KAMPALA UNIVERSITY

UNIT: SYSTEM SECURITY, ICT ETHICAL ISSUES &

EMMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

BY

ARON ISABIRYE
aronpnd@[Link]

0704-727677
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
COMPUTER SYSTEM SECURITY
Computer system is the ability of a system to protect information and system resources with regards to
confidentiality and integrity.

Computer security refers to all the processes and mechanisms by which computer-based equipment,
information and services are protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or destruction.
Computer security also includes protection from unplanned events and natural disasters.

Computer security is that branch of information technology which deals with the protection of data on a
network or a stand-alone desktop. As every organization is dependent on computers, the technology of
its security requires constant development.

1.1 Forms of Computer security

(a) Data security
Data security means protecting a database from destructive forces and the unwanted actions of
unauthorized users. The various forms of data security include: disk Encryption, backup, data masking
and data erasure.

(b) Physical security

Physical security is the protection of personnel, hardware, programs, networks and data from physical
circumstances and events that could cause serious losses or damage to an enterprise, agency, or
institution. This includes protection from fire, natural disasters, burglary, theft, vandalism, and
terrorism.

Physical security is often overlooked (and its importance underestimated) in favor of more technical
and dramatic issues such as hacking, viruses, Trojans, and spyware. However, breaches of physical
security can be carried out with little or no technical knowledge on the part of an attacker. Moreover,
accidents and natural disasters are a part of everyday life, and in the long term, are inevitable.

There are three main compounds to physical security.

 Obstacles can be placed in the way of potential attackers and sites can be hardened against
accidents and environmental disasters. Such measures can include multiple locks, fencing,
walls, fireproof safes, and water sprinklers.
 Surveillance and notification systems can be put in place, such as lighting, heat sensors, smoke
detectors, intrusion detectors, alarms, and cameras.
 Other methods can be implemented to apprehend attackers (preferably before any damage has
been done) and to recover quickly from accidents, fires, or natural disasters.
Top 10 Cyber Crime Prevention Tips
1. Use Strong Passwords
Use different user ID / password combinations for different accounts and avoid writing them down. Make
the passwords more complicated by combining letters, numbers, special characters (minimum 10
characters in total) and change them on a regular basis.
2. Secure your computer
Activate your firewall
Firewalls are the first line of cyber defence; they block connections to unknown or bogus sites and will
keep out some types of viruses and hackers.
Use anti-virus/malware software
Prevent viruses from infecting your computer by installing and regularly updating anti-virus software.
Block spyware attacks
Prevent spyware from infiltrating your computer by installing and updating anti-spyware software
3. Be Social-Media Savvy
Make sure your social networking profiles (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Youtube, MSN, etc.) are set to
private. Check your security settings. Be careful what information you post online. Once it is on the
Internet, it is there forever!
4. Secure your Mobile Devices
Be aware that your mobile device is vulnerable to viruses and hackers. Download applications from
trusted sources.
5. Install the latest operating system updates
Keep your applications and operating system (e.g. Windows, Mac, Linux) current with the latest system
updates. Turn on automatic updates to prevent potential attacks on older software.
6. Protect your Data
Use encryption for your most sensitive files such as tax returns or financial records, make regular back-
ups of all your important data, and store it in another location.
7. Secure your wireless network
Wi-Fi (wireless) networks at home are vulnerable to intrusion if they are not properly secured. Review
and modify default settings. Public Wi-Fi, a.k.a. ―Hot Spots‖, are also vulnerable. Avoid conducting
financial or corporate transactions on these networks.
8. Protect your e-identity
Be cautious when giving out personal information such as your name, address, phone number or financial
information on the Internet. Make sure that websites are secure (e.g. when making online purchases) or
that you‘ve enabled privacy settings (e.g. when accessing/using social networking sites).
9. Avoid being scammed
Always think before you click on a link or file of unknown origin. Don‘t feel pressured by any emails.
Check the source of the message. When in doubt, verify the source. Never reply to emails that ask you to
verify your information or confirm your user ID or password.
10. Call the right person for help
Don‘t panic! If you are a victim, if you encounter illegal Internet content (e.g. child exploitation) or if you
suspect a computer crime, identity theft or a commercial scam, report this to your local police. If you
need help with maintenance or software installation on your computer, consult with your service provider
or a certified computer technician
INTERNET AND NETWORK ATTACKS
THREATS IN NETWORK
Main aims of threats are to compromise confidentiality, integrity applied against data, software, hardware
by nature accidents, non-malicious humans and malicious attackers.
What Makes A Network Vulnerable?
 Anonymity
 Many Points of Attack
 Sharing
 Complexity of System

Hardware Security Threats

Even if the computer is not plugged into a network, a person can open its cabinet and gain access to the
hard drives, steal them and misuse or destroy the data saved on them or, damage the device altogether.
It is also necessary to remember that in case one dissembles his computer hardware, the risk of losing
coverage of warranty become becomes very high.

Protection
The security of computer hardware and its components is also necessary for the overall protection of
data. If a stand-alone system contains some important or classified information, it should be kept under
constant surveillance. Locking system for a desktop and a security chain for a laptop are basic security
devices for your machine. Certain disk locks are available in various sizes, which control the removal
of the CPU cover protecting internal components of the system. For example, you will find disk/tape
drive lock, computer case lock with cable and padlock, security cable, etc. a disk lock guards all the
internal access points located on the CPU and protects them.
Software Security
Computer networks are an integral part of any organization these days, as they facilitate of free flow of
data and services to the authorized users. However, such networks also pose a security threat in case the
data is classified and confidential, thus making network security a vital necessity.
As the data is available only for authorized users; it is possible for hackers to pretend to be one, by
providing the correct user name and password. Computer network security can be disrupted or
encroached in the following ways.
Denial of Service
Denial-of-service is meant to disable a computer or a network and can be executed with limited
resources. It is one of the most common forms of attacks by hackers and can effectively disable the
whole network of an organization.
Denial of service attack makes a computer resource unavailable to its intended user. To carry out this
kind of attack, hackers generally flood a network or the access routers with bogus traffic. They also
make attempts to disrupt connections between two machines and prevent individuals from accessing a
service.
Trojan Horse
Trojan horse is common and one of the most potential threats to computer security. They are malicious
and security-breaking programs, disguised as something which is considered as non-malicious by the
security software. They are a useful tool for hackers who try to break into private networks. Hackers
generally attach Trojan horse to a file, which triggers a virus or remotely controlled software, giving the
hacker complete control over the computer.
Viruses and Worms
Viruses and worms are well-know for their destructive nature and the property of replicating
themselves. They are basically pieces of computer program codes, which are written by hackers and
other computer geniuses.
Sniffing
Sniffing is the act of intercepting TCP/IP packets while they are getting transferred on a network. The
interception generally takes place through simple eavesdropping done by a hacker.
Eavesdropping is the act of secretly listening to the private conservation of others without their
consent. Eavesdropping can also be done over telephone lines (wiretapping), email, instant messaging,
and other methods of communication it is not considered eavesdropping.) VoIP communications
software is also vulnerable to electronic eavesdropping via malware infections such as Trojans.

Computer Virus
This is a piece of malicious software designed to infect a computer system. In other wards a computer
virus is a mini program that duplicates itself and attaches its replica to other programs and documents.

How a virus spreads

A virus gets into the computer system through any of the following ways:
Removable storage device which is contaminated (either Floppy disks, flash disks, memory
sticks, etc)
An E-mail attachment.
Down loading of content on the internet
As part of another program
Take a look at the following illustration for virus spreading from an infected system using a network or
removable storage media.
When a flash or memory card or any external storage device has been infected and moved, then
inserted into various computers, the virus code is executed first. The first code typically performs four
actions such as Replication, event watching, delivery and camouflage. There by infecting the new
machine
When an attachment to an Email is opened by the recipient, the virus infects the target system. This
virus may in turn attach itself to all the emails the newly infected system sends, which later infects all
other recipients of these Emails. By this a virus may spread to literally very many users in a very short
time.
Consider a situation where you download a document or anything from the internet containing virus
codes. This later infects your computer and also the storage media attached or slotted into this infected
machine.

Symptoms of a virus infection

Your system suddenly does not reboot or gives you unexpected error messages during start up.
You mysteriously loose access to a disk driver or other system resources because the virus has
changed the settings on a device to make it un useable.
They system mysteriously shuts itself down or starts itself up and there is a great deal of
 unanticipated disk activity.
The programs on your system will start to load slower. This happens as the virus is spreading to
other files in the system or is taking over system resources.
Program sizes change from the installed versions. This occurs because the virus is attaching
itself to those programs on your disk.
Your web browsers, word processing application or other software begins to exhibit unusual
operating characteristics. Screens or menus may change.
Unusual files appear on your hard driver or files start to disappear from your system. Many
viruses delete key files in your system to render it operate able.

Examples of viruses
Polymorphic Virus
This changes form in order to avoid detection. It may hide from the antivirus software or it will encrypt
itself to avoid detection (this mutation process). This process makes it hard for the antivirus to detect
common characteristics of the virus. For example the virus may change signature to avoid detection as
shown in the illustration below.
These kinds of viruses attack your system, displaying messages on your computer and deletes files on
your system.

Stealth virus
This type of virus disguises itself to avoid detection by the antivirus software. It may attach itself to the
boot sector of the hard driver. When programs run, the stealth virus redirects commands round itself to
avoid detection. An infected file may report a file size different from what is actually present to avoid
detection.
By attaching itself to the boot sector the stealth virus can run even before an opening system is loaded.

Retro virus
This attacks or bypasses the antivirus software installed on the computer. They can directly attack your
antivirus software thereby destroying the virus definition files. When this information is destroyed it
leaves you with a false sense of security. The retro virus directly attacks an antivirus program to create
by passes for the virus.

Trojan horse
These are malicious programs that enter a system or network under the disguise of another program. In
other words the Trojan horse may be installed as part of an installation process or as attachment.

Hacking
In the computer security context, a Hacker is someone who seeks and exploits weaknesses in a
computer system or computer network. Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as
profit, protest, or challenge.
A typical approach in an attack by a hacker on internet-connected system is:

(i) Network enumeration: Discovering information about the intended target.

(ii) Vulnerability analysis: Identifying potential ways of attack
(iii) Exploitation: Attempting to compromise the system by employing the vulnerabilities found
through the vulnerability analysis.
Hacking can be done in any of the following ways:
Vulnerability scanner
A vulnerability scanner is a tool used to quickly check computers on a network for know weaknesses.
Hackers also commonly use port scanners. These check to see which ports on a specified computer are
―open‖ or available to access the computer, and sometimes will detect what program or service is
listening on that port, and its version number. (Note that firewalls defend computers from intruders by
limiting access to ports/machines both inbound and outbound, but can still be circumvented.)

Password cracking
Password cracking is the process of recovering passwords from that has been stored in or transmitted
by a computer system. A common approach is to repeatedly try guesses for the password.

Packet sniffer
A packet sniffer is an application that captures data packets, which can be used to capture password and
other data in transit over the network.

Spoofing attack (phishing)

A spoofing attack involves one program, system or website successfully masquerading as another by
falsifying data and thereby being treated as a trusted system by a user or another program. The purpose
of this is usually to fool programs, system, or user into revealing confidential information, such as user
names and passwords, to the attacker.

Root kit
A root kit is designed to conceal the compromise of a computer‘s security, and can represent any of a
set of programs which work to subvert control of an operating system from its legitimate operators.
Usually, a root kit obscures its installation and attempt to prevent its removal through a subversion of
standard system security. Root kits may include replacement for system binaries so that it becomes
impossible for the legitimate user to detect the presence of the intruder on the system by looking at
process tables.

How denial of service attacks

A denial-of-service attack (DOS attack) is an attempt to make a machine or network resource
unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and target of a DOS
attack may vary, it generally consists of the effort of one or more people to temporarily or indefinitely
interrupt or suspend services of a host connected to the internet.

Perpetrators of DOS attack typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as
banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root name servers. The term is generally used relating to
computer networks, but is not limited to this field; for example, it is also used in reference to CPU
resource management.

One common method of attack involves saturating the target machine with external communications
requests, so much so that it cannot respond to legitimate traffic or responds so slowly as to be rendered
essentially unavailable. Such attacks usually lead to a server overload. In general terms, Dos attacks are
implemented by either forcing the targeted computer (s) to reset, or consuming its resources so that it
can no longer provide.
Its intended service or obstructing the communication media between the intended users and the victim
so that they can no longer communicate adequately

Consider a practical case described as follows: In a denial of service attack, the user sends several
authentication requests to the server, filling it up. All requests have false return addresses. So the server
can‘t find the user when it tries to send the authentication approval. The server waits, sometimes more
than a minute, before closing the connection. When it does close the connection, the attacker sends a
new batch of forged requests, and the process begins again-tying up the service indefinitely.
How backdoors are carried out
A backdoor in a computer system is a method of bypassing normal authentication, securing illegal
remote access to a computer, obtaining access to plaintext, and so on, while attempting to remain
undetected. The backdoor may take the forms of an installed program (e.g Back Orifice) or may subvert
the system through a root kit.

Many computer worms, such as Sobig and Mydoom, install a backdoor on the affected computer
(generally a PC on broadband running Microsoft Windows and Micro soft Outlook). Such backdoors
appear to be installed so that spammers can send junk e-mail from the infected machines.

How spoofing attacks

A spoofing attack is a situation in which one person or program successfully masquerades as another by
falsifying data and thereby gaining an illegitimate advantage.

Forms of spoofing
Caller ID spoofing
In public telephone networks, it has for a long while been possible to find out who is calling you by
looking at the Caller ID information that is transmitted with the call. There are technologies that
transmit this information on landlines, on cellphones and also with VoIP. Unfortunately, there are now
technologies (especially associated with VoIP) that allow callers to lie about their identities, and
present false names and numbers, which could of course be used as a tool to defraud or harass. Because
there are services and gateways that interconnect VoIP with other public networks, these false Caller
IDs can be transmitted to any phone on the planet, which makes the whole Caller ID information now
next to useless. Due to the distributed geographic nature of the internet, VoIP calls can be generated in
a different country to the receiver, which means that it is very difficult to have a legal framework to
control those who would use fake Caller IDs as part of a scam.

Voice Mail Spoofing

Spoofing technology enables someone to make it seem as though they are calling from your telephone
when they are not. The use of this technology for deceptive purpose is illegal.

In order to prevent unauthorized voicemail access from fraudulent activity such as caller ID spoofing,
you should continue to use the voicemail pass code established when you set up your account. If you
decide to skip using the voicemail pass code established when you set up your account, your voice mail
messages can be vulnerable to unauthorized access with spoofing.
In most cases, you can change a voicemail pass code or adjust settings to re-enable the use of a pass
code for retrieving messages, just access your voicemail and follow the prompts.
This information was found within the self-service feature of sprint zone in user‘s cell phone when
selecting the option, Device Tips and Tricks, then, Voice Mail & Device Security.

E-mail address spoofing

The sender information shown in e-mails (the ―From‖ field) can be spoofed easily. This technique is
commonly used by spammers to hide the origin of their e-mails and leads to problems such misdirected
bounces (i.e e-mail spam backscatter). E-mail address spoofing is done in quite the same way as writing
a forged return address using snail mail. As long as the letter fits the protocol, (i.e stamp, and postal
code) the SMTP protocol will send the message. It can be done using a mail server with telnet.

GPS Spoofing
A GPS spoofing attack attempts to deceive a GPS receiver by broadcasting a slightly more powerful
signal than received the GPS satellites, structured to resemble a set of normal GPS signals. These
spoofed signals, however, are modified in such a way as to cause the receiver to determine its position
to be somewhere other than where it actually is, specifically somewhere determined by the attacker.
Because GPS systems work by measuring the time it takes for a signal to travel from the satellite to the
receiver, a successful spoofing requires that the attacker know precisely where the target is so that the
spoofed signal can be structured with the proper signal delays. A GPS spoofing attack begins by
broadcasting a slightly more powerful signal that produces the correct position, and then slowly
deviates away towards the position desired by the spoofer, because moving too quickly will cause the
receiver to lose signal lock altogether, at which point the spoofer works only as a jammer

Data Protection in Computer Systems

Ways of protecting data
Save as you work. You should always save work as you go and learn how to use the auto-save
features in your application.
Make a back up. Before you make changes to critical data always make a duplicate.
Even if you just made a backup yesterday-make another
You can use the backup utility built into Windows ([Link]) to perform basic backups.
You can use Wizard Mode to simplify the process of creating and restoring backups or you can
configure the backup settings manually and you can scheduled backup jobs to be performed
automatically.
There are also numerous third-party backup programs that can offer more sophisticated options.
Whatever program you use, it‘s important to store a copy of your backup offsite in case of fire, tornado,
or other natural disaster that can destroy your backup tapes or discs along with the original data.

Keep a copy of your data offsite. Diligently backing up your data is good practice but keep a
copy of your data offsite. If there were a fire or other disaster your onsite data backup could be
lost as well.
Hardware based Mechanisms for Protecting Data
Software based security solutions encrypt the data to prevent data from being stolen. However, a
malicious program or a hacker may corrupt the data in order to make it unrecoverable, making the
system unusable. Hardware-based security solutions can prevent read and write access to data and
hence offers very strong protection against tampering and unauthorized access.

Hardware based or assisted computer security offers an alternative to software-only computer security.
Security tokens may be more secure due to the physical access required in order to be compromised
Access is enabled only when the token is connected and correct PIN is entered. Newer technologies in
hardware based security solve this problem offering fool proof security for data.

Working of Hardware based security. A hardware device allows a user to in, log out and to set
different privilege levels by doing manual actions. The device uses biometric technology to prevent
malicious users from logging in, logging out, and changing privilege levels. The current state of a user
of the device is read by controllers in peripheral devices such as hard disks. Illegal access by a
malicious user or a malicious program is interrupted based on the current state of a user by hard disk
and DVD controllers making illegal access to data impossible. Hardware based access control is more
secure than protection provided by the operating systems as operating systems are vulnerable to
malicious attacks by viruses and hackers. The data on hard disks can be corrupted after a malicious
access is obtained. With hardware based protection, software cannot manipulated the user privilege
levels, it is impossible for a hacker or a malicious program to gain access to secure data protected by
hardware or perform unauthorized privileged operations. The hardware protects the operating system
image and file system privileges from being tampered. Therefore, a completely secure system cab be
created using a combination of hardware based security and secure system administration policies.

Date Masking
Data masking of structured data is the process of obscuring (masking) specific data within a database
table or cell to ensure that data security is maintained and sensitive information is not exposed to
unauthorized personnel. This may include masking the data from users (for example so banking
customer representatives can only se the last 4 digit of a customers national identity number),
developers (who need real production data to test new software releases but should not be able to see
sensitive financial data), outsourcing vendors, etc.

Data Erasure
Data erasure is a method of software-based overwriting that completely destroys all electric data
residing on a herd drive or other digital media to ensure that no sensitive data is leaked when an asset is
retired or reused.
Refresh your archives. Years ago you archived your data to a zip drive. Now you decide to use
that as a baseline-are sure there is still a zip drive that can read your data? As technology
changes, it is a good idea to transfer your data to a current data storage standard so that you
aren‘t stuck with irretrievable data. IST provides a backup service.
Never open email attachments by habit. If your email reader has an option to automatically
open attachments you should disable that feature. Always run any attachments and downloaded
files through a virus scanner first.
 Never trust disks from other people. Anytime you receive a file on any type of media check it
first for viruses!
Update! Make sure you have the latest updates for your software-especially for your virus
checking software. Make it a habit to regularly check for updates and enable automatic updates
for software that offers that feature.
Protect your passwords. Your USERID is your identity. The key to your identity is your
password. Anytime your account accesses the network you are responsible for any activity from
account! Remember: change your password on a regular basis.
Protect your computer. Use a secure operating system which requires users to be
authenticated! As an added benefit these operating systems also restrict what individual users
can see and do on the system.
Perform regular maintenance. Learn how to use the utilities that diagnose your system for
problems. It is a good idea to run a disk-scanning program, defragment your hard drive, or
whatever else your system might need. These utilities can prevent little problems from
becoming big problems, and will keep your system running at top speed.
Use file-level and share-level security
To keep others out of your data, the first step is to set permissions on the data files and folders. If you
have data in network shares, you can set share permissions to control what user accounts can and
cannot access the files across the network. With Windows 2000/XP. This is done by clicking the
permissions button on the sharing tab of the file‘s or folder‘s properties sheet.

However, these share-level permissions won‘t apply to someone who is using the local computer on
which the data is stored. If you share the computer with someone else, you‘ll have to use file-level
permissions (also called NTFS permissions, because they‗re available only for files/folders stored on
NTFS-formatted partitions). File-level permissions are set using the Security tab on the properties sheet
and much more granular than share-level permissions.

In both cases, you can set permissions for either user accounts or groups, and you can allow or deny
various levels of access from read-only to full control.
Password-protect documents
Many productivity applications, such as Microsoft Office applications and Adobe Acrobat, will allow
you to set passwords on individual documents. To open the document, you must enter the password. To
password-protect a document in Microsoft Word 2003, go to Tools Options and click the Security tab.
You can require a password to open the file and / or to make changes to it. You can also set the type of
encryption to be used. Unfortunately, Microsoft‘s password protection is relatively easy to crack. There
are programs on the market designed to recover Office passwords, such as Elcomsoft‘s Advanced
Office Password Recovery (AOPR). This type of password protection, like a standard protection, like a
standard (non-deadbolt) lock on a door, will deter casual would-be intruders but can be fairly easily
circumvented by a determined intruder with the right tools. You can also use zipping software such as
WinZip or PKZip to compress and encrypt documents.
Use EFS encryption
Windows 2000, XP Pro, and Server 2003 support the Encrypting File System (EFS). You can use this
built-in certificate-based encryption method to protect individual files and folders stored on NTFS-
formatted partitions. Encrypting a file or folder is as easy as selecting a check box; just click the
Advanced button on the General tab of its properties sheet. Note that you can‘t use NTFS compression
at the time.

EFS use a combination of asymmetric and symmetric encryption, for both security and performance.
To encrypt files with EFS, a user must have an EFS certificate, which can be issued by a Windows
certification authority or self-signed if there is no CA on the network. EFS files can be opened by the
user whose account encrypted them or by a designated recovery agent. With Windows XP/2003, but
not Windows 2000, you can also designate other user accounts that are authorized to access your EFS-
encrypted files.

Note that EFS is for protecting data on the disk. If you send an EFS file across the network and
someone uses a sniffer to capture the data packets, they‘ll be able to read the data in the files.

Use disk encryption

There are many third-party products available that allow you to encrypt an entire disk. Whole disk
encryption locks down the entire contents of a disk drive/partition and is transparent to the user. Data is
automatically encrypted when it‘s written to the hard disk and automatically decrypted before being
loaded into memory. Some of these programs can create invisible containers inside a partition that act
like disk within a disk. Other users see only the data in the ―outer‖ disk.

Disk encryption products can be used to encrypt removable USB drives, flash drives, etc Some allow
creation of a master password along with secondary passwords with lower rights you can give to other
users. Examples include PGP Whole Disk Encryption and Drive Crypt, among many others.

Make use of a public key infrastructure

A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a system for managing public/private key pairs and digital
certificates. Because keys and certificates are issued by a trusted third party (a certification authority,
either an internal one installed on a certificate server on your network or a public one, such as
VeriSign), certificate-based security is stronger.

You can protect data you want to share with someone else by encrypting it with the public key of its
intended recipient, which is available to anyone. The only person who will be able to decrypt it is the
holder of the private key that corresponds to that public key.
Hide data with stenography
You can use a stenography program to hide data inside other data. For example, you could hide a text
message within a JPG graphics file or an MP3 music file, or even inside another text file (although the
letter is difficult because text files don‘t contain much redundant data that can be replaced with the
hidden message). Stenography does not encrypt the message so it‘s often used in conjunction with
encryption software. The data is encrypted first and then hidden inside another file with the
stenography software.

Some stenographic techniques require the exchange of a secret key and others use public/private key
cryptography. A popular example of stenography software is Steno Magic, a freeware download that
will encrypt messages and hide them in. TXT, WAV, or BMP files
 Protect data in transit with IP security
Your data can be captured while it‘s traveling over the network by a hacker with sniffer software (also
called network monitoring or protocol analysis software). To protect your data when it‘s transit, you
can use Internet Protocol Security (IPs)—but both the sending and receiving systems have to support it.
Windows 2000 and later Microsoft operating systems have built-in support for IPs. Applications don‘t
have to be aware of IPs because it operates at a lower level of the networking model.
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) is the protocol IPs uses to encrypt data for confidentiality. It can
operate in tunnel mode, for gateway-to-gateway protection, or in transport mode, for end-to-end
protection. To use IPs in Windows, you have to create an IPs policy and choose the authentication
method and IP filters it will use. IPs settings are configured through the properties sheet for the TCP/IP
protocol, on the Options tab of Advanced TCP/IP Settings.
Secure wireless transmissions
Data that you send over a wireless network is even more subject to interception than that sent over an
Ethernet network. Hackers don‘t need physical access to the network or its devices; anyone with a
wireless-enabled portable computer and a high gain antenna can capture data and/or get into the
network and access data stored there if the wireless access point isn‘t configured securely.

You should send or store data only on wireless networks that use encryption, preferably Wi-Fi
Protected Access (WPA), which is stronger than Wired Equivalent Protocol (WEP).
Use rights management to retain control
If you need to send data to others but are worried about protecting it leaves your own system, you can
use Windows Rights Management Services (RMS) to control what the recipients are able to do with it.
For instance, you can set rights so that the recipient can read the Word document you sent but can‘t
change, copy, or save it. You can prevent recipients from forwarding e-mail messages you send them
and can even set documents or messages to expire on a certain date/time so that the recipient can no
longer access them after that time.

To use RMS, you need a Windows Server 2003 server configured as an RMS server. Users need client
software or an Internet Explorer add-in to access the RMS-protected documents. Users who are
assigned rights also need to download a certificate from the RMS server.

1.1.4 Computer Crime

Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have
been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target.

Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information technology to gain an
illegal or an unauthorized access to a computer system with intent of damaging, deleting or altering
computer data. Computer crimes also include the activities such as electronic frauds, misuse of devices,
identity theft and data as well as system interference. Computer crimes may not necessarily involve
damage to physical property. They rather include the manipulation of confidential data and critical
information. Computer crimes involve activities involve the breach of human and information privacy,
as also the theft and illegal alteration of system critical information. The different types of computer
crimes have necessitated the introduction and use of newer and more effective security measures.

Net crime refers to criminal exploitation of the internet. Cybercrimes are defined as:
―Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to
internationally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim
directly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice boards
and groups) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)‖. Such crimes may threaten a nation‘s security and
financial health. Issues surrounding this type of crime has become high-profile, particularly those
surrounding cracking, copyright infringement, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also
problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.

Internationally, both government and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage,
financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Activity crossing international borders and involving the
interests of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyber warfare.

Forms of Computer crimes

Generally computer crimes are divided into two categories: crimes that target computers directly and
crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices.

Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include:

Computer viruses
Denial –of-services attacks
Malware (malicious code)
Crimes that computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:
Cyber stalking
Fraud and identity theft
Information warfare
Phishing scams

Computer Viruses
Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate themselves and harm the computer systems
on a network without the knowledge of the system users. Viruses spread to other computers through
network file system, through the network, Internet or by the means of removable devices like USB
drives and CDs. Computer viruses are after all, forms of malicious codes written with an aim to harm a
computer system and destroy information. Writing computer viruses is a criminal activity as virus
infections can crash computer systems, thereby destroying great amounts of critical data.
Spam
Spam, or the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes, is unlawful in some
jurisdictions. While anti-spam laws are relatively new, limits on unsolicited electronic communications
have existed for some time.
Hacking
The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is known as hacking.
The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in order to obtain an illegal access to
the information stored on the computer system is called hacking. The unauthorized revelation of
passwords with intent to gain an unauthorized access to the private communication of an organization
of a user is one of the widely known computer crimes. Another highly dangerous computer crime is the
hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false identify, thus remaining anonymous while
carrying out the criminal activities.

Fraud
Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from
doing something which causes loss. In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by:
Altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is
not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false
data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized process;
Altering, destroying, suppressing or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized
transactions: this is difficult to detect;
Altering or deleting stored data;
Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing code for
fraudulent purposes.
Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank fraud, identity theft,
extortion, and theft of classified information.

A variety of Internet scams target consumers direct.

Obscene or offensive content
The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, obscene or offensive
for a variety of reasons. In some instances these communications may be illegal. One area of internet
pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography.

Phishing
Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames, passwords and credit
card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. Phishing is carried out through emails or by luring
the users to enter personal information through fake websites. Criminals often use websites that have a
look and feel of some popular website, which makes the users feel safe to enter their details there.

Cyberstalking
The use of communication technology, mainly the internet, to torture other individuals is known as
cyberstalking. False accusations, transmission of threats and damage to data and equipment fall under
the class of cyberstalking activities. Cyberstalkers often target the users by means of chat rooms, online
forums and social networking websites to gather user information and harass the users on the basis of
the information gathered. Obscene emails, abusive phone calls and other such serious effects of
cyberstalking have made it a type of internet scams

Computer crime. Any comment that may be found derogatory or offensive is considered harassment.
Identity Theft
This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and obtaining other benefits
through the use of a false identity. It is the act of pretending to be someone else by using someone
else‘s own. Financial identity theft involves the use of s false identity to obtain goods and services and
a commercial identity theft is the using of someone else‘s business name or credit card details for
commercial purposes. Identity cloning is the use of another user‘s information to pose as a false user.
Illegal migration, terrorism and blackmail are often made possible by means of identity theft.

Drug trafficking
Drug traffickers are increasingly taking advantage of the internet to sell their illegal substances through
encrypted e-mail and other internet technology. Some drug traffickers arrange deals at internet cafes,
use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and swap recipes for amphetamines in
restricted-access chat rooms.

The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to the lack of face-to-face communication.
These virtual exchanges allow more intimidated individuals to more comfortably purchase illegal
drugs. The sketchy effects that are often associated with drug trades are severely minimized and the
filtering process that comes with physical interaction fades away.

Cyber terrorism
Government officials and information technology security specialists have documented a significant
increase in internet problems and server scans since early 2001. But there is a growing concern among
federal officials [who?] that such intrusions are part of an organized effort by cyber terrorists, foreign
intelligences services, or other groups to map potential security holes in critical systems. A cyber
terrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or organization to advance his or her
political or social objectives by laughing computer-based attack against computers, network, and the
information stored on them.

Cyber terrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of
cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda in the internet, that
there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyber terrorism. As well there are also
hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within networks, tending
to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for ruining peoples‘
lives, robberies, blackmailing etc.

Cyber extortion is a form of cyber terrorism in which a website, e-mail server, or computer system is
subjected to repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers, who demand money in
return for promising to stop the attacks.
2.0 PRIVACY AND ICT ETHICAL ISSUES
2.1 ICT Ethics and Society
Ethics is defined as a set of moral values or principles that govern the conduct of an individual or a
group.
As part of their formal training, most courses address ethnical issues common to their professions. Thus
there are ethical issues regarding the ICT industry.
IT security personnel often have access to confidential data and knowledge about individuals‘ and
companies‘ networks and systems that give them a great deal of power. That power can be abused,
either deliberately or inadvertently. But there are no standardized training requirements for hanging out
your shingle as an IT security consultant or in-house security specialist. Associations and organizations
for IT pros are beginning to address the ethnical side of the job, but again, there is no requirement for
IT security personnel to belong to those organizations.

Why are ethnical guidelines needed?

The education and training of IT professionals, including security specialists, usually focuses on
technical knowledge and skills. You learn how to perform tasks, but with little consideration of how
those abilities can be misused. In fact, many IT professionals approach their work with a hacker‘s
perspective: whatever you can do, you‘re entitles to do. (Note: In this article, we‘re using the word
hacker in the current common meaning, pertaining to ―black hat‖ hackers who use their skills to break
into systems and access data and programs without the permission of the owners. We‘re well aware that
the term originally referred to anyone with advanced programming skills, and that there are ―white hat
hackers‖ who use their skills to help companies and individuals protect against the black hats.)
In fact, many IT pros don‘t even realize that their jobs involve ethnical issues. Yet we make decisions
on a daily basis that raise ethnical questions.

What are the ethnical issues?

Plagiarism is the ―wrongful appropriation‖ and ―purloining and publication‖ of another
author‘s ―language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions,‖ and the representation of them as one‘s
own original work.
Plagiarism also means using someone intellectual property such as ideas and written works and claim
that ideas are yours. Students always do the plagiarism by copy and paste in order to accomplish their
assignments or thesis. However, there are also sites which provide and sell college-level papers for
those who are lazy and desperate students.

Detecting plagiarism even by detection tools can still be difficult, as plagiarism is often held to not only
by the mere copying of text, but also the presentation of another‘s ideas as one‘s own, regardless of the
specific words or constructs used to express that idea. However, many so- called plagiarism detection
services can only detect blatant word-for-word copies of text

Software piracy: Software piracy refers to act of duplicating and installing of a copy of
software into your computer without authorization. It may also refer to the unauthorized use or
distribution of software. This is because most computer software is copyright. Besides that, if
you purchase commercial software, you are purchasing a software license.
There are several reasons not to use pirate software.
(i) It‘s illegal and there is liability on your part.
(ii) Its risky. If the software is from an unauthorized source, you could be getting a program that is
not fully functional. Most software programs expire on a predetermined date which is unknown
to the user. You don‘t want an expired product.
(iii) There won‘t be another version of the software if there is no revenue to put back into
research and development. This revenue has made the product affordable to legitimate users.
(iv) It isn‘t ethical. Or we like to say ―doing the right thing when no one is looking.‖ Understand that
this product is introduced at a very affordable price and provides tremendous benefit to
paraprofessional (pre-dental/pre-optometry) students.
Ask yourself how you would feel if your life‘s work went without compensation? Start now and be an
ethical professional.

Copyright infringement
Copyright infringement is the unauthorized use of works under copyright, infringing the copyright
holder‘s ―exclusive rights‖ such as the right to reproduce, distribute, display or perform the copyrighted
work, spread the information contained within copyrighted works. Or to make derivative works. It
often refers to copying ―intellectual property‖ without written permission from the copyright holder,
which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work‘s creator.

An owner of a copyright owns a ―bundle‖ of rights. Each of these rights can be sold or assigned
separately. Copyright infringement occurs when one of those rights are used without the express
consent of the copyright owner. The rights owned by the owner of a copyright include:

The Right to Reproduce the Work: This is the right to reproduce, copy, duplicate or transcribe the
work in any fixed form. Copyright infringement would occur if someone other than the copyright
owner made a copy of the work and resold it.

The Right to Derivative Works. This is the right to modify the work to create a new work. A new
work that is based upon an existing work is a ―derivative work‖. Copyright infringement would occur
here if someone wrote a screenplay based on his favorite John Grisham book and sold or distributed the
screenplay, or if someone releases or remixes of one of your songs without your consent.

The Right to Distribution. This is simply the right to distribute the work to the public by sale, rental,
lease or lending. The music industry lawsuits targeting file-sharing web services claim that these
services violet the right to distribution held by record labels.

The Public Display Rights. This is the right to show a copy of the work directly to the public by
hanging up a copy of the work in a public place, displaying it on website, putting it on film or
transmitting it to the public in any other way. Copyright infringement occurs here if someone other than
the copyright holder offers a work for public display.
The Public Performance Right. This is the right to recite, play, dance, act or show the work at a
public place or to transmit it to the public. Copyright infringement would occur here if someone
decided to give performances of the musical ‗Oliver!‖ without obtaining permission from the owner.

Misuse
Use of harmful content such as porn, span may be referred to as misuse of ICTs. Things like spam,
malicious virus formation and installations, Id theft and hacking may be regarded as misuse of ICTs,
thus unethical.

Issue of Libel. Libel is the publication of a false statement that injuries one‘s business or
personal reputation. Nowadays, there are a lot of bloggers. Many people think that they are free
to say anything in their blogs.
Information accuracy
This is to ensure that the information is correct and without a mistake. Information accuracy is
important because the life of people depends on it like the medical information at the hospitals, so the
information must be accurate. Accuracy is important for the quality of information and it represents all
organization actions.

To get accurate information we need the right value. Thus if someone gave inaccurate information, it is
difficult to find who made the mistake. There are many reasons for inaccurate information. The most
common case is when the user enters a wrong a value. Also inaccurate information may accrue to
topographical mistake. To avoid these mistakes the organization must find who has the experience and
skills for data entry and it must use programs which discover the topographic mistake.

2.2 Intellectual Property

Intellectual Property (IP) means a company or person owns the rights to some kind of technology. For
example, a new method of making silicon chips.

The simple way to explain intellectual property is to understand that all great expressions and products
have an origin. A work of music, art, writing, film, or computer software belongs to its creators. Your
creative expressions and inventions have a lot of value and must be protected however; your ideas are
not considered intellectual property. Anyone who tries to copy or ―borrow‖ your work without
permission is profiting from your hard work your intellectual property-without ant credit to you.

IP is protected by having a patent which a legal instrument is declaring they have ownership over the
idea / technology. Owning the patent to a technology means that no one can copy the idea unless the
owner gives their permission. Patents are country specific, for example someone could apply for an
―UK‖ patent protects their rights in the UK but would not protect them in the USA-unless they apply
for a patent in that country as well. Getting a patent can be very expensive (lots of legal fees) and so the
idea has to be worthwhile in the first place.
The owner usually gives permission once a financial deal is agreed. For example the license holder‘ of
the patent will pay ‗Royalties‘ to the owner for every item sold.
With the growth of ICT use, an era of electronic commerce, the sale and exchange of copyrighted
material in digital format must be protected in order to ensure the continued investment and
development of the ICT sector. Digitalization of information results in new risks for holders of
copyright and related rights in their works, but also makes it potentially easier to administer and control
acts of exploitation by means of access control, identification and anti-copying devices. The EU has
adopted a copyright directive and jurisdictions such as the United States and Hong Kong (SAR) have
also passed legislation enforcing intellectual property laws in the ICT sector.

Many works of literature, film, music and art, as well as computer programs have been transferred into
digital format. One of the most basic rights granted under copyright is the right to control reproduction
under the Berne Convention, which covers reproduction in ―any manner or form.‖ This right is critical
to determining reproduction rights in e-commerce, as the transmission of a work presupposes the
uploading of that work into the memory of a computer or digital device, and when the work is
transmitted over networks, multiple copies are made in the memories of the network computers.

Intellectual Property is traditionally divided into two categories:

(i) Industrial Property which includes patents for inventions, trademarks and service marks, industrial
designs and Geographical Indications and
(ii) Copyright which covers literary and artistic works. The rights of performing artists, producers of
sound recordings and broadcasting organizations are known as the related rights or neighbouring
rights.

Intellectual property rights share the characteristics of other property rights – they can be owned, alienated
and licensed. They allow the creator or owner of a patent, trademark, or copyright etc. to benefit from his or
her own creative work. These rights have been recognized in several International Conventions on
Intellectual Property.