FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

MODULE 2: CONCRETE
Module Information
Module Overview
The module introduces the overview of concrete as one of the core building material in constriction.
Module Coverage
The of this module will be covered for a duration of 1 week/s with a assessment to be conducted and
submitted on the end of the module (see course outline schedule). The lecture is scheduled on the
Week 2 of the semester.
Module Objective
To introduce the overview of concrete as one of the core building material in constriction.
Module Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
 Define and understand concrete as building materials.
 Define and understand different uses, classification, terminologies, tools and equipment
relevant to concrete.
 Analyze and evaluate proper application of concrete as building material.
Module Interdependencies
This module serves as a supplement on other materials to be discussed such as masonry and steel.
Module Learning Materials
Under this module the students are provided with the following materials:
 Lecture Notes: Concrete
 Power Point presentation
 All learning materials can be found inside the Folder of Week 3
Additional Readings and Materials
Students may refer to the given lectures under this module. Nevertheless, should the student like to
study beyond the given materials, they may read the books listed in the References below. It is
important that they read the books on the Philippines to have a good background for the coming major
plate.
Module Assessment
To complete this module the student shall submit Formative Assessment 02. The details of the
assessments can be found in the Instruction of Course Assessment Manual.
References:
 Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2019). Fundamentals of building construction: Materials and Methods.
John Wiley & Sons.
 Levy, S. (2010). Construction Databook: Construction materials and equipment: Construction
Materials and Equipment. McGraw Hill Professional.
 Lyons, A. R. (2010). Materials for architects and builders. Routledge.
 FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

 Mehta, M., Scarborough, W., & Armpriest, D. (2013). Building construction: Principles,
Materials, and Systems. Prentice Hall.
 Schexnayder, C. J., & Doctor, C. M. F. (2021). Handbook for building construction. McGraw-Hill
Education.
 Spence, W. P., & Kultermann, E. (2016). Construction materials, methods and techniques.
Cengage Learning.
 Varghese, P. (2015). BUILDING MATERIALS. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
 Waldman, J. (2022). Tools: The Ultimate Guide - 500+ Tools. Chronicle Books.

Lecture
Introduction

Concrete is an ancient material of construction, first widely used during the Roman Empire, which
extended from about 20 B.C. to 200 A.D. The word concrete is derived from the Roman concretus,
meaning to grow together. Although this early mixture was made with lime, cement, and a volcanic ash
material called pozzolana, concrete today is a sophisticated material to which exotic constituents can be
added and, with computer-controlled batching, can produce a product capable of achieving 50,000 psi
compressive strength.
It is an artificial stone made out from the mixture of cement, sand (fine aggregates) , gravel (coarse
aggregate) and water or other inert materials and is the universal material of construction. According to
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, concrete is, after water, the most widely used
material on earth. Concrete is under CSI MasterFormat Division 03
History of Concrete as Building Materials

During 6500 BC the earliest recordings of concrete structures by the Nabataea traders in regions of Syria
and Jordan are found in the concrete floors, housing structures, and underground cisterns.

By 3000 BC, Egyptian and Chinese Kingdoms used gypsum mortars and mortars of lime in the pyramids
and Great Wall of China. The Great Pyramids at Giza used about 500,000 tons of mortar. A form of
cement was also used to build the Great Wall of China around this time.

In 600 BC Roman Civilization, the widely known civilization to use concrete, utilize the material
widespread. It is during the 200 BC, the Romans successfully implemented the use of concrete in the
majority of their construction. They used a mixture of volcanic ash, lime, and seawater to form the mix.
They then packed the mix into wooden forms, and once hardened, stacked the blocks like brick. After
more than 2,000 years, Roman concrete structures stand tall due to their ingredients colliding with Earth’s
natural chemistry.

During the Middle Ages the use of concrete as building material crept backwards as the fall of the Roman
Empire occurred. It was only during the 1414 that the discovery of manuscripts describing the material
was found resulting to the rekindled interest in building with concrete.

It wasn’t until 1793 that the technology took a big leap forward when John Smeaton discovered a more
modern method for producing hydraulic lime for cement. He used limestone containing clay that was fired
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INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

until it turned into clinker, which was then ground into powder. He used this material in the historic
rebuilding of the Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall, England.

Concrete Properties and Characteristic

 Compressive strength – The strength of concrete differs significantly for the same concrete
mix. It is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface without any crack or
deflection.
 Workability is one of the properties of concrete or mortar which determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted, and finished.
 Durability is the property of concrete by virtue of which it is able to withstand disintegration and
degradation
 Creep - The property of concrete where a structure experiences deformation due to a long-term
load
 Shrinkage is the property of concrete where a decrease in either length or volume of a material
takes place resulting from changes in moisture content or chemical changes. There are two types
of shrinkage: plastic shrinkage and dry shrinkage.
o Plastic shrinkage is the shrinkage of concrete due to absorption of water by aggregates,
evaporation of water, and bleeding.
o Drying shrinkage is the shrinkage taking place after the concrete has been set and
hardened.
Matters Affecting Concrete Strength
 Water-Cement Ratio  Curing
 Size and shape of aggregate and  Age
aggregate-cement ratio  Temperature
 Mixing, Placing and compaction
Concrete Proportioning and its Strength
The fundamental object in proportioning concrete or mortar mixes is the production of a durable material
of requisite strength, watertightness, and other essential properties at minimum cost. To achieve these
objectives, careful attention must be given to the selection of cement, aggregate, and water to the
following considerations:
1. The mix must be workable so that it can be placed and finished without undue labour.
2. Since cement is the most costly ingredient in the mix, the proportion used should be as small as
is consistent with the attainment of desired properties.
Cement in
Mixture Sand Gravel
Proportion bag Strength Application
class
40kg 50kg cu.m cu.m
Retaining walls, Concrete
Class AA 1:1½:3 12 9.5 0.5 1 4000 psi
underwater, Commercial
Structural Components (beams,
Class A 1:2:4 9.0 7.0 0.5 1 3500 psi
columns, slabs, footings)
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INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

Sidewalks, Driveways and simple

Class B 1:2½:5 7.5 6.0 0.5 1 3000 psi
residential structures
Plant boxes, (non critical areas /
Class C 1:3:6 6.0 5.0 0.5 1 2500 psi
non-structural load)

water-cement ratio - ratio between water and cement to make paste

high w-c ratio - fluid curing but less strength and surface qualities
Water–Cement (w-c) Ratio low w-c ratio - denser and stronger

If all conditions are held constant, the quality of the hardened concrete is determined by the water–
cement ratio. The water–cement ratio is the ratio by weight between the water and cement used to
make paste.
For common concrete applications, absolute water-cement ratios range from about 0.45 to 0.60 by
weight, meaning that the weight of the water in the mix does not exceed 45 to 60 percent of the weight
of the Portland cement.
Relatively high water-cement ratios are often favored by concrete workers because they produce a fluid
mixture that is easy to place in the forms, but the resulting concrete is likely to be deficient in strength
and surface qualities.
Lower water-cement ratios make concrete that is denser and strongr and that shrinks less during
curing. But unless air-entraining or water-reducing admixtures are included in a low water-cement ratio
mix to improve its workability, the concrete will not flow easily into the forms, it will have large voids, and
it will finish poorly. hydration - cement combines w/ water to crystalize and bind aggregates
heat of hydration - evaporates excess water from concrete
Process of concrete drying shrinkage - slight shrink of concrete during heat of hydration
During the hardening, or curing, of concrete, the cement combines chemically with water to form strong
crystals that bind the aggregates together, a process called hydration. During this process,
considerable heat, called heat of hydration, is given off, and, especially as excess water evaporates
from the concrete, the concrete shrinks slightly, a phenomenon referred to as drying shrinkage.
The curing process does not end abruptly unless it is artificially interrupted. Rather, it tapers off
gradually over long periods of time, though, for practical purposes, concrete is normally considered fully
cured after 28 days. If it is allowed to dry out at any point during this time period, the strength of the
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INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

resulting concrete will be reduced, and its surface hardness and durability are likely to be adversely
affected.
Concrete cast in formwork is protected from dehydration on most surfaces by the formwork, but the top
surfaces must be kept moist by repeatedly spraying or flooding with water, by covering with moisture-
resistant sheets of paper or film, or by spraying on a curing compound that seals the surface of the
concrete against loss of moisture.
Curing - takes up to 28 days,
Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various Ages if it dries at any point of the
time period, its strengths and
Age Strength percent durability is most likely
reduced
1 day 16%
3 days 40% Formworks - protects cement
from dehydration but the top
7 days 65% of surface must be kept most
14 days 90% by spraying
28 days 99%
Concrete Curing
Curing of concrete is one of the most important factors in concrete construction as it is related to
properties such as characteristic strength, permeability, durability, etc. Curing of concrete is done to avoid
the evaporation of the water from the concrete when it getting harden and maintaining the moisture in the
concrete surface for hydration reactions.
Further, it is required to maintain the temperature gradient, which is the drop of temperature per unit
length, and the temperature difference between the core and the surface. In general, temperature
differences and gradient is maintained around 20-25 celsius.
In addition, the rise of the core temperature needs to reduce and rising beyond the 70 celsius, increases
the risk of delayed ettringite formation. This reaction increases the internal volume and as a results
concrete gets cracking. Core temperature can reduce with an introduction of the internal cooling method.
Temperature of the concrete is maintained
11 Methods of Curing between 20-25 celsius. if its core temperature
rises above 70, it may result to cracking
1. Water Curing
The application of the water is done to avoid the drying of the concrete surface. Usually, this
method applies when the concrete is thinner. For example, in building construction, the curing of
the floor slab can be done with this method. There are two methods to apply the water on
concrete.
a. Ponding the concrete - Continuously wetting the concrete surface is done in the method
without allowing the concrete surface to dry. Most of the time, a kerb cast around the
slab helps to pond the relevant area. This method is very useful in dry environments as
it is not required to pour the water continuously. All the flat surfaces such as road
pavements, slabs, footpaths, etc can cure with this method easily.
b. Use sprinklers to spread water continuously - It is a must not allowing the concrete
surface getting dry due to evaporation. Continuous spraying the water at a constant rate
and uniformly is a must to fulfill the adequate curing. Sprinklers set at adequate spacing
will be used for this purpose.
2. Wet Covering
Wet curing is a method of maintaining the surface moisture level by placing materials like
hessian. Use of gunnery bae is also common. These covering shall place on the concrete surface
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INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

when it hardens enough to work to please covers. Further, the drying of the concrete surface
shall not be allowed due to any reason. The methods discussed under the title water curing can
only be used to cure the horizontal surfaces. Vertical surfaces in concrete columns, walls, etc.
can cure with this method as indicated in the following figure.
3. Formwork Curing
Formwork is the most effective curing agent in the construction. Especially in thick concretes
where the hydration temperature is high, this method is used. Further, not cost involved as the
cost is already covered under the formwork. The only concern is keeping the formwork a bit
longer than usual. In column curing, it is required to keep the formwork longer duration than the
usual. Therefore, there may be an additional cost to the project.
4. Membrane Curing
A membrane is formed on the concrete surface to avoid the evaporation of the moisture in the
concrete. Liquid form material is sprayed over the concrete surface, and it solidifies and forms a
membrane. These materials can apply with brushed or roller. There are two types of membranes.
a. Water-based
b. Oil-based
The water-based curing membranes are more popular than the oil base as it can be washed off
with water after the curing period, and additional effort is required to remove the oil-based
membranes. Acid-etched, sandblasting or chipping is required to remove the oil base
membranes.
5. Sheet Curing
There are three types of the sheet used for curing
a. Polythene sheets are sued to cover the concrete slabs and columns. The sheet can be
placed on the slab just after it gets hardened. Shelter areas are also created by using
the polythene in addition to applying them to the concrete. It allows the concrete to dry
naturally. Special occasions less evaporation and concrete not that structurally
important, this method can be used.
b. Plastic sheets also can be used to cover the concrete. These sheets are sued to cover
the flat surfaces. It is a watertight and less weight material. In addition, it is easy to
handle.
c. Curing blankets are used as protection to the newly placed concrete. It does the same
thing as another type of sheet. No evaporation of moisture from the concrete surface will
exist
6. Curing by Absorbing Heat – Pipe Water Cooling
Pipes are set inside the concrete to absorb the heat. Water is circulated in the concrete and it
absorbs the heat of in the [Link] for thick concrete and when a higher grade of
concrete is used for construction, this method is more suitable. It reduces the core temperature.
However, these methods shall be used with much care as the sudden change in the temperature
could cause cracking in the concrete.
7. Hot mixing Method
An increase in the temperature of the concrete is done to enhance the strength of the concrete.
Rising the temperature of the concrete up to 320C could enhance the strength by 10% – 20%.
Since the concrete gets the strength early, this method can use in a situation where it is required
early strength. Further, the formwork can be removed early with the gain of the strength of early.
There are several methods that can be sued to increase the temperature of the concrete
a. Increase the temperature of aggregate by heating
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INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

b. Heat the water

c. Inject steam into the concrete mix
8. Electrical Curing
Electrical current passes through the freshly laid concrete between two external fix electrodes.
The alternate current shall be passed through the concrete. A high current having low voltage
passing through the reinforcement net. Large electric blankets are utilized for the purpose of
heating the slab surfaces. It is highly adapted on cold climatic region
9. Infra-Red Curing
This is not a very common method and it is not widely used. Heating of the formwork or
circulating hot water inside the concrete is done.
10. Covering with Saw Dust, Sand or Soil
This method can be employed especially in thick concrete and that has not large surface area.
Concrete surface ins pile caps, pours of raft foundations, etc. can be covered with sand, sawdust,
and soil. A membrane is placed over the concrete and sand is placed above that. It controls the
variation of the surface concrete.
11. Natural Curing
Concrete is allowed to cure naturally without covering anything. In environments where the
evaporation is very less and no high heat to harm the concrete, concrete can be allowed to cure
naturally. This could mainly be done for structural elements that do not have much importance.
However, structurally important elements could not be cured using this method. Higher the rate
of the evaporation, the higher the risk of cracking of the concrete. Further, the variation of the
surface temperature with the time causes cracking of the concrete. In addition, the moisture
required for the hydration process is not adequate. It causes the reduction of the strength of the
concrete and the same can be identified as a factor affecting the durability of concrete
Concrete Tests
Slump Test
Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix
prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work.
Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during
construction. The slump test is the most simple workability test for concrete, involves low cost and
provides immediate results. Due to this fact, it has been widely used for workability tests since 1922.
Slump test procedures:
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1. Place the freshly mixed concrete inside the mould in 3 layers each rodded separately by 16 mm
rod 25 times.
2. Level the mould and lift at once.
3. Measure the slump action immediately by getting the difference in height between the height of
the mould and the top of the slumped concrete.
4. If the slump measure 10 cm., It is said to be a 10 cm. slump.
5. The degree of consistency of concrete could be ascertained on the following table:

Types of Concrete Slump Test

 True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The
measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after the cone
has been removed as shown in figure 3.
 Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which results in dry
mixes. This type of concrete is generally used for road construction.
 Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high, i.e. concrete
mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a slump test is not appropriate.
 Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to be
retested. If the shear slump persists, as may the case with harsh mixes, this is an indication of
lack of cohesion of the mix.

Compression Test
This type of test is the process applied in determining the strength of concrete; the procedures are as
follows:
 For a coarse aggregate not more than 5 cm. diameter, prepare a cylindrical specimen 15 cm.
diameter and 30 cm. long
 For a coarse aggregate more than 5 cm. diameter prepare a cylindrical specimen with a
diameter 3 times the maximum size of the aggregate and a height double its diameter.
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 The mould should be made of metal placed on a plane surface preferably 6 to 12 mm glass
plate.
 Place the fresh concrete inside the mould in 3 separate equal layers rodded separately with 16
mm rod 25 strokes.
 Level the surface with trowel and cover with a glass or plane steel.
 After 4 hours, cover the specimen with a thin layer of cement paste and cover again with the
planed metal or glass.
 After 24 hours, curing shall be made in a moist atmosphere at 21° C.
 Test should be done at 7 and 28 days period.
 Ascertain that both ends of the specimen are perfectly levelled.
 Specimen is placed under a testing machine; then a compressive load is applied until the
specimen fails. The load that makes the specimen fail is recorded.
 The recorded load divided by the cross sectional area of the cylinder gives the ultimate
compressive unit stress of the sample.

Mixing of Concrete
When it comes to mixing concrete, following three mixing methods are used for the production of effective
and good quality concrete.
 Hand Mixing of Concrete - Mixing concrete manually without a mixer machine
 Machine Mixing of Concrete - Mixing concrete with a mixer machine
 Ready Mix Concrete - Mixing in automatic or semi-automatic batching plant
Concrete Components
Concrete basic components consist of binder, aggregates and water with optional supplement of
admixture to alter its properties in various ways
The breakdown of the basic components are as follows:
 Binder
o Cement (Portland) – 7-15%
 Aggregates
o Coarse Aggregate (Gravel) - 24-30%
o Fine Aggregate (Sand) - 31-50%
 Water - 14-21%
Cement
Cement is an ingredient of concrete. It serves as the binder of aggregates when mixed with water.
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Portland cement is the most common type of cement used. It may be manufactured from any of several
raw materials, provided that they are combined to yield the necessary amounts of lime, iron, silica, and
alumina.
The most common raw rock types used in cement production are:
 Limestone (supplies the bulk of the lime)
 Clay, marl or shale (supplies the bulk of the silica, alumina and ferric oxide)
 Other supplementary materials such as sand, fly ash/pulverised fuel ash (PFA), or ironstone to
achieve the desired bulk composition
White Portland cement is used for architectural applications to produce concrete that is lighter and more
uniform in color or, when combined with other coloring agents, to enhance the appearance of integrally
colored concrete.
Manufacturing Process of Portland Cement
The manufacture of portland cement begins with quarrying limestone, which is later crushed to
approximately 5/8 in. size particles. Crushed limestone and other raw materials (clay, sand, and iron ore)
are stored in silos for processing as needed.
The raw materials are mixed together in required proportions and ground to a fine powder in a grinding
mill. Powerful fans draw the powder from the grinding mill into a dust collector, and from there it is taken
to storage silos. From the silos, the powder goes into a rotating, or rotary, kiln. The rotary kiln—a huge
steel cylinder lined inside with refractory bricks—is at the heart of the manufacturing process. In the initial
section of the kiln, where the temperature is around 1,800°F (1,000°C), calcium carbonate is converted
to calcium oxide, similar to the manufacturing of lime. The discharge of carbon dioxide is, therefore, a
major environmental pollutant in the neighborhood of a portland cement plant.
Toward the far end, where the temperature reaches approximately 3,400°F (1,900°C), calcium oxide
reacts with other raw materials to form complex calcium compounds. Materials become partially molten
and coalesce into approximately 1-in.-size nodules called clinkers, The clinker is cooled and stored in
silos.
In the final manufacturing stage, a small quantity of gypsum is added to the clinkers to control the setting
properties of portland cement. Clinkers and gypsum are ground and blended into a very fine powder,
which is considered portland cement.
Types of Portland Cement
ASTM* C150 – is the Standard Specification for Portland Cement
 Type I: Common/General Purpose - used for general construction, when not significant contact
with soils or groundwater is expected.
 Type II: Moderate Sulfate Resistance - for concrete in contact with soil or groundwater and for
large structures that may be subject to high temperatures.
 Type III: High Early Strength - develops significant compressive strength in ~7 days (same as 28
day strength for Types I and II). Often used when laying concrete in cold weather.
 Type IV: Low Heat of Hydration - low heat of hydration as concrete strengthens. Often used for
dams and massive structures where the heat emitted by curing concrete may raise the
temperature of the concrete to damaging levels
 Type V: Sulfate Resistant - prevents sulfate attack in highly alkaline soil or seawater.
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ASTM C595 – Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements

 Type IS – Portland blast-furnace slag cement – up to 95% slag permitted
 Type IP – Portland-pozzolan cement – up to 40% pozzolan permitted
 Type IL – Portland-limestone cement – up to 15% limestone permitted
 Type IT – Ternary blended cement – up to 70% of pozzolan + limestone + slag, with pozzolan
being no more than 40% and limestone no more than 15%
Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)
Various mineral products, called supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), may be added to
concrete mixtures as a substitute for some portion of the Portland cement to achieve a range of benefits.
Supplementary cementitious materials are classified as either pozzolans or hydraulic cements.
Supplementary cementitious materials may be added to Portland cement during the cement
manufacturing process, in which case the resulting product is called a blended cement, or they may be
added to the concrete mix at the batch plant.
Pozzolans are materials that react with the calcium hydroxide in wet concrete to form cementing
compounds. They include:
 Fly ash, a fine powder that is a waste product from coal-fired power plants, increases concrete
strength, decreases permeability, increases sulfate resistance, reduces temperature rise during
curing, reduces mixing water, and improves pumpability and workability of concrete. Fly ash also
reduces concrete drying shrinkage.
 Silica fume, also known as microsilica, is a powder that is approximately 100 times finer than
portland cement, consisting mostly of silicon dioxide. When added to a concrete mix, it produces
extremely high-strength concrete that also has very low permeability.
 Natural pozzolans, mostly derived from shales or clays, are used for purposes such as reducing
the internal temperature of curing concrete, reducing the reactivity of concrete with aggregates
containing sulfates, or improving the workability of concrete. High reactivity metakaolin is a
unique white-colored natural pozzolan that enhances the brilliance of white or colored concrete
while also improving the material’s workability, strength, and density.
Blast furnace slag (also called slag cement), a byproduct of iron manufacture, is a hydraulic cement,
meaning that, like portland cement, it reacts directly with water to form a cementitious compound. It may
be added to concrete mixes to improve workability, increase strength, reduce permeability, reduce
temperature rise during curing, and improve sulfate resistance.

Aggregates
A concrete aggregate is graded for size by passing a sample of it through a standard assortment of sieves
with diminishing mesh spacings, then weighing the percentage of material that passes through each
sieve. This test makes it possible to compare the particle size distribution of an actual aggregate with that
of an ideal aggregate.
Size of aggregate is also significant because the largest particle in a concrete mix must be small enough
to pass easily between the most closely spaced reinforcing bars and to fit easily into the formwork. In
general, the maximum aggregate size should not be greater than three fourths of the clear spacing
between bars or one-third the depth of a slab.
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Coarse-grained aggregates
will not pass through a sieve with 4.75 mm openings. Those particles that are predominantly
retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve and will pass through 3-inch screen. The coarser the
aggregate, the more economical the mix. Larger pieces offer less surface area of the particles
than an equivalent volume of small pieces. Use of the largest permissible maximum size of
coarse aggregate permits a reduction in cement and water requirements.
Using aggregates larger than the maximum size of coarse aggregates permitted can result in
interlock and form arches or obstructions within a concrete form. That allows the area below to
become a void, or at best, to become filled with finer particles of sand and cement only and
results in a weakened area.
Fine Aggregate
The other type of aggregates are those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve, almost
entirely passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, and predominantly retained on the 75 µm (No. 200)
sieve For increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the fine
aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in
the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.
The removal of coarse aggregate in the mixture of concrete creates mortar.
Mortar
Mortar may be defined as a paste (capable of setting and hardening) obtained by adding water to a
mixture of fine aggregates such as sand and binding material Some of the important uses of mortars are
as follows:
 In brick and stone masonry—it is used in the vertical joints and is spread over each layer to give
bed and a binding medium for successive layers of masonry.
 In plastering and pointing—to cover exposed walls and joints to protect against weathering
besides better appearance.
Mortar Classification
 Based on Bulk Density
o Heavy weight >1500 kg/m3 - Heavy quartz or sand
o Light weight <1500 kg/m3 - Light porous sand from pumice, tuffa, slags, etc.
 Based on Binding Material
o Cement Mortars - prepared from Portland cement or its varieties, sand and water
o Lime Mortars - mixture of air hardening lime or hydraulic lime, sand and water.
o Gypsum Mortars - prepared from gypsums or anhydride binding materials
o Mud Mortars - prepared from clay nodules and are used in construction of houses for
poor and temporary construction works
o Composite Mortars - may be surkhi-motar (surkhi, lime and water), lime-surkhi-sand
mortar, cement-lime mortar and cement-clay mortar
 Based on Application
o Brick Laying Mortar
o Finishing Mortar
o Special Mortar
Cement mortar
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Cement mortar can be prepared by mixing cement, sand and water in desired proportions. Portland
cement and blast furnace slag cement form excellent mortars for walls built with bricks, stones and large
blocks.

Plastering of concrete surface

It is the application of lean mortar to enhance the appearance of the surface. Plastering Procedure on
Concrete Surface:
 Preparation of Concrete Surface
Prior to the plastering work, the surface of the concrete to be plastered is to be cleaned from
peeling paint, flaking bits of old plaster and should be free from paint, oil, and dust so that the
plaster can bond properly.
 Treating with Slurry
The texture of the concrete wall must be rough enough to hold the plaster. To achieve this, a
slurry is applied on the concrete surface. Slurry or dash is prepared by mixing 1 part cement to
1 and 1/2 parts coarse sand with the quantity of water sufficient to obtain a runny consistency.
 Mixing of Plaster
A suitable amount of fine aggregate (sand), cement and water are mixed to obtain a required
consistency of plaster for the desired work. The prepared plaster must be used within two hours.
 Apply the Plaster
A base coat of plaster is applied over the layer of dash with a steel trowel. The layer should be
in the range of 10 to 15 mm thick. Apply it in small strokes, making sure it is level and uniform.
Curing of Plaster
 Once the plaster is hard and set, curing must be started and continued till 7 days. After the
plastered concrete walls have dried, you can paint them or apply wallpaper.
Plastering Coats

 A scratch coat is a rough initial layer. You

create scratch marks on it to create a base for
the final layer to bond to, leading to a stronger
wall covering
 Brown coat: The second rough coat is made
of the same mixture and is called the “brown
coat.” The brown coat is applied directly to the
scratch coat, also at a 3/8-inch thickness, but left
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unscored. The sand provides a rough texture that gives the light, 1/8-inch finish coat a surface
to grip onto.
 Finish coat: The third and final coat is an application of lime putty, which gives plaster walls their
smooth, hard, shiny finish.
Types of Plasters Used in Plastering Work
1. Gypsum Plaster
Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4·2H2O). It is
generally found in the form of rock and is white. Gypsum plaster is a paste formed by mixing the
gypsum powder and water in a suitable proportion. No sand is used in gypsum plaster. Only
mixing of gypsum powder and water is done to prepare gypsum plaster. This plaster is only used
for interior plastering work.
2. Lime Plaster
When lime is mixed with the sand in the presence of the proper quantity of water, it is called lime
mortar/ lime plaster, and the process of covering the surface of the walls, slabs, and columns by
using lime plaster is called lime plastering. Plastering may be single-coated or multi-coated. The
proportion of lime and sand for lime plastering is generally taken as 1:3 to 1:4. This plastering is
commonly used for interior works rather than the exterior.
3. Cement Plaster
When cement and sand are mixed with the proper quantity of water, cement plaster is formed,
and the process of covering the surfaces with cement plaster is called cement plastering.
4. Mud Plaster
This plaster is prepared by mixing an adequate percentage of clay and sand content. A small
amount of cow dunk is added to this plaster to receive a better surface. This plaster is
environmentally friendly, and repairing work is easy and inexpensive.
Admixtures
Ingredients other than cement and other cementitious materials, aggregates, and water, broadly referred
to as admixtures, are often added to concrete to alter its properties in various ways.
Types of Admixtures
 Air-entraining admixtures
Increase the workability of the wet concrete, reduce freeze-thaw damage, and, when used in
larger amounts, create very lightweight nonstructural concretes with thermal insulating
properties.
 Water-reducing admixtures
are used to obtain specific concrete strength using lower cement content. Lower cement contents
result in lower CO2 emissions and energy usage per volume of concrete produced.
 High-range water-reducing admixtures (Superplasticizer)
are organic compounds that transform a stiff concrete mix into one that flows freely into the forms.
They are used either to facilitate placement of concrete under difficult circumstances or to reduce
the water content of a concrete mix in order to increase its strength.
 Accelerating admixtures
cause concrete to cure more rapidly. Calcium chloride could be named as the most common
accelerator component; however, it could promote corrosion activity of steel reinforcement.
Nonetheless, concrete best practices, such as proper consolidation, adequate cover, and proper
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concrete mix design could prevent these corrosion issues. Accelerating admixtures are
especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.
 Retarding Admixture
slow its curing to allow more time for working with the wet concrete These types of concrete
admixtures are commonly used to reduce the effect of high temperatures that could produce a
faster initial setting of concrete
 Shrinkage-reducing admixtures
are added to concrete during the initial mixing. This type of admixture could reduce early and
long-term drying shrinkage. It can be used in situations where shrinkage cracking could lead to
durability problems or where large numbers of shrinkage joints are undesirable for economic or
technical reasons. Shrinkage-reducing admixtures can, in some cases, reduce strength
development both at early and later ages.
 Corrosion inhibitors
fall into the specialty admixture category and are used to slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in
concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can significantly reduce maintenance costs of reinforced concrete
structures throughout a typical service life of 30 – 40 years. The admixtures have little effect on
strength at later ages but may accelerate early strength development.
 Freeze protection admixtures
Allow concrete to cure satisfactorily at temperatures as low as 20 degrees Fahrenheit (7oC).
 Extended set-control admixtures
May be used to delay the curing reaction in concrete for any period up to several days. They
include two components: The stabilizer component, added at the time of initial mixing, defers the
onset of curing indefinitely; the activator component, added when desired, reinitiates the curing
process.
 Coloring agents
are dyes and pigments used to alter and control the color of concrete for building components
whose appearance is important.
Concrete as Finishing Material
Visual Concrete
The production of visual concrete, whether precast or in situ, requires not only a high standard of quality
control in manufacture, but also careful consideration to the correct specification and detailing of the
material to ensure a quality finish which weathers appropriately. The appearance of visual concrete is
affected by four key factors:
 the composition of the concrete mix;
 the formwork used;
 any surface treatment after casting;
 the quality of workmanship.
Concrete Finishes
 Smooth Finishes
In direct as-cast concrete, the surface texture and water absorbancy of the formwork or any
formwork lining directly determine the final exposed fairfaced finish.
o off-the-form finishes
o blow-holes
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 Textured Finishes
A variety of textured finishes can be achieved by the use of rough-sawn boards as formwork.
The grain effect can be enhanced by abrasive blasting, and a three-dimensional effect can be
achieved by using variations in board thickness.
Plastic materials, such as glassfibre reinforced polyester (GRP), vacuum-formed thermoplastic
sheeting, neoprene rubber and polystyrene, may be used as formwork linings to give different
pattern effect
 Uniform Concrete Finishes
If a textured finish is required on an unformed surface such as a floor slab it is usually applied
immediately after placing the concrete. Standard finishes to freshly placed concrete are tamping
and brushing to create the required texture. Alternatively, a pattern such as herring bone
brickwork or cobbles can be rolled onto the surface. Manual or machine floating produces a
smooth surface, although usually with some float marks. Process are called:
o Stamped Concrete
o Concrete Stencil
 Ribbed and Profile Finishes
Ribbed concrete is typically cast in situ against vertical timber battens fixed to a plywood backing.
In order to remove the formwork without damage to the cured concrete, the battens must be
splayed and smooth.
 Abraded, Acid-etched and polished finishes
Light abrasion with sandpaper may be applied to in situ or precast concrete. Acid etching is
normally limited to precast concrete due to the hazards associated with the use of acids on site.
Both techniques remove the surface laitance (cement-rich surface layer) to create a more stone-
like finish with some exposure of the aggregate. Polishing with carborundum abrasives to remove
2–3 mm of the surface produces a hard, shiny finish, imparting full colour brightness to the
aggregate. It is, however, a slow and therefore expensive process.
 Exposed aggregate finishes
The exposure of the coarse aggregate in concrete, by removal of the surface smooth layer
formed in contact with the formwork, produces a concrete with a more durable finish and better
weathering characteristics, which is frequently aesthetically more pleasing.
 Tooled Concrete Finishes
A range of textures can be obtained by tooling hardened concrete either by hand or mechanically.
 Colored Concrete Finishes
Color may be applied to concrete either as an integral pigment in the mix, a dry-shake topping
or as a surface applied stain on freshly placed concrete whereas stains are used on hardened
concrete. Dry-shake finishes are combinations of cement, pigments, surface hardener and fine
aggregate which are trowelled into the surface as soon as the excess bleed water has
evaporated.
Concrete Components as Byproducts
In addition to the use of concrete for the production of large in situ and precast units, concrete bricks and
concrete blocks, the material is widely used in the manufacture of small components, particularly concrete
tiles, slates and paving slabs.
 Concrete Roofing Tiles and Slate
 Concrete paving slabs and tiles
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Concrete Defects
Concrete defects can be seen through cracks which is classified as:
 Structural Cracks
The typical reason behind structural cracks is excess loading, faulty construction, differential
settlement, impact on account of the accident, chemical reaction, weathering, excessive loss of
prestressing, corrosion of steel, errors in design and detailing, earthquake, fire, etc.
 Non-Structural Cracks
Apart from the above-mentioned structural cracks, the following types of cracks can be observed
shrinkage cracks, thermal cracks, cracks in fresh concrete, etc., known as non-structural cracks,
and due to changes in concrete mix design ratios, environmental effects and lack of proper curing
etc.
Types of concrete defect
 Shrinkage Cracks
Caused by evaporation of mix water in fresh concrete, the extent of which will depend on the
amount of water in concrete. It is caused by:
o Increasing water in the mix increases cracking.
o The weather conditions (heat, low humidity and increases evaporation and therefore
cracks).
o Curing (lack of curing increases shrinkage)
 Settlement Cracks
Settlement cracks may appear when the underlying ground has not been compacted or
appropriately prepared or if the subsoil was not of the proper consistency.
A settlement crack may also appear as a random crack above areas where the soil of the
subgrade was uneven after the concrete was poured.
 Crazing
alternatively referred to as pattern cracking or map cracking, is the uneven formation of closely
spaced shallow cracks. Crazing occurs as a result of the top surface of concrete rapidly
hardening due to high temperatures, an excess of water in the mix, or inadequate curing.
Avoiding pattern cracking requires careful curing, dampening the sub-grade to prevent water
absorption from the concrete, and protecting the surface from sudden temperature changes
 Blistering
Blistering is the development of hollow bumps of varying sizes on the surface of finished concrete
as a result of trapped air under the finished concrete surface. It may occur as a result of excessive
vibration in the concrete mix, excessive entrapped air in the mix, or improper finishing. Blistering
can also occur as a result of excessive water evaporation on the top surface of concrete. It can
be avoided by using a proper proportion of additives in the concrete mix, by covering the top
surface to prevent evaporation, and by using proper placement and finishing techniques.
 Delamination
Delamination is also a condition that resembles blistering. Additionally, in this situation, the top
surface of concrete separates from the underlying concrete. Delamination occurs when the top
layer of concrete hardens before the underlying concrete does. This is because the water and
air evaporating from the underlying concrete collide between these two surfaces, resulting in the
formation of space. As with blistering, delamination can be avoided through the use of proper
finishing techniques. It is preferable to begin finishing after the bleeding process has ended.
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 Dusting / Chalking
It is the disintegration of fine and loose powdered concrete onto hardened concrete. This occurs
as a result of an accumulation of water in concrete. It results in water bleeding from the concrete;
as a result, fine particles such as cement or sand rise to the top, resulting in dust at the top level.
To prevent dusting, use a low slump concrete mix to achieve a hard, wear-resistant concrete
surface. Utilize water-reducing admixtures to achieve the desired slump. Additionally, it is
recommended to use superior finishing techniques, which should begin immediately after
extracting the bleed water from the concrete surface.
 Curling
occurs when a concrete slab is distorted into a curved form by upward or downward displacement
of the edges or corners. It is caused primarily by variations in the moisture content or temperature
of the slab surface (top) and the slab base (bottom).
Curling of a concrete slab may be either upward or downward. When the top surface is dry and
cooled prior to the bottom surface, the top surface starts to contract and upward curling occurs.
When the bottom surface is dried and cooled as a result of the high temperature and high
moisture content, it shrinks ahead of the top surface, resulting in downward curling.
To avoid curling, use a low shrinkage concrete mix, provide control joints, strengthen the edges
with strong reinforcement, or provide thick edges.

 Scaling and Spalling

Scaling and spalling both result in deterioration of the concrete surface and flaking of the
concrete. The primary cause of these types of cases is water penetration through the concrete
surface. Steel becomes corroded as a result, and spalling or scaling can occur.
Other possible factors include the use of a non-air entrained concrete mix, insufficient curing,
and the use of low strength concrete. This form of defect can be avoided by using well-designed
concrete mixes, applying air entrainment admixtures, properly finishing and curing the concrete,
and having a good slope to drain surface water.
 Efflorescence
Efflorescence appears as a white deposit of mineral salts on face of concrete walls and/or floors.
Efflorescence usually appears in underground car park areas and other subfloor areas.
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Efflorescence is driven by hydrostatic pressure – the pressure exerted by moisture as it moves

through concrete to the lowest point. As the moisture enters and moves through the wall or floor,
it dissolves mineral salts present in the cement component of the concrete. This mineral salt
solution eventually finds its way to the surface of the concrete. As the water evaporates, it leaves
behind the white deposit of mineral salts on the surface.
Efflorescence will cease when moisture through the concrete stops. This can only be achieved if
appropriate and effective waterproofing is installed to prevent moisture entering the concrete.
 Honeycombs
Honeycombs are hollow spaces and cavities left in concrete mass on the surface or inside the
mass where concrete could not reach. These look like honey bees nest. Improper vibration and
workability of concrete are main causes of honeycombs in concrete. Honeycombs which are on
sides are visible to naked eyes and can be detected easily as soon shuttering is removed.
Honeycombs which are inside mass of concrete can only be detected by advanced techniques
like ultrasonic testing etc.
Causes of Honeycombs in Concrete
Honeycomb is due to non-reaching of concrete to all places due to which cavities and hollow
pockets are created. Its main reasons are:
o Improper vibration during concrete.
o Less cover to reinforcement bars
o Use of very stiff concrete (this can be avoided by controlling water as per slump test).
o Places like junction of beam to beam to column and to one or more beams are the typical
spots where honeycombs are observed. This is due to jumbling of reinforcement of
beams and column rods at one place; special attention is required at such place during
concreting and vibrating.
o Presence of more percentage of bigger size of aggregate in concrete also prevents
concrete to fill narrow spaces between the reinforcement rods.
Tools and Equipment
Hand Tools

cement trowel -
kutsara

spackle knife -
paleta

finishing trowel -
rodelang bakal

rubber trowel -
rodela

shovel - pala

wheel barrow -
kartilya

chisel - silsil

straight edge -
Heavy Equipments
barra
 Truck Mixer
darby float -
barra
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Truck mixers have two functions: mixing and agitating, and their application depends on the type
of concrete plant that the jobsite is using. If the batching plant includes a concrete mixer, the
truck mixer only needs to agitate the shotcrete mix so that it does not disaggregate during
transport to the spraying area. Capacity: 8, 9, 10, 12, 14 cu.m.
 Bottom dump
Also known as a belly dump, the bottom dump trailer features a dump gate with a clamshell
design, allowing the materials to dump directly from the bottom of the box to enable windrowing
 Concrete Buggy
A powered buggy, or concrete buggy, is originally used for transporting, spot pouring and spread
dumping concrete. However, these powered buggies are also used for other material handling
jobs that can include construction debris removal, landscaping, or on-site tool and equipment
transportation
 Tilting Drum Mixers
Tilting drum mixer means the drum will discharge concrete by tilting downwards. It is rapid
discharge process and used for larger projects. Rapid means it delivers concrete by gravity that
is tilting the drum downwards because of this the concrete mix obtained will be not subjected to
segregation. But the mixing efficiency depends on some of the factors as follows:
o Shape of the drum
o Angle of the drum
o Size of blades
o Angle of blades
 Non-Tilting Drum Mixers
Non- tilting drum mixers are not allowed to tilt and the drum rotates about its horizontal axis. For
the discharge of concrete a chute is arranged in inclined position which will receives the concrete
mix from drum and discharges out. In this case, the drum is opened at two ends and consists
blades insides when materials are poured through one end and mix is collected through another
end.
 Reversing Drum Mixers
Reversing drum mixers are similar to non-tilting type mixers but in this case reversal of rotation
takes place for different action. The drum has two openings, one end is for pouring materials and
other end is for discharge of mix. The drum rotates about its horizontal axis. The rotation of drum
takes place in one direction for mixing and in opposite direction for discharging. Two different set
of blades are arranged for mixing and discharging. They are suitable for dry concrete mixes.
 Pan type mixers
consists a circular pan in which concrete is mixed. The mixing is done by blades which are
arranged in star shape inside the pan. There are two types of pan mixers are available. In one
case, the circular pan is constant and only star blades rotate about vertical axis of pan.
 Ground Line Pumps
are hydraulic pumps which are capable of pumping liquid concrete through a series of hoses and
steel pipelines to deliver the concrete to the intended location. The pipeline is connected to the
pump, with the concrete being poured into the pump’s hopper before being carried away through
the pipeline.
It can shift concrete at 1 m³ each minute and can extend to a distance of around 150 meters, in
order to reach the pour site. This makes concrete pouring in awkward areas simple, as the pipes
and hoses can go up, over and around obstacles.
 Boom pumps
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INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS JANUARY 2024

have hydraulic levers which raise, lift and place concrete pipes to areas where it would be
otherwise difficult to pour. Boom pumps offer more flexibility than ground line hydraulic pumps
because they can navigate around the smallest and lowest areas to ensure effective and mess-
free pours. Boom pumps can reach around 72 meters when fully extended – with additional
extensions also available.
Vernacular Terms
 Larga Masa – concrete slab(rough)
 Biga – beam
 Halige / Poste – column
 Revokada – scratch coat
 Palitada – stucco or plaster
 Asintada – alignment
 Sahig, Suelo – flooring
 Kusturada – plastered course
 Buhos – concrete
 Baldosa – Cement Tiles
 Larga Masa – Slab
 Graba – Gravel
 Buhangin – Sand
 Semento – Cement
 Mortar –Paupo
Some Brands Related to Concrete

 Founded in 1955, Republic Cement has been a partner in the Philippines’ transformation for over
65 years as a building materials company and a key contributor to nation-building
 CEMEX initially entered the Philippine market in 1997 with a minority investment of 30% in Rizal
Cement Company, Inc., or Rizal Cement, a company which was established in November 1930.
At the time of this initial investment, Solid Cement was a subsidiary of Rizal Cement. In 2002,
Rizal Cement merged into Solid Cement. In 1999, CEMEX together with other investors
purchased an aggregate 99.9% interest in APO Cement.
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Sustainability Benefits Of Concrete