (i.e., 150 gm in maless and about 135 gm in
females).
Structure of Kidney

External structure
• The outer surface of each
ch kidney is convex and inner surface is concave ve, where it has a notch
called hilum, through, wh
which the blood vessels (i.e., renal artery and rena
nal vein) the ureter and
nerve enter.
• If we look from outsideide from inside, three layers cover the kidne eys, i.e., renal fascia
(outermost), the adiposese layer and then renal capsule (innermost layer).
la These coverings
protect the kidneys from external shocks and injuries.
Internal structure

• Inside the kidney, innerer to the hilum the ureter is

expanded as a funnel-shahaped cavity called pelvis with
projections called calyces
es.
• LS of a mammalian kidn ney seem to have of an outer
cortex and inner medull lla.
• Medulla projects into the
he calyces as conical processes,
called renal pyramids or medullary pyramids. The tip
of pyramids are called ren
enal papillae.
• The cortex extends in be etween medullary pyramids as
renal columns called colu
lumns of Bertini.
• Each kidney is composed ed of numerous (nearly one million) complex tubular
tu structure called
nephrons, which are the e functional units of kidney.

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LIFE PROCESSES (EXCRETION) BIOLOGY

Structure of Nephron orr Uriniferous tubules :

• Each kidney has nearly onone million complex tubular structures called nep
ephrons, which are the
functional units of kidney
ey.
• Each nephron has two paarts – the glomerulus and the renal tubule.
(i) Glomerulus : It is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteri
riole – a fine branch of
renal artery. Blood fro
rom the glomerulus is carried away by an efferen
nt arteriole.
Differe
rence between Afferent Arteriole and Efferennt Arteriole
Affer
erent Arteriole Efferentt Arteriole
A

These are thee fine branches of renal These are the fine e branches of renal
artery which en
enter in each kidney and vein which leave th
the kidney and joins
arise from dorsa
rsal aorta. with inferior vena cav
ava.

rterial blood to the renal They carry venous b

They bring arte blood away from the
corpuscles. renal corpuscles.

Its diameter iss more.

m Its diameter is compa
paratively less.

wing in it is rich in waste The blood flowing in it is poor in waste

The blood flow
products. products.

The renal tubule begins with a double walled cup-like structure

called Bowman’s capsule, which
w encloses the glomerulus.
Glomerulus alongwith Bowm
wman’s capsule, is called the
malpighian body or renal cor
orpuscle

(ii) Renal tubule : Just below

w the glomerulus the tubule has a
very short neck. Attached
d to each Bowman’s capsule is a
long, thin tubule with distin
tinct regions, which are as follows:-

(a) Proximal Convo oluted tubule (PCT) : The tubule continues furt
rther, behind the neck,
it forms highly cooiled network called proximal convoluted tubu
bule, which is restricted
to the cortical reg
egion of the kidney.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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(b) Henle’s Loop : The next part of the tubule is quite narrower
er and is U-shaped or
hairpin-shaped which has a descending limb that ends into
o the medulla and an
ascending lamb tthat extends back from the medulla into the cort
rtex.

Difference
e between Descending Limb and Ascending Limb
b of
o Henle’s Loop

Desc
scending Limb Ascendin
ing Limb
It is very thin. It is thick.
Direction of flui
luid flow is downward. Direction of fluid flow
ow is upward.
Permeable to water.
w Impermeable to wate
ater.

Impermeable to Na+ and K + a K+

Permeable to Na+ and

(c) Distal Convolut

uted tubule (DCT) : The ascending limb contin
tinues as highly coiled
tubular region caalled distal convoluted tubule (DCT). It is situate
ted in the cortex region
of the kidney.
(d) Collecting duct
ct : The distal convoluted tubules of many ne
nephrons open into a
straight tube calle
lled collecting duct, many of which converge an
nd open into the renal
pelvis through me
edullary pyramids in the calyces.

• The Mal
alpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the nephron
ron are situated in the
cortical
al region of the kidney whereas the loop of Henle
H dips into the
medulla
lla.
• In majo
jority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too sho
ort and extends only
very litt
ittle into the medulla. Such nephrons are called co
cortical nephrons.
• In some
e of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very long
g and runs deep into
the med
edulla. These nephrons are called juxta medullary
ry nephrons.
• The cor
ortical nephrons forms about 80% of the total nephron
n count while
rest 20% are the juxta medullary nephrons.

• The efferent arteriole eme

erging from the glomerulus forms a fine capilla
illary network around
the renal tubule called th
the peritubular capillaries. A minute vessel o
of this network runs
parallel to the Henle’s loop
op forming a ‘U’ shaped Vasa recta. (Vasa recta
ta is absent or highly
reduced in cortical nephro
rons). All these capillaries join to form renal venn
nnules, which joins to
form renal vein that open
n into the inferior vena cava.

Functions of Kidney:
• Regulation of water and e electrolyte balance.
• Regulation of arterial pres
essure.
• Excretion of metabolic waste
wa and foreign chemicals.
• Secretion of hormones like
lik renin.

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LIFE PROCESSES (EXCRETION) BIOLOGY

MORE ABOUT
AB ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY OR HAEM
MODIALYSIS
Kidney dialys
ysis,
also known as
haemodialysiss o or
renal dialysis, is a
medical
treatment used d to
remove was
aste
materials fro
rom
the blood of
patients lackinking
kidney functionn or
kidney failure.. In
this procedurure,
the blood is
circulated throuugh a machine known as artificial kidney or dia
ialyser that removes
wastes and excecess fluid from the bloodstream.
As shown in fig igure, the blood from an artery is pumped thr hrough a dialyser or
artificial kidney
ey, where it flows past a semipermeable membra rane which are made
up of cellophan ne tubes or colloidin. The cellophane tubes rem main suspended in a
tank filled with ddialyzing fluid. This fluid has the same composit
sition as that of blood
plasma but it lacks
la nitrogenous wastes. When the blood of th the patient is passed
through the celellophane tubes, the dialysis fluid passing on th the other side of the
membrane remo moves unwanted elements in the blood by diff iffusion. The blood is
then returned to the body through a vein.
Some patients use
u dialysis for a short time, while their kidneys
ys recover from injury
or disease. Othe
hers must use dialysis for their entire lives or u
until they undergo a
kidney transplan
ant.

2. URETERS :
• The pelvis of each kidneyy is continued as a ureter and emerges out at hilu
ilum.
• It is a long and muscularr tube
t (about 25 to 30 cm long and about 0.5 cm in diameter).
• Ureters of both sides exte
tend posteriorly and open into the urinary bladde
der.

3. URINARY BLADDER : .

• Urinary bladder is muscu ular, so it is under nervous control. Hence, we can

ca usually control the
urge to urinate for some e time.
t
• A valve-like flap of tissu
sue at the point of entry into the bladder preven
ents urine from flowing
backward into the ureter. r.
• The urinary bladder is ablea to expand and contract according to o how much urine its
contains.
• As the bladder fills with u
urine, the walls of the bladder stretch and becom
ome thinner to hold up
to about 0.5 litre of urine
ne.
• To prevent spontaneous us emptying, a ring-like sphincter muscle sur urrounds the bladder’s
outlet.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
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4. URETHRA : .

• When the bladder becom mes full, stretch-sensitive receptors in its wall
alls are stimulated, and
the person becomes awaare of the fullness. When the person is ready to urinate,
u or expel urine,
the sphincter relaxes an through the urethra.
nd urine flows from the bladder to the outside th
• In females, the urethra is
i about 3.8 cm long and is strictly a urinary passage.
p In males, the
urethra is about 20 cm lon
long; it passes through the penis and also servess to
t convey semen.

MICTURITION
• The prorocess of release of urine is called micturitio ition and the neural
mechananisms causing it are called the micturition reflexx.
• An adul
ult human excretes, on an average, 1 to 1.5 litress of urine per day.
• The urin
rine formed is a light yellow coloured watery fluid
flu which is slightly
acidic (p
(pH-6.0) and has a characterestic odour.
• On an average,
a 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per daay.
nce of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone bodies (Ketonuria)
• Presenc ( in urine
dicative of diabetes mellitus.
are indi

Disorders of Excretory System:

S .

Excessive or inadequate producction of urine may indicate illness and doctors rs often use urinalysis
(Examination of a patient’s urine)
e) as part of diagnosing disease. For instance,
• the presence of glucose o or blood sugar in the urine is a sign of diabetess mellitus;
m
nal and infection of the urinary system, and
• bacteria in the urine signa
ine may indicate cancer of the urinary tract.
• red blood cells in the urin
UR
RINE FORMATION / UROPOIESIS
Urine formation involves three e main processes namely, glomerular filtratio
tion, reabsorption and
secretion, that takes place in diffe
ferent parts of the nephron.
Glomerular Filtration: The first
st step in urine formation is the filtration of blood
od, which is carried out
by the glomerulus and is called glomerular
g filtration. On an average, 1100-1200 0 ml of blood is filtered
by the kidneys per minute.
• The glomerular capillaryy b
blood pressure causes filtration of blood.
On account of high pressssure in the glomerular capillaries, the substance
ces are filtered into the
lumen of Bowman’s caps psule (but RBC, WBC and plasma proteins hav aving high molecular
weight are unable to passp out). That’s why this process of filtration
n through glomerular
capillaries in the Bowma
man’s capsules is known as ultra filtration and d the filterate is called
glomerular filterate or primary
p urine
• rate formed by kidneys per minute is called glom
The amount of the filterat merular filtration rate
(GFR). GFR in a healthy individual
in is approximately 125 ml per minute, i.e
i.e; 180 litres per day
Selective Reabsorption: This
his is the second step in the formation of urine fro
rom filterate.
• A comparison of the volu lume of the filtrate formed per day (180 litres per
er day) with that of the
urine released (1.5 litres),
s), suggest that nearly 99 per cent of the filtrate
e has to be reabsorbed
by the renal tubules. This
his process is called reabsorption. It involves the
he absorption of water
and useful solutes from tthe glomerular filterate into the blood. It occu urs mostly in PCT. The
tubular epithelial in cells
lls in different segments of nephron perform th this either by active or
passive mechanism. Forr example-
e

213
LIFE PROCESSES (EXCRETION) BIOLOGY

(i) Water and urea reabs bsorbed by passive transport (i.e; water is reabsosorbed by osmosis and
urea by simple diffusi
sion).
(ii) Glucose and amino acids
ac are absorbed by active transport.
(iii) The reabsorption of NaN + , occurs both by passive and active transpor
ort.
Tubular Secretion: It is also ann important
i step in urine formation. Certain chemmical in the blood that
are not removed by filtration fro rom the glomerular capillaries are removed by the t process of tubular
secretion.
• It refers to the passage of waste materials from blood into the filterate are a nephrons. It occurs
mostly in DCT.
• It is only mode of excretio tion in animals that lack glomerulus.
• It helps in the maintena nance of ionic and acid-base balance of body dy fluids by removing
+ + +
chemicals like foreign bod odies, ions ( K , H , NH4 ) and molecules (medicin
ines), etc. that are toxic
at elevated levels.
F
FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (P (PCT): PCT is lined by simple cuboidal brush bor order epithelium which
increases the surface area for reaabsorption. Nearly all of the essential nutrients,
s, and 70-80 per cent of
electrolytes and water are reabso sorbed by this segment. PCT also helps to main intain the pH and ionic
balance of the body fluids by sele
elective secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia an nd potassium ions into
the filtrate and by absorption off H
HCO3 – from it.
Henle’s Loop: Reabsorption in this
th segment is minimum. However, this region p plays a significant role
in the maintenance of high osmo olarity of medullary interstitial fluid. The descen
ending limb of loop of
Henle is permeable to water butt almost impermeable to electrolytes. This conce centrates the filtrate as
it moves down. The ascending g limb is impermeable to water but allows tran ansport of electrolytes
actively or passively. Therefore,, aas the concentrated filtrate pass upward, it ge ets diluted due to the
passage of electrolytes to the me edullary fluid.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCTT): Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water (under
u the influence of
−
ADH) takes place in this segmeent. DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3 and selective
secretion of hydrogen and pota
tassium ions and NH3 to maintain the pH and
an sodium-potassium
balance in blood.

Medulla

Reabsorptio
tion and secretion of major substances at different parts of
the nephr
hron arrows indicate direction of movement of materials

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROC
CESSES (EXCRETION)

Collecting Duct: This long ductct extends from the cortex of the kidney to the th inner parts of the
medulla. Large amounts of waterer could be reabsorbed from this region (underr the
t influence of ADH)
to produce a concentrated urine
ine. This segment allows passage of small amou ounts of urea into the
medullary interstitium to keep u
up the osmolarity. It also plays a role in the maaintenance of pH and
selective secretion of H+ and K+ ions. Therefore
ionic balance of blood by the se re, the filterate is now
called urine.

DPP-5

81. What is the functional unitt of

o human excretory system?
(a) Kidney (b)
b) Nephron (c) Bowman’s Capsule (d) Loop of Henle
82. What is the main excretoryy p
product in humans?
(a)Ammonia (b)
b)Urea (c)Uric acid (d)None of these
83. What is the main excretoryy p
product in lizards?
(a)Ammonia (b)
b)Urea (c)Uric acid (d)None of these
84. The kidneys in human being
ngs are a part of the system for
(a) Nutrition (b)
b) Respiration (c) Excretion (d) Transportation
85. The filtration unit of kidneys
ys are called
(a) Urethra (b)
b) Ureter (c) Neurons (d) Nephrons
86. Choose the correct path off urine
u in our body
(a) kidney → ureter → uret
ethra → urinary bladder
(b) kidney → urinary bladd
der → urethra → ureter
(c) kidney → ureters → urin
rinary bladder → urethra
(d) urinary bladder → kidne
ney → ureter → urethra

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LIFE PROCESSES (EXCRETION) BIOLOGY

87. Which of the following horm

rmones is involved in regulating the water-salt ba
balance of the blood?
(a) Cortisone (b)
b) Aldosterone (c) ADH (d) ANH
88. Ornithine cycle (also known
n as the urea cycle) refers to the sequence off b
biochemical reactions
taking place in the
(a) Urinary bladder (b)
b) Liver (c) Pancreas (d) Stomach
89. The lungs are important org
rgans for excretion of
(a) Ammonia (b)
b) Water (c) Carbon dioxide (d) Urea
90. The muscular tubes which ttake the urine from the kidneys to the bladder are
ar
(a) Urinary bladders (b)
b) Ureters (c) Urethras (d) Nephrons
91. The principal nitrogenous excretory
e compound in humans is synthesized
(a) In the liver but eliminate
ated mostly through kidneys
(b) In kidneys but eliminate
ted mostly through liver
(c) In kidneys as well as elim
liminated by kidneys
(d) In liver and also eliminaated by the same through bile
92. The process of dilution of ur
urine takes place in
(a) Distal tubule (b)
b) Collecting tubule (c) Loop of Henle (d) Proximal tubule
93. The yellow pigment derived
ed from heme breakdown and excreted by kidney
eys is
(a) Uric acid (b)
b) Urochrome (c) Cholesterol (d) Melanin
94. Which of the following are u
uricotelic animals?
(a) Rohu and Frog (b) Lizard and Crow
(c) Camel and Frog (d) Earthworm and eagle
le
95. Ureotelism is found in
(a) Mammals (b)
b) Aquatic insects (c) Tadpoles (d) Birds

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

PART-5
GLOSSARY
Active transport is the transport
rt of nutrients against concentration gradient usi
sing energy, i.e., ATP.
Aerobic respiration is that which
ich takes place in the presence of oxygen.
Ammonotelic organisms are tho hose which excrete ammonia.
Alveoli. The thin air sacs of the lungs
lu where exchange of gases takes place.
Anabolism. Formation of compl plex substances from simple molecules, e.g., Phot
otosynthesis.
Assimilation. Conversion of abso
sorbed food materials into protoplasm.
Bile. An alkaline fluid secreted by
b the liver and helps in emulsification, digesti
tion and absorption of
fats.
Blood pressure. The pressure exerted
e by the flow of blood on the walls of the
he arteries is known as
blood pressure.
Breathing. It is a physical pheno
omenon where exchange of oxygen and carbon n dioxide takes place.
Catabolism. Break down of comp plex substances to simple molecules. Example: Pro
rocess of respiration.
Diaphragm. The muscular partiti
ition separating the thoracic cavity from abdomin
inal cavity.
Egestion. Elimination of undiges
ested food from the body.
Electrocardiogram (ECG). The he graphic record of the electrical changes during
du heartbeat by a
machine is called electrocardiogr
graph.
Enzyme. A biological catalyst proroduced by living organism, proteinaceous in nanature and bring about
specific chemical reaction in the b
body.
Excretion. Process of removal off metabolic wastes from the body or cell.
Extracellular digestion. Digestio on occurring outside the cell.
Gills. The respiratory organs of water-breathing
w animals (fishes).
Glycolysis. It is anaerobic enzyma
matic conversion of glucose into pyruvates in the
e cytoplasm of a cell.
Haemoglobin. It is an iron contai
taining protein compound (pigment) which gives
es red colour to RBCs.
Heterotroph. An organism thatt cannot synthesize its own food and dependss for its food on other
organisms (autotrophs).
Ingestion. It is the act of taking food
fo into the body.
Lymph. It is the body fluid pressent in interstitial spaces of tissues and act ass middle
m man between
blood and organ.
Metabolism. All the biochemical
al changes occurring inside the body of living bei
eings.
Physiology. The branch of biolo
logy which deals with the vital or metabolic acti
tivities going on inside
the living organism.
Respiration. A biochemical pro rocess by which organic food is oxidized in thee body of organisms in
order to release energy. In this fr
fresh air (O2) is taken from environment and CO2 in released out from
body.
Serum. It is blood plasma from which
w the blood clotting protein fibrinogen is re
removed.
Translocation. The movementt of organic food, water, minerals etc. from one
ne part of the plant to
another.
Transpiration. The evaporationn of water from the surface of plants, mainly thr
hrough the stomata of
leaf is called transpiration.
Vermiform appendix. It arisess from large intestine, a vestigial organ in humans,
h but it is still
functioning among ruminating mammals
m like cattle, sheep, dear etc.
Villi. Finger-like projections in small
sm intestine that increase the surface area forr aabsorption.

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LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

PREVIOUS YEAR’S
YE COMPETITIVE EXAM QUESTIO
IONS
Multiple choice questions (MCQs
Qs):
Nutri
trition (Digestion and Absorption)
96. Which one of the following g is needed for the conversion of trypsinogen int nto trypsin?
[CBSE PMT T, 1995; BBHU, 2000]
(a) Enterokinase (b) HCl (c) Lipase (d) Zymase
97. Which of the following carri
rries glucose from digestive tract to liver?
[CBSE PMT,, 1999;
1 Pb. PMT, 2000]
(a) Hepatic artery (b) Pulmonary vein (c) Hepatic portal vein (d) Renal portal system
98. Balanced diet should have e aapproximately [CBSE PMT, 2000]
(a) 1/5 protein, 3/5 fat and
d 1/5 carbohydrate (b) 3/5 protein, 1/5 fat and d 1/5 carbohydrate
(c) 1/5 protein, 1/5 fat and
d 3/5 carbohydrate (d) 1/2 protein, 1/4 fat and d 3/5 carbohydrate
99. If there were no ultra violet
et rays reaching the earth, humans should sufferr ffrom deficiency of
[CBSE PMT, 2000]
(a) Fatty acids (b) Essential amino acids
(c) Vitamin D (d) Vitamin E
100. Dental formula is given to sshow [MP PMT, 2000]
(a) The structure of molarsrs (b) Number and types of teeth
te in both jaws
(c) Homodont condition (d) Diphyodont condition
101. Which of the following vest stigial teeth is found in human? [Pb. PMT, 2000]
(a) Incisors (b) Premolars (c) Canines (d) Wisdom tooth
102. Which of the following is th
the correct match? [KCET, 199
994; CBSE PMT, 2001]
(a) Vitamin A – calciferol (b) Vitamin E – tocopherol
(c) Vitamin D – thiamine (d) Vitamin K – ascorbic aci
cid
103. Marasmus disease is caused ed due to [MP PMT, 2001]
(a) Protein deficiency (b) Obesity
(c) Dwarfism (d) Deficiency of vitamins
104. Escherichia coli in human colon
co behave as [AFMC, 2002]
(a) Parasite (b) Commensal (c) Saprophyte (d) Mutualist
105. Which of the following teeteth are lophodont? [AIIMS, 2002]
(a) Incisor and canine (b) Premolar and molar
(c) Canine and premolar (d) Premolar and incisor
106. Which of the following help lps in synthesis of DNA and cell division? [BHU, 2002]
(a) Nicotinamide (b) Biotin (c) Folic acid (d) Pantothenic acid
107. In vertebrate body, mainlyy the
t food is stored in the form of [BHU, 2002]
(a) Fat (b) Fat and glycogen (c) Glycogen (d) Proteins
108. Stool of a person is whitish
h grey coloured due to malfunction of which of the th following organ
[CBSE, 2002]
(a) Pancreas (b) Spleen (c) Kidney (d) Liver
109. Secretin hormone is secrete ted by [CBSE PMT, 2002]
(a) Liver (b) Pancreas (c) Intestine (d) Brunner’s glands
110. Which of the following is no
not a source of vitamin A? [CPMT, 2002]
(a) Carrot (b) Mango (c) Apple (d) Yeast
111. Glucose and amino acids ar are absorbed in the intestine by [JIPMER, 2002]
(a) Active transport (b) Passive transport
(c) Selective absorption (d) Osmosis
112. Cyanocobalamine is essenti ntial for the formation of [JIPMER, 2002]
(a) RBC (b) WBC (c) lymph (d) platelets

218
Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

113. Wound healing is enhanced ed by a vitamin [MP PMT, 2002]

(a) A (b) D (c) C (d) E
114. In the wall of alimentary cananal which are/ is true sequence from outer to inner?
inn [BHU, 2003]
(a) Serosa, longitudinal mu uscle, mucosa, sub mucosa
(b) Mucosa, serosa, long m muscle
(c) Serosa, long muscle, cir ircular muscle, sub-mucosa, mucosa
(d) Serosa, long muscle, sub ub-mucosa, mucosa
115. Protein deficiency in childreren is called [BHU, 2003]
(a) Obesity (b) Marasmus (c) Diabetes (d) Kwashiorkor
116. Duodenum has characterist istic Brunner’s glands, which secrete two hormon nes called
[CBSE, 2004]
(a) Estradiol, progesterone e (b) Kinase, estrogen
(c) Secretin, cholecystokini
inin (d) Prolactin, parathormon ne
117. Brunner’s glands are presenent in the [CBSE PMT T, 1992; AFMC, 2003]
(a) Submucosa of the stom mach (b) Mucosa of the ileum
(c) Submucosa of the duod odenum (d) Prolactin, parathormon ne
118. Iodine test is used to detectct [DPMT, 2003]
(a) Protein (b) Fat (c) Carbohydrate (d) Chitin
119. Which one of the following g are antioxidant vitamins? [DPMT, 2003]
(a) Vitamin C, E, A (b) Vitamin B1 , B4 (c) Vitamin A, D, E (d) Vitamin B3 , B5
120. Some of the animals eat th their faeces to digest the cellulose contents ag gain, such animals are
known as [DPMT, 2003]
(a) Omnivorous (b) Coprophagous (c) Microphagous (d) Macrophagous
121. Vitamin E is also known as [Kerala CET, 2003]
(a) Decalcifying vitamin (b) Antisterility vitamin
(c) Prothrombin vitamin (d) Antihaemophilic vitami min
122. In mammals, the digestion n of starch starts from [MH CET, 2003]
(a) Stomach (b) Mouth (c) Oesophagus (d) Duodenum
123. Crypts of Lieberkuhn are present
pr in [MP PMT, 2003]
(a) Pancreas and secrete pancreatic
pa juice
(b) Small intestine and secr
crete digestive enzymes
(c) Stomach and secrete dilute
di hydrochloric acid
(d) Stomach and secrete pepsin
pe
124. Continuous bleeding from aan injured part of body is due to deficiency of [MP PMT, 2003]
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B (c) Vitamin K (d) Vitamin E
125. Select the mismatch betwe een a vitamin and its deficiency disease, among g the
t following
[APMEE, 2004]
(a) Riboflavin-slow clotting
ng of blood (b) Niacin-damage to skin n and
a lining of intestine
(c) Ascorbic acid-scurvy (d) Thiamine-damage to ne nerves and heart
126. Which one of the following g pairs is NOT correctly matched? [CBSE 2004]
(a) Vitamin B2 - Pellagra (b) Vitamin B12 - Perniciou us anaemia
(c) Vitamin B6 - Loss of appe
ppetite (d) Vitamin B1 - Beriberi
127. Which of the following pair is characterized by swollen lips, thick-pigment
nted skin of hands and
legs and irritability? [CPMT, 2004]
(a) Iodine – Goitre (b) Protein – Kwashiorkor
(c) Thiamine – Beri-Beri (d) Nicotinamide - Pellagra
ra

219
LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

128. An average man needs appr proximately [MP PMT, 2004]

(a) 2900 K cal. energy/day (b) 500 K cal. energy/day
(c) 1000 K cal. energy/day (d) 2000 K cal. energy/day
129. Dental formula of human be being is [Orissa JEE, 2004]
(a) 12, C1, P1, M3 (b) 12, C1, P2, M3 (c) 13, C1, P2, M2 (d) 12, C2, P3, M1
130. In human which cells of gas astric glands of stomach secrete hydrochloric acid
cid? [AFMC, 2005]
(a) Oxyntic cells (b) Columnar (c) Argentaffin (d) Peptic
131. A patient is generally advi vised to specially consume more meat, lentils,, m milk and eggs in diet
only when he suffers from [CBSE PMT, 2005]
(a) Scurvy (b) Kwashiorkor (c) Rickets (d) Anaemia
132. A person is undergoing prolonged
pr fasting. His urine will be found tto contain abnormal
quantities of [CBSE PMT, 2005]
(a) Fats (b) Amino acids (c) Glucose (d) Ketones
133. Epithelial cells of the intesti
stine involved in food absorption have on their su
surface
[CBSE PMT, 2005]
(a) Pinocytic vesicles (b) Microvilli (c) Zymogen granules (d) phagocytic vesicles
134. Tusk of an elephant is an enormously
en enlarged [HP PMT, 2005]
(a) Upper canine (b) Lower incisor (c) Upper incisor (d) Lower canine
135. Iodine deficiency causes [HP PMT, 2005]
(a) Kwashiorkor (b) Anaemia (c) Marasmus (d) Goitre
136. Both the crown and root of a tooth is covered by a layer of bony hard subst bstance called
[J&K CET, 2005]
(a) Enamel (b) Dentine (c) Bony socket (d) Cementum
137. Putrefying bacteria are foun und in [BHU, 2006]
(a) Intestine (b) Stomach (c) Liver (d) Colon
138. Which one is correctly matc tched? [Kerala, 2006]
(a) Vitamin E – Thiamine (b) Vitamin D – Riboflavin
(c) Vitamin B12 - Cyanocoba balamine (d) Vitamin B1 - Tocophero
rol
139. Oxyntic cells are located in [Manipur, 2006]
(a) Islets of Langerhans and
nd secrete insulin (b) Kidney and secrete renn nnin
(c) Gastric epithelium and d secrete HCl (d) Gastric epithelium and d secrete pepsin
140. pH of saliva is [Orissa, 2006]
(a) 9.5 (b) 8.0 (c) 7.0 (d) 6.5
141. Alimentary canal of herbivovorous animals is [Orissa, 2006]
(a) Short (b) Long (c) Wide (d) Thin
142. Number of milk teeth found nd in humans is [RPMT, 2006]
(a) 32 (b) 20 (c) 52 (d) 12
143. Which one of the following g is a fat-soluble vitamin related deficiency diseaase?
[CBSE PMT, 2007]
(a) Ascorbic acid – Scurvy (b) Retinol – Xerophthalmiia
(c) Cobalamine – Beri-beri (d) Calciferol - Pellagra
144. Pepsinogen is secreted by [DPMT, 2007]
(a) Chief cell (b) Mast cell (c) Oxyntic cell (d) Parietal cell
145. Probiotics are [CBSE PMT, 2007]
(a) Safe antibiotics (b) Cancer inducing microbe obes
(c) New kind of food allergrgens (d) Live microbial food supplpplement

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

146. What will happen if the secr cretion of parietal cells of gastric glands is blocke
ked with an inhibitor?
[AIPMT, 2008]
(a) In the absence of HCI CI secretion, inactive pepsinogen is not conve verted into the active
enzyme pepsin.
(b) Enterokinase will nott be released from the duodenal mucosa and so s trypsinogen is not
converted to trypsin.
(c) Gastric juice will be defi
eficient in chymosin.
(d) Gastric juice will be defi
eficient in pepsinogen.
147. Which one of the following ng pairs of food components in humans reache es the stomach totally
undigested? [AIPMT, 2009]
(a) Starch and cellulose (b) Protein and starch
(c) Starch and fat (d) Fat and cellulose
148. A young infant may be feed eding entirely on mother’s milk which is white in colour but the stools
which the infant passes out du to? [AIPMT, 2009]
ut is quite yellowish. What is this yellow colour due
(a) Pancreatic juice poured ed into duodenum (b) Intestinal juice
(c) Bile pigments passed through
th bile juice (d) Undigested milk protei ein casein
149. Globulins contained in hum man blood plasma are primarily involved in: [AIPMT, 2009]
(a) Clotting blood (b) Defence mechanisms o of body
(c) Osmotic balance of bod ody fluids (d) Oxygen transport in the he blood
150. If for some reason our goble affect: [AIPMT, 2010]
blet cells are non-functional, this will adversely aff
(a) smooth movement off food fo down the intestine
(b) production of somatost statin
(c) secretion of sebum from om the sebaceous glands
(d) maturation of sperms
151. If for some reason the parierietal cells of the gut epithelium become partially lly non-functional, what
is likely to happen? [AIPMT, 2010]
(a) The pH of stomach will ill fall abruptly
(b) Steapsin will be more effective
e
(c) Proteins will not be ade equately hydrolysed by pepsin into proteoses and an peptones
(d) The pancreatic enzyme es and specially the trypsin and lipase will not wo ork efficiently
152. Secretions from which onee of the following are rich in fructose, calcium and nd some enzymes?
[AIPMT, 2010]
(a) Liver (b) Pancreas (c) Salivery glands (d) Male accessory
glands
153. Two friends are eating toge gether on a dining table. One of them suddenlyy starts coughing while
swallowing some food. This is coughing would have been due to improper movementm of:
[AIPMT, 2011]
(a) Epiglottis (b) Diaphragm (c) Neck (d) Tongue
154. Which one of the followin ing enzymes carries out the initial step in the e digestion of milk in
humans? [AIPMT, 2011]
(a) Pepsin (b) Rennin (c) Lipase (d) Trypsin
155. One of the constituents off tthe pancreatic juice while poured into the duod denum in human is:
[AIPMT, 2011]
(a) Enterokinase (b) Trypsinogen (c) Chymotrypsin (d) Trypsin
156. The initial step in the digest
stion of milk in humans is carried out by [AIPMT, 2014]
(a) lipase (b) trypsin (c) rennin (d) pepsin

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LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

157. Fructose is absorbed into th the blood through mucosa cells of intestine by the
th process called
[AIPMT, 2014]
(a) active transport (b) facilitated transport
(c) simple diffusion (d) co-transport mechanism ism
158. The enzyme that is not pres esent in succus entericus is [AIPMT, 2015]
(a) nucleosidase (b) maltase (c) lipase (d) nuclease
159. Which of the following guar ards the opening of hepatopancreatic duct into o the
t duodenum?
[NEET, 2016]
(a) Pyloric sphincter (b) Sphincter of Oddi (c) Semilunar valve (d) Ileocaecal valve
160. In the stomach, gastric acidid is secreted by the [NEET, 2016]
(a) peptic cells (b) acidic cells
(c) gastrin secreting cells (d) parietal cells
161. Which hormones do stimula ulate the production of pancreatic juice and bicar arbonate?
(a) Angiotensin and epineph ephrine (b) Gastrin and insulin
(c) Cholecystokinin and sec ecretin (d) Insulin and glucagon
162. Which cells of ‘crypts of Liebe
ieberkuhn’ secrete antibacterial lysozyme? [NEET, 2017]
(a) Paneth cells (b) Zymogen cells (c) Kupffer cells (d) Argentaffin cells
163. Which of the following optiptions best represents the enzyme composition of pancreatic juice?
[NEET, 2017]
(a) Amylase, Pepsin, Trypsi
psinogen, Maltase
(b) Peptidase, Amylase, Peps epsin, Rennin
(c) Lipase, Amylase, Trypsin
psinogen, Procarboxypeptidase
(d) Amylase, Peptidase, Try rypsinogen, Rennin
Respiratio
ion (Breathing and Exchange of gases
es)
164. In mammal, voice is produc uced by [MP PMT, 2000]
(a) Bronchus (b) Syrinx
(c) Larynx (d) Inhalation and exhalatio
tion
165. Food does not enter windpi pipe due to a structure called [Kerala, 2000]
(a) Glottis (b) Epiglottis (c) Pharynx (d) Larynx
166. Oxygen carried by blood is liberated in [CET Chd., 2000]
(a) Arteries (b) Capillaries of body (c) Capillaries lungs (d) Heart
167. Diffusion of oxygen in tissueues of cockroach occurs through [AMU, 2000]
(a) Blood (b) Tracheae (c) Integument (d) Tracheoles
168. The cells which do not respi pire [AFMC, 2000]
(a) Epidermal cells (b) Sieve cells (c) Cortical cells (d) Erythrocytes
169. Vital capacity of lungs is [BV, 2000]
(a) 4.5 – 5.5 l (b) 3.5 – 4.5 l (c) 2.5 – 3.5 l (d) 1.5 – 2.5 l
170. Book lungs are respiratoryy structures
s of [DPMT, 2001]
(a) Arachnida (b) Mollusca (c) Mammals (d) Earthworm
171. A higher CO2 concentratio ion of blood causes [AMU, 2001]
(a) Slow diffusion of O2 from
fro blood (b) Slow transport of O2 in blood
(c) Quick diffusion of O2 into
in blood (d) Both (a) and (b)
172. Determination of oxygen carried
ca by haemoglobin is done by [CET Chd., 2001]
(a) pH (b) Partial pressure of oxyg
ygen
(c) Partial pressure of carbo
bon dioxide (d) All the above

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

173. Layer of uneven columnarr ccells which form tracheal lining is component of [Uttaranchal, 2001]
(a) Brush border epithelium
um (b) Stratified epithelium
(c) Pseudostratified epitheelium (d) Ciliated epithelium
174. Thoracic cage of man is form
rmed of [MP PMT, 2002]
(a) Ribs and sternum (b) Ribs, sternum and thoraracic vertebrae
(c) Ribs, sternum and lumba bar vertebrae (d) Ribs and thoracic vertebr
tebrae
175. Which one is present in arth
rthropods? [RPMT, 2002]
(a) Haemoglobin (b) Chlorophyll (c) Haemocyanin (d) Myoglobin
176. Arytenoid cartilage occurss iin [BHU, 2002]
(a) Larynx (b) Nose (c) Hyoid (d) Sternum
177. Insect tracheal system open
pens to the outside through [DPMT, 2002]
(a) Spiral valve (b) Pecten (c) Spiracle (d) Taenidia
178. A molecule of haemoglobinbin carries oxygen molecules [MP PMT T, 1997; CPMT, 2002]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
179. Air entering lungs is [Pb. PMT, 2002]
(1) Warmed (2) Filtered
(3) Deprived of some oxyg gen (4) Enriched with CO2
What is true?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 2 and 3
180. Inspiratory centre is located
ed in [Kerala, 2002]
(a) Cerebrum (b) Cerebellum (c) Hypothalamus (d) Medulla oblongata
181. Lining of trachea is made of [Kerala, 2002]
(a) Simple squamous epith thelium (b) Simple cuboidal epithe elium
(c) Pseudostratified epithe elium (d) Stratified cuboidal epith
pithelium
182. Increase in CO2 concentrat ation shall cause [CBSE, 2004]
(a) Slower and shallower brbreathing (b) Slower and deeper brea
eathing
(c) Faster and deeper breatathing (d) No effect on breathing
183. SARS is caused by a variantt of [AIIMS, 2004]
(a) Pneumococcus pneumon onia (b) Common cold Coronaa virus
v
(c) Asthma (d) Bronchitis
184. Ravi, who lived at sea leveel, had around 5 million RBC per cubic millimeteter of his blood. Later
when he lived at an altitudde of 18,000 ft, showed around 8 million RBC C pe
per cubic millimeter of
blood. This is an adaptation
n because [APMEE, 2004]
(a) He had pollution free ai
air to breathe
(b) At high altitude O2 leve
vel is less hence more RBCs were required to abso
bsorb enough oxygen
(c) At high altitude there is more UV radiation which enhances RBCs produ duction
(d) At high altitude he ate e more
m nutritive food
185. Mountain sickness at high altitudea is due to [CPMT, 2005]
(a) Excess CO2 in blood (b) Decreased CO2 in air
(c) Decreased partial press ssure of oxygen (d) Decreased efficiency of haemoglobin
186. Match the columns and find nd out the correct combination [Kerala, 2005]
Column I Column II
(A) Asthma (i) Inflammation of nasal tract
(B) Bronchitis (ii) Spasm of tracheal muscle
(C) Rhinitis (iii) Fully blown out alveoli
(D) Emphysema (iv) Inflammation of bronchi
(v) Cough with blood stained sputum
(a) A – (iv), B – (ii), C – (v), D – (i) (b) A – (v), B – (iii), C – (ii),, D – (i)
(c) A – (iii), B – (i), C – (v), D – (iv) (d) A – (ii), B – (iv), C – (i), D – (iii)

223
LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

187. During inspiration [RPMT, 2005]

(a) Diaphragm and externa nal intercostal muscles relax
(b) Diaphragm and internaal intercostals muscles relax
(c) Diaphragm and externa nal intercostals muscles contract
(d) Diaphragm and internaal intercostals muscles contract
188. Rate of breathing is contrololled by [Kerala, 2005]
(a) Amount of freely availa lable oxygen (b) Carbon dioxide in bloodod
(c) Stress (d) Muscular functions off the
th body
189. In lungs, air is separated fro
rom venous blood by [Orissa, 2006]
(a) Squamous epithelium + tunica external of blood vessel
(b) Squamous epithelium + endothelium of blood vessel
(c) Transitional epithelium m + tunica media of blood vessel
(d) Columnar epithelium + 3 layered wall of blood vessel
190. Which one respires through gh gills? [JKCMEE, 2006]
(a) Crocodile (b) Whale (c) Frog (d) Prawn
191. Protective respirator blastt is [CET Chd., 2006]
(a) Hiccupping (b) Sneezing (c) Coughing (d) All the above
192. Respiration occurs withoutt a respirator organ in [BHU, 2006]
(a) Earthworm (b) Cockroach (c) Fish (d) Frog
193. Lungs are not affected by th the disease [RPMT, 2006]
(a) Pneumonia (b) Bronchitis (c) Polio (d) Asthma
194. What is vital capacity of our
ur lungs: [AIPMT, 2008]
(a) Inspiratory reserve volu lume plus expiratory reserve volume
(b) Total lung capacity min inus residual volume
(c) Inspiratory reserve volu lume plus tidal volume
(d) Total lung capacity min inus expiratory reserve volume
195. The haemoglobin of a hum man foetus: [AIPMT, 2008]
(a) Has only 2 protein subu bunits instead of 4
(b) Has a higher affinity for
or oxygen than that of adult
(c) Has a lower affinity forr ooxygen than that of adult
(d) Its affinity for oxygen is the same as that of adult
196. Which two of the following g changes (a-d) usually tend to occur in the plai ain dwellers when they
move to high altitudes (3,50,500 m or more)? [AIMT, 2010]
1. Increase in red blood ce cell size 2. Increase in red blood cecell production
3. increased breathing rat ate 4. Increase in thrombocyt yte count
Changes occurring are:
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
197. The haemoglobin contentt pe per 100 ml of blood of a normal healthy human n adult is:
[AIPMT, 2010]
(a) 25-30 g (b) 17-20 g (c) 12-16 g (d) 5-11 g
198. Which one of the following ng is a possibility for most of us in regard to breathing,
br by making a
conscious effort? [AIPMT, 2011]
(a) The lungs can be made e fully empty by forcefully breathing out all air from
fro them
(b) One can breathe out air totally without oxygen.
(c) One can breathe out air through eustachian tubes by closing both the e nose and the mouth
(d) One can consciously breathe
br in a breath out by moving the diaph phragm alone, without
moving the ribs at all.

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

199. Which one of the following

g is the correct statement for respiration in humaans? [AIPMT, 2012]
(a) Workers in grinding and
nd stone-breaking industries may suffer, from lun
ung fibrosis.
(b) About 90% of carbon di
dioxide ( CO2 ) is carried by haemoglobin as carba
bamino haemoglobin.
(c) Cigarette smoking mayy lead to inflammation of bronchi
(d) Neural signals from pneumoto
pn centre in ponsrefion of brain can inccrease the duration of
inspiration.
200. Approximately seventy per percent of carbon-dioxide absorbed by the blood d will be transported to
the lungs
(a) as bicarbonate ions (b) in the form of dissolved
ed gas molecules
(c) by binding to R.B.C (d) as carbamino - haemog oglobin
201. Name the pulmonary dise isease in which alveolar surface area involved d in gas exchange is
drastically reduced due to d damage in the alveolar walls. [AIPMT, 2015]
(a) Pneumonia (b) Asthma (c) Pleurisy (d) Emphysema
202. Reduction in pH of blood willw [NEET, 2016]
(a) decrease the affinity off haemoglobin with oxygen
(b) release bicarbonate ion ns by the liver
(c) reduce the rate of heart rt beat
(d) reduce the blood suppl pply to the brain
203. Name the chronic respirato tory disorder caused mainly by cigarette smoking g [NEET, 2016]
(a) Respiratory acidosis (b) Respiratory alkalosis
(c) Emphysema (d) Asthma
204. Asthma may be attributed to t [NEET, 2016]
(a) inflammation of the tra rachea
(b) accumulation of fluid in the lungs
(c) bacterial infection of the
th lungs
(d) allergic reaction of theem mast cells in the lungs
205. The partial pressure of oxygygen in the alveoli of the lungs is [NEET, 2016]
(a) equal to that in the blooood (b) more than that in the blood
bl
(c) less than that in the blood
blo (d) less than that of carbon
bon dioxide
206. Lungs are made up of air-filled
air sacs, the alveoli. They do not collaps pse even after forceful
expiration, because of [NEET, 2017]
(a) inspiratory reserve volu lume (b) tidal volume
(c) expiratory reserve volumlume (d) residual volume
207. Where is the respiratory ele lectron transport system (ETS) located in plants? [NEET, 2019]
(a) Mitochondrial matrix (b) Outer mitochondrial me embrane
(c) Inner mitochondrial mem embrane (d) Intermembrane space
208. Select the correct statemen nt. [NEET, 2019]
(a) Expiration occurs due to external intercostal muscles.
(b) Intrapulmonary pressure re is lower than the atmospheric pressure during g inspiration.
(c) Inspiration occurs when n atmospheric pressure is less than intrapulmona nary pressure.
(d) Expiration is initiated duue contraction of diaphragm.
209. The maximum volume of ai air a person can breathe in after a forced expiratio
tion is known as :
[NEET, 2019]
(a) Expiratory Capacity (b) Vital Capacity
(c) Inspiratory Capacity (d) Total Lung Capacity

225
LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

Transpor
ortation (Body fluids and circulation)
210. Oxygenated blood from lun ungs enters heart through [JIPMER, 2002]
(a) Pulmonary artery (b) Pulmonary vein (c) Coronary system (d) Coronary vein
211. Pulmonary artery carries [AFMC, 2003]
(a) Pure blood from heartt to t lungs (b) Pure blood from heartt to
t stomach
(c) Pure blood from lungss tto heart (d) Impure blood from hea
eart to lungs
212. Factors present on surfacee of o RBC related to heredity are [A.F.M.C, 2003]
(a) Antigens (b) Blood groups (c) Antibodies (d) Haemoglobin
213. Systemic heart refers to [CBSE PMT, 2003]
(a) Left auricle and left ven ntricle in higher vertebrates
(b) Heart that contract und der stimulation from nervous system
(c) Entire heart in lower verertebrates
(d) The two ventricles toge ether in humans
214. Bundle of His is a network o of [CBSE PMT, 2003]
(a) Muscle fibres distributeted throughout hear walls
(b) Muscle fibres found onl nly in ventricles wall
(c) Nerve fibres distributeded in ventricles
(d) Nerve fibres found thro rough the heart
215. In ventricular systole, oxyge
genated blood is pumped into [Karnataka, 2003]
(a) Aorta and deoxygenate ted into pulmonary artery
(b) Pulmonary artery and d deoxygenated into artery
(c) Aorta and deoxygenate ted into pulmonary vein
(d) Pulmonary vein and deo eoxygenated into pulmonary artery
216. Artificial pacemaker is usuaally implanted to correct the defect in [DPMT, 2003]
(a) SA node (b) AV node (c) Purkinje fibres (d) Mitral valve
217. A person donating blood sh should have haemoglobin level of minimum [BV, 2003]
(a) 10 g (b) 11.5 g (c) 12.5 g (d) 14 g
218. Rise in heart beat, cardiac output,
o blood pressure and blood sugar occurss during emergency by
hormone [APMEE, 2004]
(a) Aldosterone (b) Antidiuretic hormone
(c) Norepinephrine (d) Oxytocin
219. What is serum? [Orissa, 2004]
(a) Blood minus fibrinogen en (b) Lymph minus corpusclecles
(c) Lymph (d) Blood minus corpuscles
les and fibrinogen
220. You are required to draw bl blood from a patient and to keep it in a test tubebe for analysis of blood
corpuscles and plasma. You ou are also provided with the following four typepes of test tubes. Which
of them will you NOT use for fo the purpose? [CBSE PMT, 2004]
(a) Test tube containing so sodium oxalate (b) Test tube containing ca
calcium bicarbonate
(c) Chilled test tube (d) Test tube containing he
heparin
221. Artificial pacemaker is impla
planted subcutaneously for correcting [AIIMS, 2004]
(a) 90% blockage of corona nary arteries (b) High blood pressure
(c) Irregularity of heart rhytythm (d) Arteriosclerosis
222. Lymphocytes of lower verte rtebrates are produced in [MPPMT, 2004]
(a) Liver (b) Spleen (c) Bone marrow (d) Vertebrae
223. Bilirubin and biliverdin aree formed
f from [JIPMER, 2004]
(a) Myoglobin (b) Fat (c) Carbohydrate (d) Haemoglobin

226
Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

224. Which one secretes anticoaagulant? [Manipal, 2004]

(a) Mast cells (b) Nerve cells (c) Adipose cells (d) Plasma cells
225. SA node is located [DPMT, 2005]
(a) Upper lateral wall of lef
eft atrium (b) Lower lateral wall of lef
eft atrium
(c) Upper lateral wall of rig
ight atrium (d) Lower lateral wall of rig
ight atrium
226. Heart of cockroach has [HP PMT, 2005]
(a) 14 chambers (b) 13 chambers (c) 4 chambers (d) 3 chambers
227. Which ones have open circu rculatory system? [Kerala, 2005]
1. Ascidia 2. Cockroach 3. Earthworm 4. Prawn
5. Silver Fish 6. Snail 7. Squid
(a) 2, 4, 6 (b) 1, 2, 4, 6 (c) 3, 4, 5, 7 (d) 2, 4, 5, 6
228. What happens when the pacemaker
pa becomes non-functional? [Kerala, 2005]
(a) Only auricles contract rhythmically
rh
(b) Only ventricles contract ct rhythmically
(c) Cardiac muscles contracract in coordinated manner rhythmically
(d) Cardiac muscles do not ot undergo coordinated rhythmic movements
229. Which of the following substances, if introduced into the blood sstream, would cause
coagulation of blood at the e site of its introduction? [CBSE PMT, 2005]
(a) Prothrombin (b) Fibrinogen (c) Thromboplastin (d) Heparin
230. ‘Heart of heart’ is [BHU, 2005]
(a) SA node (b) AV node (c) Bundle of His (d) Purkinje fibres
231. Which leucocytes secrete bo both heparin and histamine? [Pb. PMT, 2005]
(a) Acidophils (b) Monocytes (c) Basophils (d) Neutrophils
232. Erythrocyte maturing factor or is [AMU, 2005]
(a) Folic acid (b) Cyanocobalamine (c) Vitamin B2 (d) Vitamin C
233. People living at sea level el have around 5 million RBCs per cubic millim llimetre of their blood
whereas those living at an altitude
a of 5400 metres have around 8 million.. This
T is because at high
altitude [CBSE PMT, 2006]
(a) People eat more nutritiv
itive food, therefore, more RBCs are formed
(b) People get pollution fre
free air to breathe and more oxygen is available
(c) Atmospheric O2 levell iis less and hence more RBCs are needed to o absorb the required
amount of O2 to survive
ve
(d) There is more UV radiat ation which enhances RBC production
234. The majority of CO2 producced by our body cells is transported to lungs [CBSE PMT, 2006]
(a) Attached to haemoglobi obin (b) Dissolved in the blood
(c) As carbonates (d) As bicarbonates
235. Which type of white blood od cells are concerned with the release of histam tamine and the natural
anticoagulant heparin? [AIPMT, 2008]
(a) Eosinophils (b) Monocytes (c) Neutrophils (d) Basophils
236. The most active phagocytic tic white blood cells are: [AIPMT, 2008]
(a) Eosinophils and lymphophocytes (b) Neutrophils and monoc ocytes
(c) Neutrophils and eosino ophils (d) Lymphocytes and macr crophages
237. In a standard ECG which one o of the following alphabets is the correctt representation
r of the
repective activity of the hum
uman heart? [AIPMT, 2009]
(a) P – depolarization of the
th atria (b) R – repolarisation of ven
entricles
(c) S – start of systole (d) T – end of diastole

227
LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

238. Compared to blood our lym mph has: [AIPMT, 2009]

(a) More RBCs and less WBCs BCs (b) No plasma
(c) Plasma without protein ins (d) More WBCs and no RBCs Cs
239. The letter T in T-lymphocyteyte refers to: [AIPMT, 2009]
(a) Thymus (b) Thyroid (c) Thalamus (d) Tonsil
240. If due to some injury the ch chordaetendinae of the tricuspid value of the human
hu heart is partially
non-functional, what will be the immediate effect? [AIPMT, 2010]
(a) The flow of blood into tthe pulmonary artery will be reduced
(b) The flow of blood into tthe aorta will be slowed down
(c) The ‘pacemaker’ will sto top working
(d) The blood will tend to fflow back into the left atrium
241. Given below are four statem ement (i-iv) regarding human blood circulatory system:
sy [AIPMT, 2010]
(i) Arteries are thick-walled
led and have narrow lumen as compared to veinss
(ii) Angina is acute chest papain when the blood circulation to the brain is reduced
re
(iii) Person with blood grou oup AB can donate blood to any person with any an blood group under
ABO system
(iv) Calcium ions play a very ry important role in blood clotting
Which two of the above sta tatements are correct?
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii) (c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iv)
242. ‘Bundle of His’ is a part of w
which one of the following organs in humans? [AIPMT, 2011]
(a) Brain (b) Heart (c) Kidney (d) Pancreas
243. Which one of the following g plasma proteins is involved in the coagulationn of
o blood?
[AIPMT, 2011]
(a) An albumin (b) Sereum amylase (c) A globulin (d) Fibrinogen
244. Arteries are best defined as the vessels which: [AIPMT, 2011]
(a) Supply oxygenated bloodblo to the different organs
(b) Carry blood away from the heart to different organs
(c) Break up into capillaries
ies which reunite to from a vein
(d) Carry blood from one vi visceral organ to another visceral organ
245. Which one of the following g statement is correct regarding blood pressure?
e? [AIPMT, 2011]
(a) 130/90 mmHg is consid idered high and requires treatment
(b) 100/55 mmHg is consid idered an ideal blood pressure
(c) 105/50 mmHg makes o one very active
(d) 190/110 mmHg may ha harm vital organs like brain and kidney
246. Given below is the ECG of a normal human. Which one of its com mponents is correctly
interpreted below? [AIPMT, 2011]

(a) Peak P – Initiation of lef

eft atrial contraction only
(b) Complex QRS-One com mplete pulse
(c) Peak T-Initiation of tota
tal cardiac contraction
(d) Peak P and Peak R toge ether – systolic and diastolic blood pressures

228
Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

247. The diagram given here is tthe standard ECG of a normal person. The P-wav
ave represents the
[NEET, 2013]

(a) beginning of the systoleole end of systole (b) end of systole

(c) contraction of both the e atria (d) initiation of the ventricu
icular contraction
248. Person with blood group AB is considered as universal recipient because h he has [AIPMT, 2014]
(a) both A and B antigenss on o RBC but no antibodies in the plasma
(b) both A and B antibodie ies in the plasma
(c) no antigen on RBC and d no antibody in the plasma
(d) both A and B antigenss in i the plasma but no antibodies
249. How do parasympathetic neuralne signals affect the working of the heart? [AIPMT, 2014]
(a) Reduce both heart rate te and cardiac output
(b) Heart rate is increased without
w affecting the cardiac output
(c) Both heart rate and card rdiac output increase
(d) Heart rate decreases butbu cardiac output increases
250. Which one of the following g animals has two separate circulatory pathways ys? [AIPMT, 2015]
(a) Whale (b) Shark (c) Frog (d) Lizard
251. Doctors use stethoscope to hear the sounds produced during each card rdiac cycle. The second
sound is heard when [AIPMT, 2015]
(a) AV node receives signal al from SA node
(b) AV valves open up
(c) Ventricular wall vibratete due to gushing in of blood from atria
(d) Semilunar valves close e down
d after the blood flows into vessels from ve entricles
252. Blood pressure in the mamm malian aorta is maximum during [AIPMMT, 2015; Cancelled]
(a) systole of the left ventri
tricle (b) diastole of the right atri
trium
(c) systole of the left atriumm (d) diastole of the right ven
entricle
253. Blood pressure in the pulmo monary artery is [NEET, 2016]
(a) more than that in the pulmonary
pu vein (b) less than that in the ven
enae cavae
(c) same as that in the aort rta (d) more than that in the carotid
ca
254. In mammals, which blood vvessel would normally carry largest amount of urea? u [NEET, 2016]
(a) Hepatic Vein (b) Hepatic Portal Vein (c) Renal Vein (d) Dorsal Aorta
255. Name the blood cells, wh hose reduction in number can cause clotting g disorder, leading to
excessive loss of blood from m the body. [NEET, 2016]
(a) Erythrocytes (b) Leucocytes (c) Neutrophils (d) Thrombocytes
256. Serum differs from blood in [NEET, 2016]
(a) lacking globulins (b) lacking albumins
(c) lacking clotting factors (d) lacking antibodies
257. Adult human RBCs are enu ucleate. Which of the following statement(s) is/ is/are most appropriate
explanation for this feature?
re? [NEET, 2017]
1. They do not need to repr eproduce
2. They are somatic cells
3. They do not metabolise se
4. All their internal spaceses is available for oxygen transport
(a) Only (1) (b) (1), (3) and (4) (c) (2) and (3) (d) Only (4)

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LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

258. The hepatic portal vein drai

ains blood to liver from [NEET, 2017]
(a) stomach (b) kidneys (c) intestine (d) heart
259. All the components of the he nodal tissue are autoexcitable. Why does the he SA node act as the
normal pacemaker? [NEET, 2019]
(a) SA node has the lowestt rrate of depolarisation.
(b) SA node is the only commponent to generate the threshold potential.
(c) Only SA node can conve ey the action potential to the other components ts.
(d) SA node has the highestst rate of depolarisation.
260. A specialised nodal tissuee embedded in the lower corner of the right aatrium, close to Atrio-
ventricular septum, delayss the spreading of impulses to heart apex for abo bout 0.1 sec. This delay
allows - [NEET, 2019]
(a) blood to enter aorta. (b) the ventricles to emptyy ccompletely.
(c) blood to enter pulmonarary arteries. (d) the atria to empty complpletely.

Excretion (Excreto
tory products and their elimination in animals)
261. Which one does not filter ou out from blood to Bowman’s capsule in glomerul ular ultrafiltration?
[RPMT, 2001]
(a) Amino acids (b) Polypeptide (c) Glucose (d) Fatty acids
262. As compared to efferent art rteriole, the afferent arteriole of kidney is [Tamil Nadu, 2001]
(a) Shorter and narrower (b) Longer and wider
(c) Longer and narrower (d) Shorter and wider
263. Excessive thirst leading to in
increased consumption of water is [Tamil Nadu, 2001]
(a) Glycaemia (b) Polyphagia (c) Polydipsia (d) Polyurea
264. In nephron, water absorptio
ption is maximum in [H
[Haryana PMT, 2001]
(a) Proximal convoluted tubule
tu (b) Loop of Henle
(c) Glomerulus (d) Distal convoluted tubul
ule
265. Choose the correct statemeent for biosynthesis of urea [Orissa PMT, 2002]
(a) Uric acid is starting mat
aterial for biosynthesis of urea
(b) Urea is synthesized insid
side lysosomes
(c) Urea cycle enzymes are re located inside mitochondria
(d) Urea is synthesized in kidney
k
266. Chief function of loop of Heenle is [DPMT, 2002]
(a) Absorption of water (b) Absorption of sugar
(c) Absorption of sodium (d) Secretion of ions
267. Urinary bladder is absent in [AMU, 2002]
(a) Aves (b) Reptiles (c) Amphibians (d) Mammal
268. Which one of the following g is metabolic waste of protein metabolism? [MP PMT, 2002]
(a) Urea, ammonia and cre reatinine (b) Urea, ammonia and CO O2
(c) Urea, ammonia and alan
lanine (d) Urea, nitrogen and O2
269. Excretion in cockroach occu
curs through [AIIMS, 2002]
(a) Nephridium (b) Parotid gland (c) Coxal glands (d) Malpighian tubules
270. Which one is false? [CET Chd., 2002]
(a) Nephrons perform excrcretion through filtration, reabsorption and secre
retion
(b) Tapeworm has excretorory flame cells
(c) Nephridia are accessory
ry excretory organs in Prawn
(d) Nephrons begin with Bo
Bowman’s capsule having glomerulus

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Pre-Foundation Course LIFE PROCESSES

271. An X-ray of lower abdomeen shows a shadow in the region of the uret eter suspected to be a
uretelic calculus. A possible
le clinical symptom would be [Karnataka, 2003]
(a) Active renal failure (b) Anuria and haematuria ia
(c) Motor aphasia (d) Chronic renal failure
272. Amount of blood filtered perpe minute in the kidney is [BV, 2003]
(a) 1200 ml (b) 1500 ml (c) 3000 ml (d) 4500 ml
273. Storage capacity of urinaryy bladder is [BV, 2003]
(a) 100–150 ml (b) 150–300 ml (c) 250–750 ml (d) 750–1000 ml
274. Which one does not enterr nephron?
n [Orissa PMT, 2003]
(a) Water (b) Glucose (c) Plasma proteins (d) Urea
275. Nephridia of earthworm peerform the same function as [JKCMEE, 2003]
(a) Gills of Prawn (b) Trachea of insects
(c) Flame cells of Planaria (d) Nematoblasts of Hydra ra
276. Accessory excretory human an organ is [Orissa PMT, 2003]
(a) Skin (b) Skin and liver
(c) Skin and lungs (d) Skin, lungs, liverand int
ntestine
277. Urine is concentrated in loo op of Henle in [Orissa PMT, 2003]
(a) Descending limb
(b) Thick ascending limb
(c) Area between ascendin ing limb and distal convoluted tubule
(d) Hairpin bend between nddescending and ascending limbs
278. A terrestrial animal must be able to [CBSE PMT, 2004]
(a) Actively pump salts out ut through the skin
(b) Excrete large amountss o of salts in urine
(c) Excrete large amountss o of water in urine
(d) Conserve water
279. If the diameter of the affere
erent renal arteriole is decreased and that of effefferent renal arteriole is
increased, the ultrafiltration
on will [APMEE, 2004]
(a) Be faster (b) Be slower
(c) Not take place (d) Take place with the samame speed
280. What is the main function of o Henle’s loop? [Pb. PMT, 2004]
(a) Conservation of water (b) Filtration of blood
(c) Passage of urine (d) Formation of urine
281. Kidney and ureter develop p ffrom [CPMT, 2004]
(a) Endoderm (b) Mesoderm
(c) Ectoderm and mesoder erm (d) Mesoderm and endode derm
282. Which have minimum conc ncentration of urea in blood? [H
[Haryana PMT, 2005]
(a) Renal arteries (b) Renal vein (c) Aortic arteries (d) Vena cava
283. Blood leaving liver and mov oving to heart will have more concentration of [CPMT, 2005]
(a) Bile (b) Urea (c) Glycogen (d) Amino acid
284. Excretory organs of flatworm rm Taenia are [JKCMEE, 2005]
(a) Nephridia (b) Flame cells (c) Malpighian tubules (d) Renette glands
285. Kidney are excretory organs ns in [Wardha, 2005]
(a) All chordates (b) Mammals only
(c) Mammals and amphibia bians only (d) Mammals, reptiles and d amphibians only

231
LIFE PROCESSES BIOLOGY

286. Voluntary response to diste tension of urinary bladder is [APMEE, 2005]

(a) Polyurea (b) Micturition (c) Diabetes mellitus (d) Menstruation
287. Excessive formation of uric ic acid may result in [HPPMT, 2005]
(a) Rheumatoid arthritis (b) Osteoarthritis
(c) Osteoporosis (d) Gout
288. Part of nephron impermeabl able to salt is [DPMT, 2005]
(a) Proximal convoluted tubule
tu (b) Distal convoluted tubul
ule
(c) Descending limb of loo op of Henle (d) Ascending limb of loopp of Henle
289. A person is undergoing prolongedpr fasting. His urine will be found tto contain abnormal
quantities of [CBSE PMT, 2005]
(a) Fats (b) Amino acids (c) Glucose (d) Ketones
290. Which one acts as artificiall kidney
k in haemodialysis? [Gujarat CET, 2006]
(a) Dialysing liquid (b) Bubble trap (c) Blood pump (d) Dialyser
291. Function of contractile vacu cuole in protozoan Amoeba is [BHU, 2006]
(a) Excretion (b) Osmoregulation (c) Respiration (d) Locomotion
292. Uric acid is the chief nitroge
genous component of the excretory products of: [AIPMT, 2009]
(a) Frog (b) Man (c) Earthworm (d) Cockroach
293. What will happen if the stre retch receptors of the urinary bladder wall are tototally removed?
[AIPMT, 2009]
(a) There will be no micturi rition
(b) Urine will not collect in the bladder
(c) Micturition will continu ue
(d) Urine will continue to collect
co normally in the bladder
294. Which one of the followin ing statement in regard to the excretion by tthe human kidney is
correct? [AIPMT, 2010]
(a) Ascending limb of Loop op of Henl is impermeable to electrolytes
(b) Descending limb of Loo oop of Henl is impermeable to water
(c) Distal convoluted tubul ule is incapable of reabsorbing HCO3
(d) Nearly 99 per cent of th the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed by the renall tubules
295. The principal nitrogenous e excretory compound in humans is synthesized: [AIPMT, 2010]
(a) in the liver, but eliminat ated mostly through kidneys
(b) in kidneys but eliminate ted mostly through liver
(c) in kidneys as well as elim liminated by kidneys
(d) in liver and also eliminaated by the same through bile
296. The part of nephron involve lved in active reabsorption of sodium is [NEET, 2016]
(a) distal convoluted tubul bule (b) proximal convoluted tubule tu
(c) Bowman’s capsule (d) descending limb of Hen enle’s loop
297. Which of the following state atements is correct? [NEET, 2017]
(a) The descending limb of loop of Henle is impermeable to water.
(b) The ascending limb off loop l of Henle is permeable to water.
(c) The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to electrolytes
(d) The ascending limb off loop l of Henle is impermeable to water
298. Match the following parts o of a nephron with their function: [NEET, 2019]
(A) Descending limb of Hen enle's loop (i) Reabsorption of salts only
(B) Proximal convoluted tubule tu (ii) Reabsorption of water only
(C) Ascending limb of Henl nle's loop (iii) Conditional reabsorption of sod odium ions and water
(D) Distal convoluted tubul ule (iv) Reabsorption of ions, water and nd organic nutrients
Select the correct option fro from the following:
(a) (A)-(i), (B)-(iii), (C)-(ii), (D)-(iv) (b) (A)-(ii), (B)-(iv), (C)-(i), (D)
D)-(iii)
(c) (A)-(i), (B)-(iv), (C)-(ii), (D)--(iii) (d) (A)-(iv), (B)-(i),(C)-(iii), (D)
D)-(ii)

232