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Chapter Two
Gravitational fields
Define
Isaac Newton was trying to find a way to explain why objects fell
towards the centre of the Earth instead of simply staying put. He
began to link the falling of an apple, with the "falling" of the Moon
towards the Earth, and came up with his *law of gravitation. [Define
November 2009]
It states that:
[Two point masses attract each other with a force that is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their separation]

According to Newton, all masses create a gravitational

field in the space around them. This field gives rise to
a force on any object having mass placed in this field,
where the strength of the field decrease as the
separation between the two masses increases.
This is called the inverse square law Using the above, Newton
suggested that the force of attraction (F) between two masses m1 and
m2 separated by a distance r by the relation
m1 ×m2 m1 × m2 m1 m2
Fα 2
→ F=−G 1
F=−G 2
r r r

Where: G is a constant of proportionality known as the gravitational

constant Although, Newton wrote the equation for point masses we
can use this law with real objects by assuming that the mass of each
object is concentrated at its centre of mass. The distance r is measured
between the centers of mass.
The minus sign represents fact that the force is attractive. The
radial distance r is measured outwards from the attracting body; the
force F acts in the opposite direction, and so F is negative.
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Note

(1) The inverse square law is not a special condition for the
gravitational field, it is true for anything which is a point source, such
a light from a point or the amount of radiation emitted.
(2) Gravitational force is a mutual attraction .you attracts the earth
with the same force that the earth attracts you!
However, this force has more effect on you because you are much
lighter than the earth.
(3) G has a value of 6.67x10-11 N [Link] is a very small number!
So the gravitational forces are very weak unless we are looking at
the objects with enormous mass such as stars and planets.
(4) According to the inverse square law
 If the distance doubled, the force will be reduced to one-quarter
from its original value as the field lines are spread out over four times
the surface area
1
∴ 2× r → × F
4
1
3 ×r → × F
9 1
Fα 2
1 r
10 ×r → ×F
100

Care that:
F grav . α m1 ×m2

1 m1 m2
F grav . α 2
r
m1 × m2 √
F grav . α 2
r
r
m1 ×m2
F grav . = 1 m1 m2
r

m1 × m2 √
F grav . =−G 2
r
r

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−11
G=gras con . 6.67 ×10

θ=Attraction

We use the gravitational field lines to show the

gravitational field around an object of mass.
For spherical objects such as the Earth the field
is radial. All the field lines points towards the
centre of mass (the centre of the sphere)
At the surface; field lines are almost parallel & equally spaced so
gravitational field is uniform.
The field lines tell us
1. The direction of the field, this is the direction in which a mass in
the field would be pulled.
2. The spacing of the lines tells us about the strength of the field so
as we move away from the object (i.e. the Earth) the field lines get
further apart as the field gets weaker.

Many questions require you to equalize between Fc and Fg

F g=F c

2 2
mg=GmM /r =mv /r (v=Wr)

2 π /T

g=GM /r
2
V = √ (GM / R)
2
Gm M m v
2
=
Gm M r r
mg= 2

√
r GM
V=
r

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Acc= due to gravits

Gravitational field Strength (g)
Free fall Acc = 9.81m/s2
Fgm
[Define: May 2009]
m g

The gravitational field strength at a point is the force per unit mass
acting on a small mass placed at that point.
Suppose an attractive force (F) on a mass (m) caused by the mass (M)
Mm
∵ F=−G 2 * Fgrav = Fgrav-
r
F mM
∵ g= mg=−G 2
m r
M M
∵ g=−G 2
g=−G 2
r r

Where: F is the force acting on a mass m in the field The gravitational

field strength (g) is a vector quantity, it is measures in N Kg-1.
* The field strength g is not a constant; it depends on the mass M of
the body causing the field (i.e. Earth) and the distance r from the
center.
* The field strength g also has units ms-2 it is an acceleration and it is
also called (the acceleration of free fall)
* At the earth surface g=9.81 N Kg-1, in fact this value is varies
slightly from place to place.
Example (1)
Find the mass of the earth given that its radius is 6400 km and g at
the surface is 9.81 N kg-1. (G = 6.67 x 10-11 m2 kg-2).
Solution
3
r = 6400 km = 6400 x 10 m

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3 2
M g ×r 2 9.81 × ( 6400 ×10 ) 24
g=G 2 → M = = =6.02× 10 Kg (3 s . f .)
r G 6.67 ×10
−11

Example (2)
The radius of the earth is 6.4 x 106m, the gravitational field strength
at its surface is 9.81 N Kg-1 and mass of the earth is 6.0 x 1024kg.
(a) The radius of the moon’s orbit about the earth is 3.8 x 10 8m.
Calculate the strength of the Earth‘s gravitational field at this
distance.
(b) The mass of the moon is 7.4 x 10 22kg. calculate the gravitational
attraction between the earth and the moon.
(Gravitational constant G = 6.7 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2)
Solution
−11 24
M 6.7 × 10 ×6.0 ×10 −3 −1
(a) g=G 2
= =2.8× 10 NKg
8 2
r ( 3.8 ×10 )
Mm 22 −3 20
(b) F=G 2
=mg=7.4 ×10 ×2.8 ×10 =2.1 ×10 N
r

Example (3)
Find the gravitational field strength at the surface and 1.0x10-11m
above the surface of a star of radius 1.2 x 106m.
The mass of the star is 1.5 x 1030 kg and G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2.
Solution
(a) At the surface
−11 30
M 6.7 × 10 ×1.5 ×10 7 −1
g=G 2 = =6.9 ×10 NKg (2 s . f )
6 2
r ( 1.2× 10 )
(b) At 1.0x10-11m above the surface of a star of radius 1.2x106 m

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(Remember that r is always measured from the centre of the star)

−11 30
M 6.7 × 10 ×1.5 ×10 7 −1
g=G 2
= 2
=2.1 ×10 NKg (2 s . f )
r ( 1.2 ×10 6+ 1.0× 106 )

Gravitational Potential ( ϕ )
The gravitational potential at a point in a field is defined as the
work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the point.
E F ×d
ϕ= =
ϕ m m
GM −GM
g=- r
2
ϕ=
r GmM r
g r ϕ= 2
r m

Where, ϕ is the gravitational potential of the field. Ceneral mass

"Mass of the
The unit of (ϕ ) is J Kg-1 (Joules per kilogram)
body at the ccate
* The gravitational potential at a point tells us the potential energy of
each kilogram of mass at that point
* If you lift an object from the ground , its The gravitational potential
energy increases, as the work done on it increases
The object’s change in the potential energy = mg  h
Where, ∆ h is the change in its height
From this relation we concluded that
1.  = 0 when ∆ h = 0 (the object is on the surface o the Earth)
2. Increasing ∆ h (by lifting the object)
* As we lift an object (increasing ∆ h) the magnitude of ϕ increases
and eventually reaches zero at infinite distance this is cannot be
happened except the gravitational potential is always negative.
When an object moves from one point in a field to another it produces
a work against gravity leading to an energy change (E) or work done

∆E
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∆ϕ m
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∆ E=∆ ϕ × m

Where: ∆ E is the work done by the object (its unit is Joule)

M is the mass of the object.
 Is the change in gravitational potential (change in energy per kilogram)
The gravitational Potential (ϕ ) and field Strength (g) ∆ϕ
We can notice that the gradient
g ∆r
gradually decreases and the value of the
gradient at any point gives the value of
the gravitational field strength at that
distance
RE
−∆ ϕ
g=
∆r -2

-4
−GM E ner
ϕ= =−gr =
r m ϕ
−∆ ϕ
gradient=
∆r

Gravity
Acc = Force Energy
Acc = due to gravity mM GPE
Grav. Force – G r
2

9.8/m/s2 = mgh
wt (mg)

Gravity phenomena (No Value / No Unit)

Acceleration due to Grave. Force Gravitational

gravity potential energy
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G = 9.8 m/s2 Fg = Wt = mg. (gpe)

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Example (1)
Calculate the energy change when a rocket of mass 50000 Kg moves
from the surface to a height of 3.50x106 m above the Earth. The
Earth has a mass of 6.00 x1024 kg and a radius of 6.40 x 106m. (G =
6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 Kg-2)
Solution
At the surface of the Earth
−11 24
−GM −6.7 ×10 ×6.00 ×10 7 −1
ϕ 1= = 6
=−6.25× 10 JKg
r 6.40 ×10

* At a height of 3.50 x 106 m above the Earth

[The distance (r) from the centre of mass = (6.4 x 106 + 3.50 x 106) m]
−11 24
−GM −6.7 ×10 ×6.00 ×10 7 −1
ϕ 2= = =−4.04 × 10 JKg
r ( 6.40 ×10 +3.50 ×10 )
6 6

* The change in the potential

∴ ∆ ϕ =ϕ 2−ϕ 1

¿ (−4.04 ×107 ) −(−6.25 ×10 7 )

7
¿ 2.21 ×10 J (3 s . f )

* The total energy change ∆E

∆E = ∆ ϕ x m
7
¿ 2.21 ×10 ×50.000
12
¿ 1.11 ×10 J (3 s . f )

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Orbiting Under Gravity

Most planets in the solar system have orbits which are nearly circular.
Consider a planet of mass m in circular orbit about the sun of mass M.
if the radius of the orbit is r.
The gravitational Force FGrav between the sun and planet is
−GMm
∴ F grav= 2
r

From Newton‘s law of gravitation

The centripetal force Fcirc is Given By
2
−mv
∴ F∘= 2
r

Where v is the linear speed of the planet. During Circular Motion

F grav=F ∘
2
GM m m v
2
=
r r

And the speed of any object (Satellite) moving in a circular motion

could be calculated from the relation
2
∴V =
GM
r
⟹ V=
√ GM
r

(1)
From Equation (1) we can observe that
1. In order for a satellite to maintain a particular orbit, it must travel as
the correct speed v.
2. The mass of the satellite m has cancelled out. The implication of
this is that all satellites whatever their masses will travel at the same
speed v in a particular orbit.
3. The closer the satellite is to the Earth, the faster it must travel.
4. If it travels too slowly, it will fall down on Earth
5. If it travels too quickly, it moves into a higher orbit
6. Relation between velocity of body in orbit and its radius in that
exact same orbit:

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The period T of the planet in its orbit is the time required for the
planet to travel a distance2 πr . it is moving at speed v, so
Fg=Fc

2 2 2 2 2
G m M /r =mW r W =2 π /T ⟹ w =4 π /T
3 2 2
GM /r =4 π /T
Fg = Fc
2 2 3
T =4 π r /GM
mM 2
2 3
−G 2
=m w r
T αr r
2
Gm M 4π
2
=m 2 r
r T
Equation (2) States that 2 3
2 4π r
T =
For planets or satellites describing circular
orbits about the same
GM
central body, the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the
radius of the orbit.
This relation is known as Kepler‘s Third law of planetary motion.
In fact: the orbits of the planets are not circular but elliptical, this
fact recognized by Kepler., as it
Geostationary orbits (Earth view from geostationary satellite):
It is a special type o orbits in which the
satellite is positioned so that, the
satellite remains above a fixed point on
the Earth’s surface, all satellites on this
orbit have the same period of rotation as
the Earth (T = 24 Hours) and they are
widely used for telecommunications
transmissions and for television
broadcasting.

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Geostationary Satellite 1) At the equatorial plane.

2) Same time of rotation 24h.
3) Same rotation as earth (west →
east).
Example (1)
For a geostationary satellite, calculate:
(a) The height above the Earth surface,
(b) The speed in orbit.
(G = 6.67 x10-11 N kg-2, rEarth=6.38 x 106 m and MEarth= 5.98 x 1024 kg)
Solution
(a) The period of satellite is 24 hours=5.98 x 104s.
2
2 4π 3
∵T = r
GM
2
3 GMT
∵r = 2
4π
4 2
× 5.98× 10 × ( 8.64 × 10 )
−11 24
6.67 ×10
¿ 2
4×π
22 3
¿ 4.23 × 10 m

r =√ 4.23 ×1022=4.23× 107 m

3

The distance above the Earth’s surface is

7 6
∆ r =4.23 × 10 −6.4 × 10 r o =r e +h
7
¿ 3.59 ×10 m

(b) orbital radiu '

earth sradiu
height
2 πr
∵v=
T
7
2 π × 4.23 ×10 −1
∵v= =3070 ms
T

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Example (2)
Calculate the period of a satellite in orbit 500 Km above the Earth.
(G = 6.67 x 10-11 N kg-2, rEarth = 6.38 x 106 m and MEarth = 6 x 1024kg)
Solution
2
2 4π 3
∵T = r
GM

√[ ]
5 3
4 π ( 6.4 ×10 +5.0 × 10 )
2 6
∴T=
6.67 ×10−11 × 6.0 ×1024
3
¿ 5.69 ×10 S

In order to Make the orbit geostationary, we have to make the

period of the satellite equal to the period of the Earth (24 hrs) by
positioning the satellite far enough From the Earth.

Care that:
M
Fg = Fc
2
mM mV
M mg=−G 2
=
2
=mw r
r r
2
−G m M m V
2
=
r r

√ θ
GM
r
=V

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The analogy between Gravitational fields and Electric fields

Similarities Differences
the variation of force with Gravitational fields can only
distance follows the inverse produce
1 forces of attraction
square law Fα r 2
Electric fields can produce
attraction and repulsion
the potential is inversely Objects can be shielded from an
proportional with the distance electric field, but there is no way
1
ϕα to shield an object from a
r
gravitational
field
Both exert a force from a Electric fields only act upon
distance, with no contact charged masses.
Gravitational fields act upon all
masses

Care w M
grav . field=g= =−G 2 (N /Kg)
m r
energy −G M
grav . field=ϕ= = (J / Kg)
m r

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Remarks
(1) The Kinetic energy of a body is given by
1 2
K . E= mv
2
2 M
For a satellite V =G
r

Where M is the Mass of the Earth

(2) One Adventure of Launching satellites from the equator in the
direction of the rotation of the earth is getting some boost in
velocity from the earth rotation by orbiting in the same direction.
(3) When the total Energy of a satellite
Mm Mm Mm
E=−G +G =−G
r 2r 2r

(4) The Change in K. E of a satellite

1 2 1
∆ K . E= m∆ v = m ( v 1−v 2 )
2 2
2 2

(5) To determine the mass of a planet we assume that

(a) No energy dissipated due to friction with the atmosphere.
(b) Rockets must be outside atmosphere.
(c) It is not influenced by another planet.
(6) The satellite wouldn’t be in its geostationary orbit when its
period not equal 24hrs.
(7) For a point outside the sphere, the mass of the sphere may be
considered to be a point mass at its centre.

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(8) If the gravitational fields of 2 planets are in opposite directions,

there’s a point between them that has no field or the field strength in it
equals zero.
(9) Why near the Earth's surface g is approx. constant?
* Lines are radial
* Earth has a large radius
* Parallel lines so constant field strength
* So constant acceleration of free fall "g"
(10) Why for small changes in height near Earth's surface,
gravitational potential is approx. constant?
* Height change is much smaller than the Earth's radius
* ϴ α 1/R, R is approx. constant so ϴ approx. constant
(11) If speed is constant Fg = Fc → Most of the quer
If speed changing GPE = KE → M18/41/No1

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N.B:
If you encounter a question like this: [Nov 18 V1-V2, Q 1(a)(ii)]
Suggest why, for small changes in height near the Earth’s surface,
gravitational potential/gravitational field strength is approximately
constant.
You could answer with:
- Near Earth’s surface change in height is much smaller than the
radius OR height much less than radius. (1 mark)
- Gravitational potential is inversely proportional to the radius of the
Earth and radius is approximately constant (so potential
approximately constant). (1 -2 marks)
If you encounter a question like this: [Nov 18 V2, Q1 1(c)]
The planet has radius R equal to 3.4 × 103 km and mean density
4.0×103 kgm–3. Calculate the acceleration of free fall at a height R
above its surface.
You could answer by:
- Calculating the volume using the radius of the planet and then
calculating the mass of the planet using the newly found volume and
the given density (1mark). Then use mass found and radius given in
equation to calculate free fall/field strength.
M= ( 43 × π R ) × ρ
3

M =( × π × ( 3.4 × 10 × 10 ) )× 4 × 10 =6.6 ×10

4 3 3 3 3 23
3
2
g=GM / ( 2 R )

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−11 23
6.67 × 10 ×6.585 −2
g= =0.95 m W
6 2
( 2 ×3.4 ×10 )
If you encounter a question like this: [March 18 V2, Q 1(b)(ii)]
The Moon may be considered to be a uniform sphere that is isolated in
space.
It has radius 1.74 × 103 km and mass 7.35 × 1022 kg.
A satellite is in a circular orbit about the Moon at a height of 320km
above its surface. Calculate the time for the satellite to complete one
orbit of the Moon.
You could answer with:
Fc = Fg

2 GMm 2π 2 4π
m w r=
r
2 and w=
T
→ w=
T
2

2 3
2 4π r
T =
GM

2 ( 1.74 ×106 +320 × 103 ) × 4 π 2

T =
( 6.67 ×10−11 ×7.35 ×1022 )
2 7
T =7.04 ×10

T = 8400 s (8390)

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