DR / MOSTA

Chapter eleven
Alternating currents
If the polarity of an E.M.F changes with time, it is known as an alternating
E.M.F. The current that such an E.M.F causes to flow repeatedly changes
its direction and known as alternating current (A. C)
Some important definitions
Frequency (f): the number of cycles per second. The unit of frequency
is Hertz (Hz).
 Angular frequency (ω): this is equivalent to angular velocity in
circular motion. It is measured in rad s-1
In simple harmonic oscillation it has no direct physical meaning and it
is defined by:
ω=2 πf

The most commonly encountered type of alternating E.M.F varies

Sinusoidally with time like that generated by the mains (D.C) and
represented by
E=E0 sin ( ωt )
E=E0 sin ( 2 πft )

Where:
E = the value of the EMF at time t (V)
E0 = the peak value (the maximum value of E)
The corresponding alternating current I is given in terms of its
maximum value Io
I =I O sin ( ωt )
I =I O sin ( 2 πft )

NOTE THAT:
The current has the same frequency as the E.M.F that produces it.

1 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

Root mean square values

It is the alternating current flowing in a circuit that produces the same
heating effect as a direct current flowing in the same circuit.
In general, the effective value of an alternating current is equal to that
of the direct current, which results in the same expenditure of energy
under the same conditions.
The energy, W, supplied in time t, by an alternating current I flowing
through a resistance R is equal to the product of t and the average
value of I2R.
W =( I 2 R ) averaget

Since R is constant
W =( I 2) average R t

If the effective value of I is denoted by IRMS, then W is equal to the

energy supplied by a steady current of magnitude IRMS flowing
through a resistance for the time t.
W =( I 2) RMS RT
2
E 2 V
Power= =VI =I R=
t R
V rms 2 V 0 2
Ploss= =
R 2R

Effective value of AC: the value of the dc which produces the same
amount of heat E.
Thus, the effective value (Denoted by IRMS is the root mean square
value)

* DC → current (same direction) measure it using the ammeter

2 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

But AC → cut chye direct.

* Effective value of AC → value of dc which producu same amount

of heat E.
I
* I RMS=I eff = √max
2
=I max × 0.707

I max=I 0 sin 45 cos 45

∆φ
AV. = −N ∆t farady law

Inst. NBAW sin θ wt 2 πft

max NBAW =E 0

ind emf Einst. ¿ NBA w sin θ

Einst. ¿ Emax sinθ

effective
0.707 E0
(RMS )

E
Or √20

3 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

max E0 =NBA w2

∆φ
AV. −N
∆
BA

ind emf E Eff. Emax

=0.707 E0
√2
RMS

¿ Emax E 0

÷R→I
I inst . =I 0 sin θ wt
2 πf + ¿

180
Einst =E 0 sin θ wr

2 πf + ¿

180
Mean value of (I) in AC = zero
Mean value of (I) = half max.

4 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA
2
2 F eff
Ploss=V eff I eff =I eff R=
R
V0
V eff =V RMS = =V ×0.707
√2 0
I0
I eff =I RMS = =I 0 × 0.707
√2
2
V eff
Idea E loss = 2
V eff I eff t=I RT =
eff
R
t

V&I
Directly Inv.
V=IR P
V=
I
cons
(general) (Transformaion)

5 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

Sinusoidal A.C
It can be shown that:
I0
I RMS= =0.707 I 0
√2
And
E0
E RMS = =0.707 E0
√2
To be more accurate:
peakvalue
R . M . S .Value=
√2

The Transformer
A transformer changes the value of an alternating voltage. For an ideal
transformer, no energy is lost and so we can write
Secondary voltage Number of turns on the secondary coil
=
primary voltage Number of turns onthe primary coil

OR
V S Ns
=
V P NP

In an ideal transformer, no energy is lost

and so we can write:
Power primary=Power secondary

V P I P =V s I s

Now we can combine the two equations to give

V S IP Ns V 1 I2 N1
= = = =
V P Is N P V 2 I1 N2

6 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

Types of transformers
(1) Step up transformer:
Transformer increases the A.C voltage, because the secondary coil
has more turns than the primary coil
(2) Step down transformer:
Transformer decreases the A.C voltage, because the secondary coil
has fewer turns than the primary coil
Example (1)
A step-up transformer has a primary coil with 100 turns. It
transforms the mains voltage of 230V A.C to 11500 V A.C
a. How many turns must be there on the secondary coil?
b. When the current in the secondary coil is 0.10A, what is the
current in the primary coil?
Solution
V S NS
(a) =
V P NP
11500 N s
=
230 100
11500 ×100
Ns= =5000 turns
230
(b) the secondary voltage is 50 times the primary voltage and so the
th
1
secondary current must be of the primary current.
∴ Ip= 50 × 0.1=5A
50

70.000v

Step up Step down

N↑ N↓
V↑ High voltage tower V↓
I↓ I↑
Power Energy Hrinre To bev 220v
loss ↓ loss ↓ cables (cost suitable for the

7 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

↓) applione

Transformer F e −core → sheets → laminated (silicon)

To dec loss of flux linkage

To minimize the effect of the eddy current (tep dec)
Eddy cut
AC + Coil → eddy current (heat E↑)
Step up N↑ V↑ I↓

P p=P s

V P I P =V s I s

No loss
Eff = lost
If eff isn't 100% i.e 80%
P p ×80 %=P s
V p I p × 80 %=V s I s

8 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

Transmission of electrical current

The national grid transmits large amounts of electrical energy each second,
from the power stations to the consumers, often over large distances.
Since Power = Current x Voltage, we could use high voltage and
low current, because the low current minimizes the power loss.
Transformers at each end of the system step the voltage up (leaving
the power station) and then down (when it reaches the consumer).
Rectification
Alternating currents can be converted to direct currents (rectified), by
making use of devices which conduct appreciable amounts of current
in one direction only. Such devices are called Rectifiers and include
1. Thermo – ionic diodes
2. Semiconductor diodes

A rectifier is said to be forward-biased when it is connected to a

supply in such a way that it connects 2 positive or negative junctions.
If connected with one positive and one negative junction, the rectifier
is reversed-biased.
V0
V rms =
√2

9 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

V rms =V 0

Half wave rectification

The rectifier conducts only during one half of the cycle, which makes
X positive. Although the output is pulsating, it is unidirectional (direct
current)
Note: the output is exactly sinusoidal, only if the positive section of
the I- V curve of the rectifier is linear.

Full wave rectification

This can be achieved by using an arrangement of four rectifiers known
as a bridge rectifier.
The output for the bridge circuit will have its positive D.C voltage
terminal at the point where the cathode of diode 3 and diode 4 are
connected, and the negative point of the circuit will be where the
anode of diode 1 and diode 2 are connected. This point is also
grounded.
When A.C voltage is applied to the four-diode full-wave bridge rectifier,
the positive half of the sine wave will be rectified by diodes 1 and 3. The
negative half of the sine wave is rectified by diodes 2 and 4.

10 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

Smoothing
The pulsating output produced by both half wave and full wave
rectifiers can be made steadier (smoothed) by putting a suitable
capacitor in parallel with the load.
The smoothed outputs for the full-
wave situations are shown At a point
such as A, the P.D across the load
has just reached its maximum value.
If the capacitor were not present, the
PD would start to fall to zero along
the broken curve.
However, as soon as the P.D would
start to fall it becomes less than that
across the capacitor and the capacitor
starts to discharge through the load.
Since the charging process causing plate X to be positive, the
discharge drives current through the load in the same direction as it
flowed during charging.
If the time constant of the capacitor-load combination is suitably large,
the P.D across the load falls by only a small amount before it starts to
rise again
Half wave rect. Full wave rect.
Using one diode 4 diode

When one voltage removed When one voltage reversal

Pmax Pmax
Pmean= Pmean=
4 2

11 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

N. B
If you encounter a question like this: [June 16, Q11]
The variation with time t of the sinusoidal current I in a resistor of
resistance 450 Ω is shown in Fig. 11.1.

Use data from Fig. 11.1 to determine, for the time t = 0 to t = 30 ms,
(a) the frequency of the current,
(b) the mean current,
I0
(c) the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) current, I rms = =I × 0.707
√2 0
(d) the energy dissipated by the resistor. 2
E=I rms RT

12 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

You could answer with:

(a) T = (from graph) (1 mark)
Frequency (= 1 / T) = 67 Hz (1 mark)
(b) zero/0 (1 mark)
(c) Ir.m.s. = I0 / √ 2 (1 mark)
= 0.53 A (1 mark)
1
(d) energy = Ir.m.s.2 × R × t / 2 I0 2 × R × t

OR (1 mark)
Power = Ir.m.s.2 × R and energy = power × t
Energy = 0.532 × 450 × 30 × 10–3 (1 mark)
= 3.8 J (1 mark)
If you encounter a question like this: [June 17 V1, Q9(a)]
A simple transformer is illustrated in Fig. 9.1.

13 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL
 DR / MOSTA

(a) (i) State why the transformer has an iron core, rather than having
no core.
(ii) Explain why the core is laminated
You could answer with:
(i) core reduces loss of (magnetic) flux linkage/improves flux linkage
(1 mark)
(ii)
-reduces size of eddy currents in core (1 mark)
- so that heating of core is reduced (1 mark)
If you encounter a question like this: [June 17 V1, Q9(b)]
By reference to the action of a transformer, explain why the input to
the transformer is an alternating voltage, rather than a constant
voltage.
You could answer with:
- alternating voltage gives rise to changing magnetic flux in core (1
mark)
- changing flux links the secondary coil (1 mark)
- induced e.m.f. in secondary coil only when flux is changing/cut (1
mark)

14 PHYSICS
EDEXCEL